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ISSN XXXX-XXXX
JRC SCIENCE FOR POLICY REPORT
Preparatory study on textiles for product
policy instruments
Ecodesign
EU Green Public Procurement
EU Ecolabel
2
nd
milestone
Delre, A., Perez Arribas, Z., Bernad Beltran, D.
Senatore, V., Kouloumpis, V., , Moldovan, S.,
Molina, C., Mollá, K., Gallego, E., Balaguer, A.,
Garcia John, E.
This is a draft document that has not been adopted or endorsed by
the European Commission. Any views expressed are the preliminary
views of the Commission’ services and may not in any
circumstances be regarded as stating an official position of the
Commission.
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This publication is a Science for Policy report by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission’s science and knowledge
service.
It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European policymaking process. The contents of this publication do not
necessarily reflect the position or opinion of the European Commission. Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf
of the Commission is responsible for the use that might be made of this publication. For information on the methodology and quality
underlying the data used in this publication for which the source is neither Eurostat nor other Commission services, users should contact
the referenced source. The designations employed and the presentation of material on the maps do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the European Union concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Contact information
Name Joint Research Centre, Directorate B
–
Fair and Sustainable Economy, Unit B5
–
Circular Economy and Sustainable Industry
Email:
[email protected]
EU Science Hub
https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu
JRCXXXXXX
EUR XXXXX XX
PDF
ISBN XXX-XX-XX-XXXXX-X
ISSN XXXX-XXXX
doi:XX.XXXX/XXXXXX XX-XX-XX-XXX-XX-C
Seville: European Commission, 2024
© European Union, 2024
The reuse policy of the European Commission documents is implemented by the Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 12 December 2011
on the reuse of Commission documents (OJ L 330, 14.12.2011, p. 39). Unless otherwise noted, the reuse of this document is authorised
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For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not owned by the European Union permission must be sought directly from
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All Figures with these icons report information in their source.
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Disclaimer
This is a draft document, containing work in progress. Any reference made to this document should clearly state
its draft character. The views expressed in this document are purely those of the authors and may not in any
circumstances be regarded as stating an official position of the European Commission. Neither the European
Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that might be made
of the information in this document.
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Contents
1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
8
2 Definitions
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
3 Scope
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
3.1 Selection of the scope
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................15
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2.1
3.2.2
Potential improvement considering product aspects in Article 5(1) of the ESPR
.....................................17
Amount of sales and trade in the EU..................................................................................................................................................
19
Environmental impacts and waste generation across the value chain..............................................................
19
Products included in the scope
.................................................................................................................................................................20
Products excluded from the scope
........................................................................................................................................................22
3.2 Proposed scope
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
3.3 Composition, life-cycle stages and main negative environmental impacts of products included in the
scope
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................23
3.3.1
3.3.2
Composition and life-cycle stages
........................................................................................................................................................23
Main factors influencing the negative environmental impacts
.................................................................................26
4 Legislation, strategies and voluntary environmental labels relevant for the textile sector
..........................................30
4.1 EU legislation
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
4.1.1
4.1.2
Existing EU legislation
.......................................................................................................................................................................................30
EU legislation in preparation
.......................................................................................................................................................................35
4.2 Legislation and initiatives in EU Member States and non-EU countries
.............................................................................36
4.3 Strategies of the United Nations
...............................................................................................................................................................................37
4.4 Tests and standards
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................37
4.5 Voluntary environmental labels
.................................................................................................................................................................................38
5 Market analysis
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................41
5.1 The global market
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................41
5.2 The EU market
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................48
5.3 Role of the EU Member States
....................................................................................................................................................................................51
5.4 Main elements affecting the production of textile apparel
.............................................................................................................52
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
Fibres
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................52
Chemicals
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................58
Energy
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................59
Water
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
5.5 Market structure and business models
...............................................................................................................................................................62
5.6 Characteristics of the value chain
............................................................................................................................................................................65
5.7 Competitiveness and environmental compliance costs
......................................................................................................................66
5.8 Lifespan of textile apparel
..............................................................................................................................................................................................67
5.9 Market penetration of environmental labels
.................................................................................................................................................70
6 User behaviour
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................71
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6.1 Introduction
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................71
6.2 Pre-purchase aspects
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................73
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.2.7
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
Reasons for purchasing apparel
..............................................................................................................................................................73
Criteria used when buying apparel........................................................................................................................................................
73
User quality assessment of apparel: key insights
..................................................................................................................75
Consumer behaviour towards labels on apparel
.....................................................................................................................77
Attitudes towards second-hand apparel purchase
................................................................................................................77
Attitudes towards the purchase of apparel made without harmful chemicals..........................................
78
Attitudes towards the purchase of apparel made with recycled materials
...................................................79
User behaviour during use: laundering practices
....................................................................................................................79
Following apparel care label instructions
.......................................................................................................................................80
Reparability
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................80
Storage of apparel
................................................................................................................................................................................................81
Reasons for the disposal of apparel
....................................................................................................................................................82
Disposal channels
..................................................................................................................................................................................................83
Person-product attachment
.........................................................................................................................................................................84
Returns of apparel
................................................................................................................................................................................................84
6.3 Post-purchase aspects
........................................................................................................................................................................................................79
6.4 User behaviour related to the disposal of apparel
..................................................................................................................................82
7 Current EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products......................................................................................................................................................
86
7.1 Facts and figures
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................86
7.2 Suggestions for the revision of EU Ecolabel criteria
..............................................................................................................................86
7.3 Revision of EU Ecolabel criteria within the ESPR framework
.........................................................................................................87
7.4 Looking for synergies with other Ecolabels used in the EU.............................................................................................................
88
8 Public procurement and current EU voluntary Green Public Procurement criteria..................................................................
90
8.1 Public procurement in the EU
.......................................................................................................................................................................................90
8.2 Current voluntary EU Green Public Procurement criteria
...................................................................................................................91
9 Technologies
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................93
9.1 Relevant product aspects
.................................................................................................................................................................................................93
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.1.3
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.5
9.2.6
Methodology
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................94
Exclusion of non-relevant product aspects
...................................................................................................................................94
Grouping of relevant product aspects
................................................................................................................................................97
Physical durability...............................................................................................................................................................................................
103
Maintenance
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................112
Repairability
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................117
Waste generation
................................................................................................................................................................................................121
Recyclability and recycled content
.....................................................................................................................................................125
Environmental impacts
..................................................................................................................................................................................135
9.2 Analysis of technologies
.................................................................................................................................................................................................103
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9.2.7
Presence of substances of concern
...................................................................................................................................................139
9.3 Mutual influence of product aspects and product categorization
..........................................................................................144
References
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................146
List of abbreviations
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................170
List of figures
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................171
List of tables
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................173
10 Annexes
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................176
10.1 PRODCOM and market analysis
..............................................................................................................................................................................176
10.1.1 General description
............................................................................................................................................................................................176
10.1.2 Features of PRODCOM data influencing market analysis
............................................................................................177
10.1.3 Market analysis for the selection of the scope
......................................................................................................................178
10.1.4 PRODCOM codes included in the scope
.........................................................................................................................................187
10.1.5 Supplementary information about the EU market
..............................................................................................................200
10.2 Life-cycle stages of textile apparel
.....................................................................................................................................................................218
10.2.1 Raw material and fibre manufacturing
.........................................................................................................................................218
10.2.2 Yarn manufacturing
..........................................................................................................................................................................................220
10.2.3 Fabric manufacturing
......................................................................................................................................................................................221
10.2.4 Finishing processes
...........................................................................................................................................................................................222
10.2.5 Confectioning
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................224
10.2.6 Retailing
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................225
10.2.7 Use
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................226
10.2.8 Waste management
.........................................................................................................................................................................................227
10.3 Supporting information about tests and standards in the textile industry
...................................................................228
10.4 Supporting information about environmental labels
..........................................................................................................................246
10.4.1 Types of labels in general
...........................................................................................................................................................................246
10.4.2 Voluntary environmental labels used in EU
...............................................................................................................................247
10.5 Supporting information on market analysis
................................................................................................................................................250
10.5.1 Recycling plants
....................................................................................................................................................................................................250
10.5.2 Comparison among BREFs
.........................................................................................................................................................................251
10.5.3 Service lifespan
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................252
10.6 Supporting information about user behaviour
..........................................................................................................................................255
10.6.1 Pre-purchase aspects
......................................................................................................................................................................................255
10.6.2 Post-purchase aspects: the user behaviour during use
.................................................................................................261
10.6.3 User behaviour regarding the disposal of apparel..............................................................................................................
277
10.7 Supporting information about environmental labels and current EU Ecolabel criteria
.....................................286
10.7.1 Figures of EU Ecolabel for textile products
................................................................................................................................286
10.7.2 Contributions to the initial questionnaire
.....................................................................................................................................287
10.7.3 Comparison among Ecolabels
.................................................................................................................................................................291
10.8 Supporting information about public procurement
..............................................................................................................................328
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10.8.1 The Common Procurement Vocabulary (CPV) codes for products in the scope
.....................................328
10.8.2 Number of Contract Award procuring apparel in EU
.........................................................................................................330
10.8.3 Contributions to the initial questionnaire
.....................................................................................................................................333
10.9 Supporting information on relevant aspects
..............................................................................................................................................333
10.9.1 Qualitative assessment based on technical, socioeconomic and environmental dimensions
..333
10.9.2 Supporting information on parameters affecting the physical durability
....................................................349
10.9.3 Supporting information on test methods to describe the physical durability
..........................................361
10.9.4 Supporting information on maintenance
.....................................................................................................................................364
10.9.5 Supporting information on repairability
........................................................................................................................................366
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Foreword
This document is the 2
nd
milestone of the preparatory study on textile products, which aims to provide a basis
on which the European Commission can consider the development of ecodesign requirements, green public
procurement criteria and revised EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. In particular, the 2
nd
milestone
addresses scope, market, user behaviour, current EU Ecolabel criteria, current EU Green Public Procurement
criteria, and the product technologies. The preparatory study is developed within the legal context of the
Regulation (EU) 2024/1781 establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for sustainable
products and the Regulation (EC) No 66/2010 on EU Ecolabel. The project is led by the Joint Research Centre of
the European Commission, addressing the request from the Directorate-General for Environment (DG ENV) and
the Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs (DG GROW).
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank the colleague Loredana Napolano (JRC.D3) for her contribution in the initial questionnaire
sent to the stakeholders. The authors thank all the colleagues in DG ENV and DG GROW for the constructive
feedback provided during the development of the report. In particular, the authors thank Carsten Wentink
(ENV.B4), Silvia Ferratini (ENV.B1) and Antonio De Sousa Maia (GROW.G1) for the continuous exchanges. Finally,
the authors thank Oliver Wolf and all colleagues supporting the development of this document.
Authors
DELRE Antonio
(a)
, PEREZ ARRIBAS Zahara
(a)
, BERNAD BELTRAN David
(a)
,
SENATORE Vincenzo
(a)
, KOULOUMPIS
Viktor
(b)
, MOLDOVAN Simona
(c)
, MOLINA Cristina
(c)
, MOLLÁ Korina
(c)
, GALLEGO Eder
(c)
, BALAGUER Ana
(c)
,
GARCIA JOHN Enrique
(a)
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate B
–
Fair and Sustainable Economy, Unit B5
–
Circular
Economy and Sustainable Industry
(a)
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate D
–
Sustainable Resources, Unit D3
–
Land
Resources and Supply Chain Assessments
(b)
(c)
Research and Innovation Centre
–
AITEX®
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1
Introduction
Context
On 13 June 2024, the Regulation on Ecodesign for Sustainable Products (ESPR) (
1
) was published on the Official
Journal of the European Union. The ESPR delivers on the commitments made in both the European Green Deal (
2
)
and the Circular Economy Action Plan (
3
) to make the European Union (EU) regulatory framework fit for a
sustainable future and to ensure that products placed on the EU market become increasingly sustainable.
The ESPR aims to reduce the environmental impacts of products across their life cycle and to improve the
functioning of the EU’s internal market. It proposes to do this by building on the successful approach pioneered
under the Ecodesign Directive
(
4
),
which applies to energy-related products only. The ESPR proposes to extend
the Ecodesign Directive to cover a very broad range of physical products and to strengthen its provisions. This
would enable the ESPR to set a range of far-reaching ecodesign requirements for specific product groups, to
improve product circularity, energy performance and other environmental sustainability aspects. Ecodesign
requirements can be related to the performance of the product or information that must accompany the
product. A Digital Product Passport (DPP) will be required to hold and convey the information in question, with
traceability features.
The ESPR provides a general framework for these rules, with specific product requirements to be set at a later
stage via delegated acts dedicated to a particular product or to groups of similar products. These delegated
acts will also serve as the reference for the adoption of implementing acts, which should establish minimum
mandatory Green Public Procurement (GPP) requirements for public contracts.
Article 41(4) of the ESPR establishes synergies between the mandatory ecodesign legislative framework and
the EU Ecolabel, which is the EU’s official voluntary label for environmental excellence awarded to best-in-class
products. The ESPR and EU Ecolabel requirements must be coherent and synergic to guarantee that products
awarded the EU Ecolabel comply with the ESPR requirements set in the relevant delegated act. The EU Ecolabel
remains regulated by the EU Ecolabel Regulation (
5
).
On 30 March 2022 the EC presented the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles
(
6
)
which aims,
inter
alia,
‘to
tackle fast fashion and textile waste and to make textiles more durable, reparable, reusable and
recyclable’.
The Textile Strategy lays out a forward-looking set of actions, which includes setting ecodesign
requirements for textiles under the framework of the ESPR proposal
(
7
).
The Textile Strategy also announces a
revision of the EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products to support its uptake among producers and offer
consumers an easily recognisable and reliable way to choose eco-friendly textile products.
Since 2019, the EC has supported the
project ‘Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules (PEFCR): apparel
and footwear’, hereinafter named PEFCR A&F
(
8
).
Part of the textile industry leads this project, which aims to
establish rules for the calculation of the Product Environmental Footprint. Once produced, the PEFCR can be
used by the industry to voluntarily quantify and report the environmental impacts of specific textile products.
The EC follows the development of the PEFCR A&F project as an observer.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
ESPR. Regulation (EU) 2024/1781 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 establishing a framework for the
setting of ecodesign requirements for sustainable products. Available at
this link.
The Green Deal. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions . The European Green Deal. COM(2019) 640 final. Available at
this
link.
The Circular Economy Action Plan. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. A new Circular Economy Action Plan For a cleaner and more
competitive Europe. COM(2020) 98 final. Available at
this link.
Ecodesign Directive. Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for the setting
of ecodesign requirements for energy-related products. Available at
this link.
EU Ecolabel Regulation. Regulation (EC) No 66/2010 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 on the EU
Ecolabel. Available at
this link.
Textile Strategy. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social
Committee and the Committee of the Regions. EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles. COM(2022) 141 final. Available at
this link.
Proposal of ESPR by European Commission. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a
framework for setting ecodesign requirements for sustainable products and repealing Directive 2009/125/EC. COM(2022) 142 final.
Available at
this link.
‘Product
Environmental Footprint Category Rules
(PEFCR): apparel and footwear’, available at
this link.
Last accessed on 3 February
2024. It will set rules on the calculation and reporting of life cycle environmental impacts of apparel.
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Aim
In this context, this report describes the preparatory study on textile products, which is hereinafter referred to
as the PS. The PS aims to provide the scientific and technical basis for:
—
the future development of the ecodesign requirements for textile products to be defined in a
delegated act within the framework of the ESPR;
—
the future development of the mandatory EU GPP requirements for textile products within the
framework of the ESPR;
—
the future revision of the EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products
(
9
),
within the framework of the
ESPR and the EU Ecolabel Regulation.
Methodology
The PS will follow the structure prescribed by the Methodology for Ecodesign of Energy-related Products (MEErP)
(MEErP, 2011). This methodology has over many years proved to be comprehensive and effective for preparing
product-related legislation, and is therefore also deemed fit for non-energy-related products. The MEErP
consists of seven tasks:
—
Task 1 on scope
defines the boundaries of the system under analysis. It identifies the textile
products included in the scope of the PS and their categories. Additionally, it analyses legislative
and voluntary frameworks at global, EU and Member State level.
—
Task 2 on market
investigates the market structure, trends and other market characteristics of
the products in the scope.
—
Task 3 on user behaviour.
It describes how users relate to the products in the scope. It
investigates:
(a) aspects influencing the design of the products, identifying potential barriers and restrictions
to possible ecodesign measures, due to social, cultural or infrastructural factors;
(b) aspects influencing the modelling of environmental impacts and costs of the products in the
life-cycle perspective, identifying behaviour not directly quantifiable with conventional
standard tests on the products.
—
Task 4 on technologies
entails a general technical analysis of the products in the scope in order
to describe the average products on the market, as well as the best available technologies (BAT)
and the best not yet available technologies (BNAT).
—
Task 5 on environmental and economic analysis
of the average products on the EU market.
It defines
base case
products, which are a conscious abstraction of the reality for practical reasons,
and it represents a specific product category. The description of the base case is the synthesis of
tasks 1 to 4 and the starting point for the following tasks. The base case is analysed via models
based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC).
—
Task 6 on design options
investigates the monetary consequences of the design options in terms
of cost within the life cycle for consumers and society. Environmental costs and benefits are also
investigated using the Least Life Cycle Costs (LLCC) and the BAT. The BNAT indicate long-term
possibilities.
—
Task 7 on possible policy scenarios
gathers the results of all previous tasks and investigates
suitable policy means to achieve the potential improvements in the environmental impacts of the
assessed products, as well as estimating economic impacts on consumers and the industry. Finally,
it assesses the robustness of the outcomes via a sensitivity analysis.
The methodology used will be adapted to the specific features of the textile product group and the requirements
set by the ESPR.
9
EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. Commission Decision of 5 June 2014 establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the
EU Ecolabel for textile products. Commission Decision (2014/350/EU). Available at
this link.
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81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
In addition to following the tasks set by the MEErP, the PS will include all elements of the Preliminary Report,
to be used for the revision of the EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products
(
9
),
as set by the EU Ecolabel
Regulation
(
5
).
Due to their aims, future mandatory EU GPP requirements and future revised EU Ecolabel criteria of products
included in the scope of the PS will be built up from the ecodesign requirements.
Involvement of stakeholders
The development of the PS will include the direct involvement of stakeholders following the principles of the
Sevilla process
(
10
),
which will enable the JRC to verify with stakeholders the work under development and collect
additional evidence on the investigated topics.
Table 1
reports the stages of the project that will require the participation of registered stakeholders. Any
organisation, institution and citizen can register as a stakeholder by filling in a form on a dedicated webpage (
11
).
Stakeholders will be able to register at any stage of the development of the PS.
Table 1.
Development of the preparatory study
Milestone
Initial
questionnaire
(
12
)
1
st
milestone
2
nd
milestone
3
rd
milestone
4
th
milestone
Topic addressed
Definitions, scope, market analysis, user behaviour, product
aspects, EU Ecolabel, EU Green Public Procurement
Scope, market, user behaviour, current EU Ecolabel criteria,
current EU Green Public Procurement criteria
Technologies, framework and data gaps of environmental and
economic model, and a questionnaire about substances and
substances of concern
Analysis of base case and design options
Policy scenarios, and elements to be included in the Digital
Product Passport
Date
30 March 2023
–
8 May 2023
23 February to 22 April 2024
14 November 2024 to 17 March
2025
(*)
To be communicated
To be communicated
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
The number and topics of the milestones could be modified to improve the involvement of the stakeholders during the development of the
preparatory study.
(*) The 2
nd
milestone includes the following steps: (a) from 14 November to 8 December 2024, registered stakeholders may read the section
on product technologies before the online consultation meeting; (b) from 2 to 9 December 2024, registered stakeholders may read
the questionnaire on substances and substances of concern; (c) on 9 and 10 December 2024, registered stakeholders and JRC
attended the online consultation meeting; (d) from 18 December 2024 to 3 March 2025, registered stakeholders will be able to
provide comments in writing to the working document; (e) from 18 December 2024 to 10 March 2025, registered stakeholders will
be able to contribute to the questionnaire on substances and substances of concern; (d) from 18 December 2024 to 17 March 2025,
registered stakeholders will be able to contribute to improve the inventory and framework of the environmental and economic model.
For each milestone, the stakeholder consultation will include the following steps:
•
The JRC will communicate by email to all registered stakeholders the time and steps of the
specific consultation, as well as the document(s) related to the milestone. All documents will
be uploaded on the project’s website
(
13
).
Registered stakeholders will read the document(s) before the online consultation meeting.
JRC and registered stakeholders will attend the online consultation meeting. In this meeting,
registered stakeholders will be able to have open discussions with the JRC and among
themselves.
Registered stakeholders will provide comments on the working document(s).
The JRC will publish on the project’s website
(
13
) a document containing anonymised written
comments submitted by the registered stakeholders.
•
•
•
•
10
11
12
13
With the ‘Sevilla process’, the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission works together with scientists, industry, non-
governmental organisations (NGOs), national authorities and international institutions to take decisions that are underpinned by solid
scientific and technical data, and that are based on consensus and transparency. The process is clearly structured within the framework
of the Industrial Emissions Directive (2010/75/EU), and it is legally defined in Commission Implementing Decision 2012/119/EU
available at
this link.
More information is available at
this link.
The process in the preparatory study on textiles is not legally defined,
but it will follow the principles of the “Sevilla process”.
Stakeholders can participate in the development of the preparatory study on textile products by registering via this
web form.
Initial questionnaire. Preparatory Study on textiles for product policy instruments
–
the initial questionnaire. Available at
this link.
The textile project website is available at
this link.
Documents will be uploaded in the dedicated section available at
this link.
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135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
All entities involved in the stakeholder consultations will have enough time to actively participate in the process.
This version of the PS reports the 2
nd
milestone and it includes some of the information collected by the initial
questionnaire
(
12
).
Structure of the preparatory study
–
2
nd
milestone
After this introduction, Section 2 provides the definitions of words and expressions used in the document.
Section 3 defines the scope and describes the products included in it, providing also a first insight into their life-
cycle stages and main environmental burdens. This brief description provides the reader with a basic knowledge
useful to better understand the topics investigated in the following sections.
Section 4 analyses legislation and strategies at different levels: EU, Member State, third country, and global,
the latter describing initiatives of the United Nations. Section 4 is completed by the analysis of the most relevant
test methods, standards and environmental labels used internationally by the textile industry.
Section 5 analyses the market of the textile products belonging to the scope. The analysis is performed at
global, EU and Member State levels. Additionally, Section 5 investigates the market of the main elements
affecting the manufacturing of the products included in the scope. The market analysis includes some insights
into the market structure, most common business models, and it reports the main characteristics of the value
chain. A specific subsection is dedicated to market competitiveness, which is affected by the different costs
that companies face around the world due to the different requirements related to environmental protection.
Section 5 concludes with a subsection analysing the lifespan of products, because it largely affects the market
and the demand for new products.
Section 6 analyses user behaviour, which will be relevant for: (1) modelling the products in the economic and
environmental assessment, and (2) the analysis of possible ecodesign requirements within the product aspects
listed by Article 5 of the ESPR. The section addresses the behaviour before and after the purchase, as well as
behaviour related to the disposal of the textile product.
Section 7 analyses the current EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products in light of their revision. Facts and figures
of the current criteria are reported as well as the suggestions received via the initial questionnaire. The section
describes the relationship between the new mandatory ecodesign framework (ESPR) and the revision of the EU
Ecolabel criteria for textile products. To explore potential synergies with other officially recognised Ecolabels,
Section 7 provides a detailed comparison of the criteria for textile products set by the EU Ecolabel, Blue Angel
and Nordic Swan.
Section 8 collects information for the future development of mandatory EU GPP criteria. To this aim, this section
assesses the current public procurement of apparel in the EU, and the current status of the voluntary EU GPP
criteria.
Section 9 provides a general technical analysis of the products in the scope from the perspective of the relevant
product aspects listed by Article 5 of the ESPR.
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2
Definitions
This section lists the definitions of terms and expressions used in the document. It will be complemented with
more definitions as the project goes through its milestones (see Section 1).
Textile fibre
‘Textile fibre’ means either of the following
(
14
):
—
a unit of matter characterised by its flexibility, fineness and high ratio of length to maximum
transverse dimension, which render it suitable for textile applications;
—
a flexible strip or tube, of which the apparent width does not exceed 5 mm, including strips cut
from wider strips or films, produced from the substances used for the manufacture of the fibres
listed in Table 2 of Annex I to Regulation 1007/2011 and suitable for textile applications.
Textile product
‘Textile product’ means any raw, semi-worked,
worked, semi-manufactured, manufactured, semi-made-up or
made-up product which is exclusively composed of textile fibres, regardless of the mixing or assembly process
employed, as well as a product containing at least 80% textile fibres by weight.
The definition of textile product is aligned with the definition provided by the Textile Labelling Regulation
(TLR)
(
14
).
Textile apparel
‘Textile apparel’ are textile products that aim to cover the body with everything except
footwear. In addition, it
also means a textile product worn as clothing or a clothing accessory by a person to clothe and/or adorn, and/or
shield from, and/or feel comfortable with the outer environment and/or to express their personal and
professional identity and/or belonging to a specific social group, with symbolic meanings and aesthetic values.
Technical textile
Technical textiles are textile products meeting technical rather than aesthetic criteria, even if, for certain
markets like workwear or sports equipment, both types of criteria could be met. Technical textiles bring a
functional answer to a wide range of specific requirements: lightness, resistance, reinforcement, filtration, fire
retardancy, conductivity, insulation, flexibility, absorption and so on. The definition does not depend on the raw
material, the fibre or the technology used, but on the expected inherent functionality of the product itself.
Technical textiles can be used by professionals or not.
Textile apparel meeting the definition above is defined as
technical textile apparel.
The definition of technical textiles is aligned with the definition provided by the European Economic and Social
Committee
(
15
).
Home/interior textiles
Textile products used indoor or outdoor to protect the object they are used on/with, decorate the home/interior
environment, or dry the body or parts of the body after they have become wet.
Footwear
‘Footwear’ means all articles with applied soles designed to protect or cover the foot, including parts marketed
separately
(
16
).
14
15
16
Textile Labelling Regulation. Regulation (EU) No 1007/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 September 2011 on
textile fibre names and related labelling and marking of the fibre composition of textile products and repealing Council Directive
73/44/EEC and Directives 96/73/EC and 2008/121/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. Available at
this link.
CCMI/105, Technical textiles, Brussels, 17 April 2013, OPINION of the European Economic and Social Committee on Growth Driver
Technical Textiles. (own initiative opinion). Rapporteur: Ms Butaud-Stubbs. Corapporteur: Ms Niestroy. Available at
this link.
Last
accessed on 30 March 2023.
Directive 94/11/EC of European Parliament and Council of 23 March 1994 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and
administrative provisions of the Member States relating to labelling of the materials used in the main components of footwear for
sale to the consumer. Available at
this link.
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186
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188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
Textile waste
Textile waste is a textile product which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard
(
17
).
Post-industrial textile waste
Post-industrial textile waste is textile waste generated during the manufacturing of textile products and their
precursors (manufacturing of fibre, yarn and fabric, and during confectioning) (Huygens et al., 2023)
Pre-consumer textile waste
Pre-consumer textile waste is textile waste generated as a result of discarding unsold textile products.
Post-consumer textile waste
Post-consumer textile waste is a textile product that have been discarded after consumption and use by the
citizen or end-users of commercial and industrial activities (hotel, care, automotive, etc.). For this reason it is
commonly referred to as household and commercial post-consumer textile waste, respectively (Huygens et al.,
2023).
Final product
A final product is understood to be a product that is already suitable for users
(
18
).
Intermediate product
‘Intermediate product’ means a product that requires further manufacturing or transformation such as mixing,
coating or assembling to make it suitable for end-users
(
19
).
Table 2
reports the definitions of the 16 product aspects reported in article 5 of the ESPR. The hierarchy applied
for selecting the most appropriate source for each definition was the following: the current legislation, standards
and scientific literature. In some cases, the authors have adapted the definition from those sources.
Table 2.
Definition of product aspects
Product aspect
Definition
Source
Durability
Reliability
Reusability
Upgradability
Repairability
Possibility of
maintenance
The ability of a product to maintain over time its function
and performance under specified conditions of use,
maintenance and repair.
The probability that a product functions as required under
given conditions for a given duration without an occurrence
which results in a primary or secondary function of the
product no longer being performed
Ability of a product or component that is not waste to be
used again for the same purpose for which it was conceived.
Ability of a product to be accessible for implementing
actions to enhance its functionality, performance, capacity,
safety or aesthetics.
Ability of a defective product or waste object to return to a
condition where it fulfils its intended use.
Ability of a product to be kept in a condition where it is able
to fulfil its intended purpose through one or more actions.
ESPR
ESPR
JRC (adapted based on
Directive 2008/98/EC
definition for
‘Re-use’)
JRC (adapted based on ESPR
definition for
‘Upgrading’)
JRC (adapted based on ESPR
definition for
‘Repair’)
JRC (adapted based on ESPR
definition for
‘maintenance’)
17
18
19
The definition of textile waste is inspired by the definition of waste reported by the Waste Framework Directive (WFD). Directive
2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives (Text
with EEA relevance). Available at
this link.
The definition of final product is implied from the ESPR.
The definition of intermediate product is reported in Article 2(3) of the ESPR.
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Product aspect
Definition
Source
Possibility of
refurbishment
Presence of
substances of
concern
Energy use and
energy efficiency
Water use and water
efficiency
Resource use and
resource efficiency
Recycled content
Possibility of
remanufacturing
Recyclability
Possibility of recovery
of materials
Environmental
impacts
Expected generation
of waste
Ability of a product or a discarded product to be prepared,
cleaned, tested, serviced and, where necessary repaired to
restore its performance or functionality within the intended
use and range of performance originally conceived at the
design stage at the time of the placing of the product on the
market.
The presence of substances that:
- meet the criteria laid down in Article 57 of Regulation (EC)
No 1907/2006 and are identified in accordance with Article
59(1) of that Regulation
- are classified in Part 3 of Annex VI to Regulation (EC) No
1272/2008 in one of the hazard classes or hazard
categories listed under Article 2(27)(b) of ESPR
- are regulated under Regulation (EU) 2019/1021; or
- negatively affect the reuse and recycling of materials in
the product in which they are present
Energy use: Use of energy in all lifecycle stages of a product
Energy efficiency: the ratio of output of performance,
service, goods or energy to input of energy.
Water use: Use of water in all lifecycle stages.
Water efficiency: The ratio of output of performance,
service, goods to input of water.
Resource use: Use of raw materials, mainly abiotic (minerals,
metals, fossil fuels), in all lifecycle stages. It can also include
other biotic resources such as land, air, ecosystems. The use
of natural resources can be accounted for as the volumes of
resources consumed (materials) or used (land, air,
ecosystems), or the impacts derived from the use of
resources. Water and energy are not considered within
resources under the scope of ESPR.
Resource efficiency:
The ratio of output of performance, service, goods to input
of resources, raw materials, air, land, soil and ecosystem
services.
Proportion, by mass, of recycled material, from pre- and
post-consumer waste, in a product or packaging.
Possibility of producing through actions a new product from
objects that are waste, products or components and through
which at least one change is made that may affect the
performance, purpose or type of the product.
Ability of products after becoming waste to be reprocessed
into products, materials or substances whether for the
original or other purposes. It includes the reprocessing of
organic material but does not include energy recovery and
the reprocessing into materials that are to be used as fuels
or for backfilling operations.
Ability of products after becoming waste to be recovered
through any recovery operation, other than energy recovery
and the reprocessing into materials that are to be used as
fuels or other means to generate energy. It includes, inter
alia, preparing for re-use, recycling and backfilling.
Any change to the environment, whether adverse or
beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from a product during
its life cycle
Generation of any substance, or object that the holder
discards or intends or is required to discard.
JRC (adapted based on ESPR
definition for
‘refurbishment’)
ESPR
JRC
JRC
JRC
JRC
JRC and (BIO Intelligence
Service, DG for Enterprise and
Industry (EC), 2013)
ISO 14021
JRC (adapted based on ESPR
definition for
‘Remanufacturing’)
JRC (adapted based on
Directive 2008/98/EC
definition for
‘recycling’)
JRC (adapted based on
Directive 2008/98/EC
definition for
‘material
recovery’)
ESPR
JRC (adapted based on
Directive 2008/98/EC
definition for
‘waste’
208
Source: own elaboration
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236
237
238
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240
241
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244
245
246
247
3
Scope
This section selects and describes the products included in the scope of the PS. The first subsection (Section
3.1) reports the thought process followed to select the scope in accordance with the framework set by the ESPR.
The second subsection (Section 3.2) lists the products included in the scope and specifies those that are
excluded. The final subsection (Section 3.3) describes two important aspects of textile products that apply to
the products in the scope, i.e. the life-cycle stages and their main factors influencing the negative environmental
impacts. This last section is the essential basis for fully understanding a number of topics addressed in
subsequent sections about environmental labels (Section 4.5), the market analysis (Section 5), and the analysis
of product technologies (Section 9). Nevertheless, the topics mentioned in Section 3.3 will be detailed in the
following milestones, when the PS addresses Task 5 of the MEErP.
3.1 Selection of the scope
Within the framework of the European Industrial Strategy
(
20
),
the Annual Single Market Report 2021
(
21
)
identifies the products included in the
industrial ecosystem of textiles:
‘transformation of natural (e.g.
cotton, flax, wool), man-made and artificial (synthetic polyester and viscose) fibres into yarns and fabrics,
production of yarns, home textiles, industrial filters, technical textiles, carpets and clothing. The ecosystem also
includes production of footwear and leather.’
The EC is currently working on the first ESPR Working Plan, taking into account among other things a report
(
22
)
entitled
‘Ecodesign
for Sustainable Products Regulation: Study on new product priorities’,
hereinafter
referred
to as the
Product Priorities Study.
It suggests a number of product groups and horizontal measures that may
be suitable candidates for prioritisation under the ESPR. The first Product Priorities Study served as the basis
for an open public consultation (
23
). Among the many product groups in the scope of the ESPR, the Product
Priorities Study assesses a product group named
‘textiles
and footwear’,
which includes products belonging
to the industrial ecosystem of textiles. Respondents to the open public consultation agreed to prioritise this
product group (58% of respondents), and they considered it of highest priority (68% of respondents). 38% of
respondents considered that apparel should be prioritised, followed by footwear (25%) and home/interior
textiles (18%).
The scope of the PS was defined following the Product Priorities Study, and the selection criteria reported in
Article 5(4), Article 5(7) and Article 18 of the ESPR.
Within the product group textiles and footwear, the Product Priorities Study identifies four main subgroups: (1)
textile apparel, (2) home/interior textiles (e.g. bed linen, towels, tablecloths, curtains), (3) footwear, and (4)
technical textiles not included in previous subgroups, usually or also meant for consumers, such as truck covers
(tarpaulins) and cleaning products, or specifically meant for industry (automotive, construction, medical,
agriculture, etc.). Although it is not specified in the Product Priorities Study, the subgroups textile apparel,
home/interior textiles and technical textiles are understood to be products containing at least 80% by weight
of textile fibres, as defined by the TLR
(
14
).
This interpretation of subgroups is also adopted in the PS.
The product group textiles and footwear is considered to be too heterogeneous for the setting of common
ecodesign requirements. This heterogeneity is driven by the specific functions and end uses of each subgroup,
as reported in
Table 3,
as well as their material and chemical compositions. The specific function of a product
requires specific tests to be performed on the product to verify its performance.
20
21
22
23
European Industrial Strategy. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic
and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions updating the 2020 New Industrial Strategy: Building a stronger Single Market
for Europe’s recovery.
COM(2021) 350 final. Available at
this link.
Annual Single Market Report 2021. Accompanying the Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council,
the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Updating the 2020 New Industrial Strategy: Building
a stronger Single Market for Europe's recovery. SWD(2021) 351 final. Available at
this link.
Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation: Study on new product priorities. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 17 December
2024.
New product priorities for Ecodesign for Sustainable Products. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 5 February 2024.
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Table 3.
Function and intended use of subgroups in the textiles and footwear product group
Subgroup
Function and intended use
Textile apparel have the following functions and intended uses:
(1) protect the human body from the outer environment, such as preventing heat loss, exposure to the sun,
penetration of water, etc.);
(2) comply with legal obligations related to public body exposure, because in EU countries being necked in
public is forbidden;
(3) self-representation, driven by expression of personal identity and/or expression of belonging to a
specific social group, with symbolic meanings and aesthetic values;
(4) social acceptance when gathering with other people, for example at parties, work places, religious
ceremonies, etc.
Most home/interior textiles have at least two functions:
(1) protect the object they are used on/with, e.g. a cushion case protects the enveloped cushion, a
tablecloth protects the table underneath, a curtain protects the indoor environment by filtering the light
coming from outside, etc.;
(2) decorate the home/interior environment.
Products like towels have the function of drying the body or parts of the body after they have become wet
(e.g. after washing, swimming, etc.).
Footwear has similar functions to apparel:
(1) protect the feet from the outer environment;
(2) self-representation, driven by expression of personal identity and/or expression of belonging to a
specific social group, with symbolic meanings and aesthetic values.
Technical textiles have specific technical (non-aesthetical) functions according to their final application.
Two examples are reported.
Textile cleaning products have the function of removing dust and dirt from surfaces, interacting with
detergents and other cleaning chemicals.
Reusable textile absorbent hygiene products have the function of handling fluids, delivering protective
properties like absorption, protecting the environment from unintentionally released body waste. In
particular, reusable baby diapers must be flexible, so that they are comfortable and adaptable to changing
body size.
(a)
(b)
Textile apparel
Home/interior
textiles
(a)
Footwear
(b)
Technical
textiles
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
Construction products, as defined in Regulation (EU) No 305/2011, are not considered home/interior textiles.
According to Directive 94/11/EC
(
24
),
‘footwear’ means all articles with applied soles designed to protect or
cover the foot, including parts
marketed separately. Due to the significant relative weight of soles in the overall weight of a footwear article and to the fact that
soles are seldom composed of textile fibres, footwear products are seldom textile products.
The identified subgroups were further analysed following criteria reported in Article 5(4), Article 5(7) and Article
18 of the ESPR. Article 18 of the ESPR states the following:
When
prioritising products to be covered by ecodesign requirements, the Commission shall analyse the potential
contribution of those products to achieving Union climate, environmental and energy efficiency objectives, taking
into account the following criteria:
a) the potential for improving the product aspects without entailing disproportionate costs,
[…];
b)
c)
d)
the volume of sales and trade of the product within the Union;
the distribution across the value chain of the climate and environmental impacts, energy use, resource
use and waste generation concerning those products;
the need to regularly review and adapt delegated acts adopted pursuant to Article 4 in light of
technological and market developments.
Article 5(4) of the ESPR states the following:
Ecodesign requirements shall be set for a specific product group (
25
). They may be differentiated for any specific
product that belongs to that specific product group.
Article 5(7) of the ESPR states the following:
24
25
Directive 94/11/EC of European Parliament and Council of 23 March 1994 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and
administrative provisions of the Member States relating to labelling of the materials used in the main components of footwear for
sale to the consumer. Available at
this link.
Article 2 of the ESPR establishes the following definition:
‘product group’
means a set of products that serve similar purposes and are
similar in terms of use, or have similar functional properties, and are similar in terms of consumer perception.
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268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
Where two or more product groups display one or more similarities allowing a product aspect to be effectively
improved based on common information requirements or performance requirements (
26
), horizontal ecodesign
requirements may be set for those product groups (‘horizontal ecodesign requirements’). When considering
whether to set horizontal ecodesign requirements, the Commission shall also take into account the positive
effects of those requirements towards reaching the objectives of this Regulation, in particular the ability to cover
a wide range of product groups in the same delegated act. The Commission may supplement the horizontal
ecodesign requirements through the setting of ecodesign requirements for a specific product group.
For all subgroups of the textiles and footwear product group reported in the Product Priorities Study, the
following subsections report information related to the three main scope selection criteria pointed out by Article
18: (a) potential for improvement (Section 3.1.1), (b) volume of sales and trade in the EU (Section 3.1.2), and
(c) the distribution of the climate and environmental impacts, energy use, resource use and waste generation
across the value chain (Section 3.1.3). Point (d) of Article 18 was not considered because there is no delegated
act on textiles and footwear products to be reviewed.
Information related to the textiles and footwear sectors is reported with a granularity that changes according
to the aims of the specific studies. The subsequent sections (from 3.1.2 to 3.1.3) try to interpret the available
data in the most holistic way to meet the requirements set by Article 18 of the ESPR.
3.1.1
Potential improvement considering product aspects in Article 5(1) of the ESPR
The analysis reported in this section is only a first indicative investigation of potential improvements based on
a literature review. Once the scope is defined, specific improvement potential will be assessed via environmental
and economic assessments in the following stages of the PS. In particular, this will be performed in the following
milestones addressing tasks 5 to 7 of the MEErP (see Section 1).
Article 5(1) of the ESPR lists the following product aspects:
—
durability;
—
reliability;
—
reusability;
—
upgradability;
—
repairability;
—
the possibility of maintenance and refurbishment;
—
the presence of substances of concern;
—
energy use and energy efficiency;
—
water use and water efficiency;
—
resource use and resource efficiency;
—
recycled content;
—
the possibility of remanufacturing;
—
recyclability;
—
the possibility of the recovery of materials;
—
environmental impacts, including carbon footprint and environmental footprint;
—
expected generation of waste.
26
Article 2 of the ESPR establishes the following definitions:
‘ecodesign
requirement’
means a performance requirement or an information requirement aimed at making a product, including
processes taking place throughout the product’s value chain, more environmentally sustainable;
‘performance
requirement’
means a quantitative or non-quantitative requirement for or in relation to a product to achieve a certain
performance level in relation to a product parameter referred to in Annex I;
‘information
requirement’
means an obligation for a product to be accompanied by information as specified in Article 7(2).
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306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
Many studies underline the great potential for improvement regarding product aspects of textile apparel. In
particular, the literature suggests six most important product aspects:
—
Increasing all features of product
durability
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017; Bauer, Watson,
Gylling, Remmen, Lysemose, Chatarina Hohenthal, et al., 2018; Sandin, Roos, Spak, et al., 2019;
Claxton and Kent, 2020a; Goworek, L. Oxborrow, et al., 2020; Niinimäki et al., 2020; Cooper and
Claxton, 2022a; Nordic Ecolabelling, 2022; OVAM, 2022; Horn et al., 2023; TAUW, 2023; Dodd and
Gama, 2017; Aakko and Niinimäki, 2021).
—
Possibility of
maintenance
and how best to use the textile product during its lifetime (Ellen
MacArthur Foundation, 2017; Bauer, Watson, Gylling, Remmen, Lysemose, Chatarina Hohenthal, et
al., 2018; Nordic Ecolabelling, 2022; OVAM, 2022; Horn et al., 2023).
—
Repairability
(Bauer, Watson, Gylling, Remmen, Lysemose, Chatarina Hohenthal, et al., 2018;
Niinimäki et al., 2020; Botta, 2021; EEA, 2022a; OVAM, 2022; TAUW, 2023).
—
Regulating the
presence of substances of concern,
from the perspective of eliminating or
reducing the use of these substances (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017; Bauer, Watson, Gylling,
Remmen, Lysemose, Chatarina Hohenthal, et al., 2018; Niinimäki et al., 2020; Mohapatra and
Gaonkar, 2021; EEA, 2022b; Nordic Ecolabelling, 2022; OVAM, 2022; TAUW, 2023; Dodd and Gama,
2017).
—
Recycled content and possibility of recovery of materials
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation,
2017; Bauer, Watson, Gylling, Remmen, Lysemose, Chatarina Hohenthal, et al., 2018; Niinimäki et
al., 2020; ECOS et al., 2021; EEA, 2022b; Nordic Ecolabelling, 2022; OVAM, 2022; Horn et al., 2023;
Dodd and Gama, 2017).
—
Possibility of recycling
(Niinimäki et al., 2020; ECOS et al., 2021; EEA, 2022b; Nordic
Ecolabelling, 2022; OVAM, 2022; Horn et al., 2023; TAUW, 2023; Dodd and Gama, 2017).
Most of the studies listed above do not specify the kind of requirements, but they suggest focussing on the
specific product aspect to best decrease the environmental impacts of the apparel:
•
Significant improvement potential is associated with increasing the product lifespan, which
could be achieved by increasing the physical and emotional durability
(
27
)
of the product,
improving product care, and facilitating/supporting reparability. Increasing the durability of
products is considered an effective strategy to decrease the environmental impacts of this
product group. It was estimated that, over the last 20 years, the use time of apparel decreased
by 36%, with each product used only seven or eight times on average (Ellen MacArthur
Foundation, 2017). This results in a significant amount of waste originating from used apparel.
Extending the lifespan of 50% of apparel by an extra 9 months of active use would reduce
carbon, water and waste footprints by around 4-10% each (WRAP, 2017a).
The literature reports a relevant concern about the hazards of substances used and contained
in textile apparel. The use of alternative substances with a reduced hazard profile is
considered a crucial aspect to pursue.
In line with the Circular Economy Action Plan, the literature considers product circularity
aspects to show good improvement potential, such as increasing the recycled content and
promoting recyclable products.
•
•
Only Bauer et al. (2019), OVAM (2022) and TAUW (2023) further suggest specific criteria that would decrease
the environmental footprint of textile apparel. Differently, (Sandin, Roos, Spak, et al., 2019) reports the
possibility to decrease the environmental impacts of these products using a less impacting source of energy,
such as solar energy.
Most of the product aspects listed above could also be valid for home/interior textiles and footwear, which are
usually included in studies focusing on generic textile products. This is the case of studies like Ellen Macarthur
Foundation (2017), ECOS (2021), and Mohapatra and Gaonkar (2021). However, any ecodesign requirement
under a specific product aspect should always consider the specific function that the textile product performs.
27
Emotional durability is the product’s ability to stay relevant and desirable to the consumer
(Anthesis, 2015).
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354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
Therefore, the potential adoption of the same product aspects for textile apparel and home/interior textiles
should consider that the two subgroups, and their categories, perform different functions. This distinction is one
of the numerous factors driving the grouping of textile products that are included in the scope of the PS.
The literature review did not reveal specific studies about potential improvements to generic technical textiles.
This could be explained by the numerous specific applications of the technical textiles that are adopted in many
sectors.
The literature review showed that textile apparel, but also to some extent home/interior textiles and footwear,
have the potential for improvement under various product aspects. In the following milestones, the PS will
assess all the product aspects set out in Article 5(1) of the ESPR.
3.1.2
Amount of sales and trade in the EU
Information reported in the PRODCOM database
(
28
)
was processed and analysed to quantify the amount of
sales and trade in the EU in the textiles and footwear subgroups. The classification of products into subgroups
was based on the European Statistical System, which is described in detail in Section 10.1.
The analysis targeted the market indicators production, import, export and apparent consumption
(
29
)
of the EU-
27
(
30
)
in 2019. This year was chosen because it was the latest year free from market disruptions, such as the
COVID-19 pandemic (2020) and the increase of EU energy prices (2022).
Table 4
reports the results of the
analysis, which show that the textile apparel subgroup has the largest share of the market for all market
indicators expressed in value and the largest share of the import and apparent consumption expressed in mass.
Table 4.
Economic indicators of textiles and footwear in the EU-27 in 2019
Subgroup
Textile apparel
Home/interior textiles
Footwear
Technical textiles
Production
Mass
Value
(bn kg) (bn EUR)
0.8
33
1.83
14.87
0.57
19.83
3.65
18.07
Import
Mass
(bn kg)
4.67
2.04
1.72
0.69
Value
(bn EUR)
80.84
12.09
21.27
4.03
Export
Mass
(bn kg)
0.62
0.59
0.28
0.79
Value
(bn EUR)
36.02
4.9
14.46
6.24
Apparent consumption
Mass
Value
(bn kg)
(bn EUR)
4.85
77.82
3.28
22.07
2.01
26.64
3.55
15.86
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
N.B. Colour shades from red to white rank the subgroups from the largest to the smallest share of the economic indicator.
Figures related to economic indicators expressed in mass could be underestimated because some PRODCOM codes did not contain
information. This is caused by the data collection system that allows Member States to avoid, in specific cases, reporting information
expressed as quantity of goods. More information is available in Section 10.1.
Source: own analysis using PRODCOM dataset DS-056120 (data extracted on 15 November 2023)
3.1.3
Environmental impacts and waste generation across the value chain
The literature shows that environmental impacts caused by textile products were studied using numerous levels
of granularity. Most of the studies focused on ‘textiles’, ‘textile sector’, ‘textile industry’, without clearly
specifying which subgroup was included. In this screening of the literature,
the term ‘textiles’ is assumed to
include textile apparel, home/interior textiles and technical textiles.
The literature seems to treat the terms ‘apparel’, ‘clothing’ and ‘garments’ as synonyms,
which raises doubts
on whether clothing accessories are always included; whereas it addresses footwear separately. The same
literature refers to ‘fashion’, which forms a major component of the product group ‘apparel
and footwear’, and
it can be understood as including the subgroups textile apparel and footwear. The authors understand that
fashion includes leather and fur apparel, which are not part of this PS in view of its focus on textile products
according to the definition under the TLR.
28
29
30
PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120). Available at
this link.
The apparent consumption is defined as the sum of production and import, minus the export. Production, import and export refer to
the entire EU. Therefore, the economic indicators used from the PRODCOM database were: PRODQNT and PRODVAL, which describe
production with mass-related units and in euro, respectively; IMPQNT and IMPVAL, which describe import with mass-related units and
in euro, respectively; EXPQNT and EXPVAL, which describe export with mass-related units and in euro, respectively.
The 27 Member States are: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and
Sweden.
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389
390
391
392
393
Table 5
reports the result of a literature review focusing on specific subgroups of the textile and footwear
product group, or textiles in general. For the home/interior textiles, footwear and technical textiles subgroups
only a few articles were found, showing the very limited attention paid by the scientific community to these
subgroups. Most of the literature focuses on textile apparel and textiles in general.
Table 5.
Literature studies investigating environmental impacts of textile products
Granularity of textile products
in the literature
Textile apparel
Home/interior textiles
Footwear
Technical textiles
Textiles in general
Reports and scientific papers
Cai and Choi (2020) reviewed 108 studies;
Munasinghe et al. (2021) reviewed 57 studies.
Kalliala and Nousiainen (1999).
Gottfridsson and Zhang (2015); Quantis (2018); Jadhav and Jadhav
(2020); Muthu (2020); Van Rensburg et al. (2020).
Shishoo (1994); Sohail and Sun (2019); Aldalbahi et al. (2021).
Amicarelli et al. (2022) reviewed 54 studies;
Luo et al. (2023a) reviewed 107 studies.
Number of
studies
108
1
5
3
107
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
Source: own analysis
In 2022, the European Environment Agency published a study analysing the environmental impacts of textile
apparel, home/interior textiles and footwear (EEA, 2022b).
Table 6
reports an overview of the environmental
impacts related to the upstream supply chain of textile apparel, home/interior textiles and footwear. Most of
the impacts generated by the subgroups investigated occur outside the EU and are due to textile apparel
production. The contributions of footwear and home/interior textiles are very similar to each other.
Table 6.
Environmental impacts related to the supply chain of textile products
Environmental
aspect
Use of primary
raw materials
Water use
Land Use
Greenhouse
gas emissions
Source: EEA (2022)
Attribution of impacts (%)
Amount
175 m t
391 kg/person
5 000 m m
3
9 m
3
/person
180 000 km
2
400 m
2
/person
121 m t CO
2
eq
270 kg CO
2
eq/person
Inside EU
20
Contribution
not relevant
8
25
Outside EU
80
Most of the
contribution
92
75
Attribution to specific subgroup (%)
Apparel Home/interior
Footwear
textiles textiles
40
40
43
50
30
30
23
30
30
30
35
20
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
Huygens et al. (2023) performed an analysis of waste generation along the value chain of textile products
including textile apparel, home/interior textiles and technical textiles. The analysis does not show which product
subgroup generates more waste, but it distinguishes between the generation of post-industrial, pre-consumer
and post-consumer waste. In 2019, the EU-27 generated 12.6 Mt of textile waste; 11% was post-industrial
waste, 3% was pre-consumer waste, and 86% was post-consumer waste (Huygens et al., 2023).
The review of the available literature on the environmental impacts caused by textile products showed that
textile apparel is the most impactful and the most investigated subgroup in the textiles and footwear product
group.
3.2 Proposed scope
All products in the scope of the PS should be sufficiently homogeneous in terms of function, material
composition, chemical composition and technologies used. This homogeneity should allow the development of
common ecodesign requirements within the aspects listed in Article 5 of the ESPR, tailoring them to product
subgroups as appropriate.
3.2.1
Products included in the scope
The analysis reported in Section 3.1 revealed that, within the product group textiles and footwear, textile apparel
is the most suitable subgroup to be addressed by the PS because it:
—
has potential improvements already investigated by the literature (Section 3.1.1);
—
has the largest share in the EU market (Section 3.1.2),
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420
421
422
423
424
425
426
—
produces the largest share of the environmental impacts, based on the available literature (Section
3.1.3).
Table 7
reports all textile apparel categories and their description.
Table 59
(Section 10.1.4) reports all
PRODCOM codes of products included in the scope of the PS. The identified product categories are aligned with
the ongoing work of the PEFCR A&F
(
8
).
This alignment allows the JRC to use the work performed by the project
PEFCR A&F whenever it is appropriate within the frameworks of the ESPR and the EU Ecolabel.
Table 7.
Product categories of textile apparel included in the scope of the preparatory study
ID
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
Category
T-shirts
Shirts and blouses
Sweaters and mid-
layers
Jackets and coats
Pants and shorts
Dresses, skirts and
jumpsuits
Leggings, stockings,
tights and socks
Underwear
Swimwear
Description
Garment to cover the upper body to the elbow (e.g. singlets, vests, t-shirts, polo shirts, other
short-sleeved shirts)
Garment to cover the upper body including the entire arm (e.g. long-sleeved shirts, blouses,
base layers)
Garment to keep the upper body warm and covered (e.g. pullovers, cardigans, hoodies, jerseys,
sweatshirts, sweaters)
Garments to put on top of a shirt or sweater or to protect from the natural elements (e.g.
blazers, suit jackets, overcoats, other light jackets, rain jackets, outdoor winter jackets, parkas,
outdoor vests, anoraks)
Garment to cover the lower body, may protect from the elements (e.g. casual pants, outdoor
pants, dress pants, jeans, sports pants, capri pants, shorts)
One-piece garment that covers both the upper and lower body, or the lower body only, other
than pants and shorts (e.g. short- and long-sleeved, strapless, wrap, long and short, one-piece
suits)
Tight garment to cover the legs and/or feet. (e.g. opaque and sheer tights, pantyhose, fishnets,
ankle socks, knee socks, low-cut socks)
Garment worn under clothes, often next to the skin of the upper or lower body (e.g. boxers,
briefs, panties, bras, body-shaping suits)
Garment worn for water-based or sun-based activities (e.g. bikinis, bathing suits, racing-style
swimwear, board shorts)
Hats
–
Garment to cover the head for warmth or as a fashion item (e.g. caps, flat caps, woollen
hats/beanies, fedoras, panamas, bowlers, newsboys, berets);
Scarves and ties
–
Garment worn around the neck for warmth or as a fashion item (e.g. warm
and light scarves, buffs, neckerchiefs, headscarves, shawls, bowties);
Belts
–
Flexible band or strap worn around the waist or over the shoulders used to secure or to
hold up clothing such as pants (e.g. dress belts, casual belts, buckle belts, tie-up belts,
suspenders);
Gloves and mittens
–
Articles of clothing that protect hands and wrists from the elements or as
a fashion item. Used in pairs (e.g. fingerless gloves, fashion gloves, outdoor sports gloves,
mittens).
10
Textile apparel
accessories
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
Source: own production based on the ongoing work performed within the development of PEFCR A&F.
Technical textile apparel, such as workwear and sportswear are included in the scope of the PS, as long as (1)
it is textile apparel (containing at least 80% by weight of textile fibres, as defined above) and (2) they do not
belong to the list of excluded products defined in section 3.2.2.
Sportswear could be considered technical textiles due to its high performance in terms of thermoregulatory
properties
(
31
).
Besides these thermoregulatory properties, sportswear and leisurewear have the same, or very
similar, features that allow these two types of products to be addressed in the same PS with the same ecodesign
requirements, which fall in the domain of the aspects listed by Article 5 of the ESPR.
Workwear textile apparel not excluded from scope (as per section 3.2.2)
(
32
)
and leisurewear also have same,
or very similar, features that allow these two types of products to be addressed in the same PS with the same
ecodesign requirements, which fall in the domain of the aspects listed by article 5 of the ESPR.
Nevertheless, this approach on workwear and sportswear will be reassessed when the PS addresses task 6 of
the MEErP on ecodesign options.
31
32
The textile industry certifies or reports the performance of sportswear following the guidelines contained in the technical report PD
CEN/TR 16422:2012, available at
this link.
Last accessed on 5 February 2024. These guidelines establish an evaluation system with
three levels of performance related to thermoregulatory properties: (a) thermal insulation, (b) water vapour transmission
(breathability), (c) air permeability, (d) water penetration resistance and repellence, and (e) liquid sweat management.
Examples of workwear textile apparel included in the scope are uniforms used in hospitals, hotels and restaurants.
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440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
3.2.2
Products excluded from the scope
The following textile apparel are excluded from the scope because they are very different to products included
in the scope in terms of their function and physical characteristics:
•
smart textiles
(
33
),
which are textiles able to sense and react to environmental conditions
and external stimuli (e.g. mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli) thanks to a number of
sensors incorporated in the textiles;
electronic textiles
or
e-textiles
(
33
),
which are textile-based systems that exhibit an
intended and exploitable response as a reaction either to changes in their
surroundings/environment or to an external signal/input
(
34
);
textile apparel identified as personal protective equipment (PPE)
in accordance with
Regulation (EU) 2016/425 (
35
);
textile apparel identified as medical devices or as an accessory for a medical device
in accordance with Regulation (EU) 2017/745
(
36
);
textile apparel identified as toys
in accordance with the Directive 2009/48/EC
(
37
).
•
•
•
•
E-textiles are excluded from the scope of the PS, however all products included in the scope will be able to use
information carriers based on technologies such as Ultra High Frequency (UHF), Radio-frequency identification
(RFID) and Near-Field Communication (NFC).
Additionally, all
intermediate products,
such as fabrics, yarns, fibres, etc., are excluded from the scope of the
PS, because their characteristics should be strictly related to the function of the specific textile apparel they are
part of. For example, a cotton fabric should have different characteristics when used as a t-shirt component to
when used as a table cloth. Exclusion of intermediate textile products from the scope of this PS does not exclude
the possibility to set specific requirements and parameters on the intermediate textile product once incorporated
in the selected products in the scope. This means that all intermediate textile products, which are part of textile
apparel in the scope, are indirectly addressed by the PS.
Aspects related to customised textile apparel and upcycled textile apparel
(
38
)
will be addressed in the impact
assessment that will follow the PS in the policy-making process.
In accordance with Article 5(2) of the ESPR, the initial questionnaire (
12
) investigated the possibility to include in
the scope further textile products, such as bed linen, kitchen textiles, towels and bathrobes, textile cleaning
products, reusable textile hygiene products. The very different functions of these textile products
(
39
)
compared
to textile apparel does not allow the extension of the scope of the PS, because they cannot be considered similar
to apparel. A product category with a different function to textile apparel requires a specific study which includes
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Definition of smart textiles is inspired by ISO/TR 23383:2020. Textiles and textile products
—
Smart (Intelligent) textiles
—
Definitions,
categorisation, applications and standardization needs. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 5 February 2024.
Textile apparel containing batteries to produce lights and/or sounds are excluded from the scope of this preparatory study.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) Regulation. REGULATION (EU) 2016/425 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL
of 9 March 2016 on personal protective equipment and repealing Council Directive 89/686/EEC. Available at
this link.
Medical devices Regulation. Regulation (EU) 2017/745 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2017 on medical
devices, amending Directive 2001/83/EC, Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 and Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 and repealing Council
Directives 90/385/EEC and 93/42/EEC. Available at
this link.
Toy Safety Directive (TSD). Directive 2009/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June 2009 on the safety of
toys. Available at
this link.
Upcycled textiles meant here as textile products manufactured by making use of used and/or waste components of other textile
products.
Bed linens
(bed sheets, pillowcases, duvet/blanket cover) have the function to cover the human body during sleep, and they have a
decorative function for the bed.
Kitchen textiles
(tablecloths, kitchen tea towels, napkins, aprons) have the function of protecting the surfaces they cover and have a
decorative function for an interior environment.
Towels and bathrobes
have the function of drying the body or parts of the body after they have become wet (e.g. after washing,
swimming, etc.).
Textile cleaning products
(floor cloths, dishcloths, dusters and similar cleaning cloths) have the function to remove dust and dirt from
surfaces, interacting with detergents and other cleaning chemicals.
Reusable textile absorbent hygiene products
have the function of handling fluids, delivering protective properties like absorption,
protecting the environment form unintentionally released body waste. In particular, reusable baby diapers must be flexible, so that
they are comfortable and adaptable to changing body size.
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471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
the investigation of the user behaviour, the testing methods to check the performance of the products, and
consequently a different approach when establishing ecodesign requirements. Additionally, a different function
of the textile product affects the fate of its end-of-life. For example, during their use phase, textile cleaning
products interact with many chemicals that are absorbed and could hinder the recycling processes. These
aspects deserve to be addressed by a specific study different to this PS. In particular, due to their functions and
technical characteristics, textile cleaning products and reusable textile absorbent hygiene products are
considered technical textiles.
3.3 Composition, life-cycle stages and main negative environmental impacts of
products included in the scope
This section provides a literature review concerning the main characteristics of the textile industry in terms of
composition and life-cycle stages (Section 3.3.1), and the main factors influencing the negative environmental
impacts (Section 3.3.2). Implicitly, this section refers to textile apparel, which represent a major part of the
textile industry production, import, export and apparent consumption (Table
4).
An overview of the life-cycle
stages of textile apparel and the main factors affecting the environmental impacts are essential bases to fully
understand numerous topics addressed in the following sections. The main environmental impacts are crucial
to understand the environmental areas addressed by environmental labels described in Section 4.5. Meanwhile,
the description of the life-cycle stages is very important to put in context specific concepts addressed in the
market analysis (Section 5), notably (1) manufacturing stages spread over different countries, (2) the main
elements affecting apparel manufacture, (3) the characteristics of the value chain, and (4) global
competitiveness related to costs of environmental compliancy.
The description reported in this section is further detailed in Section 9 and the following milestone, when the
PS addresses 5 of the MEErP.
3.3.1
Composition and life-cycle stages
The textile products included in the scope of the PS are mostly made of textile fibres
–
at least 80% by weight.
The Textile Labelling Regulation 1007/2011 lists 50 different types of fibres, but not all of them are commonly
used for manufacturing textile apparel (e.g. carbon, ceramic, glass, and metal fibres). Textile fibres most
commonly used by the textile apparel industry were classified in the BREF on textiles (Roth et al., 2023) as
follows:
•
Natural origin fibres:
o
o
•
animal origin, including wool, silk and hair;
vegetable origin, including cotton, flax and jute.
natural polymer fibres / man-made cellulosic fibres (MMCF), including viscose, cupro,
lyocell, acetate, triacetate;
synthetic polymer fibres, specifically organic polymers, including polyester (PES),
polyamide (PA), acrylic (PAC), polypropylene (PP), elastane (EL).
Chemical fibres (man-made):
o
o
Despite the fact that textile apparel is produced with specific fibres and fibre combinations, technologies and
resources, the life cycle of textile apparel can be described by eight distinct stages: (1) raw material for fibre
production, (2) fibre manufacturing/preparation, (3) yarn manufacturing, (4) fabric manufacturing, (5)
confectioning
(often called ‘Cut,
Make-up and Trim’ (CMT)), (6) retailing, (7) use, and (8) waste management.
Figure 1
shows these stages in a linear model that does not mark recycling routes, and it depicts some
peculiarities of chemical and natural fibres.
Table 8
reports processes, technologies and resources used at each
life-cycle stage of textile apparel. Section 10.2 provides more details.
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514
Figure 1.
Main textile life-cycle stages
515
516
517
Source: own production adapted from McKinsey & Company (2022), icons from
www.flaticon.com
Table 8.
Life-cycle stages of textile apparel
–
processes, techniques and resources
Stage
Input
Fibres from crops is
used for vegetable
origin fibres
Animals and insects
are used for animal-
based fibres
Cellulose mainly from
wood is used for man-
made chemical fibres
using natural polymers
Process and techniques
Cultivation with subsequent
processing.
Animal farming with shearing and
sericulture with silk extraction. Pre-
treatments are needed.
Dissolving pulp from various sources is
dissolved with chemicals and further
processed.
Main resources
Land
Water
Agrochemicals
Energy
Chemicals
Land
Fossil fuels
Output
Staple fibre
(1) Raw material
for fibre
production
Staple fibre,
Filament
fibres,
Granulates
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Stage
Input
Petroleum-based
material is used for
man-made chemical
fibres using synthetic
polymers
Natural staple fibre
Process and techniques
Specific chemicals and processes are
used to produce specific polymers.
Preparation stage usually includes
scouring and/or cleaning processes
before carding. The processes vary
according to the natural fibre.
Opening, carding, drawing and
additional specific processes according
to the spinning technology used.
No process required.
Ring spinning and open-end spinning .
Ring spinning, air-jet spinning, wet
spinning and open-end spinning.
Wet or dry spinning from a solution
and melt spinning from granulates
A two-dimensional structure is created
by interlacing yarns.
Weaving is the predominant fabric
manufacturing technique. It involves
interlacing two sets of yarns at right
angles on a loom.
Knitting is the second most used fabric
manufacturing method. Yarns are
interlooped using needles to form
fabric on knitting machines.
Non-woven technology produces
textile structures by bonding fibres or
filaments together, either
mechanically, thermally, or chemically.
Numerous wet treatments for sizing,
desizing, pre-treatment, dyeing,
printing, finishing, coating, laminating,
and many more.
These treatments are applied based on
the specific requirements of the final
products, and are not applied
sequentially. Each treatment utilises
specific technologies and chemicals.
Product design, fabric spreading and
cutting, product assembly, sewing and
ironing.
Transportation and sale via numerous
channels, such as shops, on the
internet.
Washing, cleaning, drying, ironing, as
well as wear and tear.
Used textile apparel are usually
incinerated and landfilled.
However, circular solutions are also
possible, such as:
textile apparel reuse,
fabric recycling,
fibre recycling (mechanical process),
raw material recycling (chemical
process).
Main resources
Output
(2) Fibre
preparation /
manufacturing
Energy
Water
Chemicals
Energy
None
Energy
Water
Chemicals
Carded natural
fibres
Carded MMCF
Granulates
Staple fibre bale of
MMCF
Chemical granulates
Carded natural fibres
(3) Yarn
manufacturing
Carded MMCF
Polymers in solution or
as granulates (for
chemical fibres)
Yarns
(4) Fabric
manufacturing
Yarn (for weaving and
knitting)
Fibres and filaments
(for non-woven)
Energy
Fabrics
Finishing
processes
Yarn
and/or
Fabric
Chemicals
Energy
Water (dyeing)
Finished yarn,
Finished fabric
(5) Confectioning
(6) Retailing
(7) Use
Fabric
Non textile components
Textile apparel
Textile apparel owned
by the user
Energy
Manual labour
Fuel (transport)
Energy
Manual labour
Water
Energy
Chemicals
Textile apparel
Textile apparel
owned by the
user
Used textile
apparel
(8) Waste
management
Used textile apparel
Specific to the
fate of the used
product
Specific to the
fate of the
used product
518
Source: own elaboration
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519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
3.3.2
Main factors influencing the negative environmental impacts
This section aims to provide a general overview about the factors that negatively affect the environment due
to the consumption of textile apparel, or textiles in general. This is done via a literature review to provide some
background useful for the understanding of the environmental areas addressed by environmental labels
described in Section 4.5. A complete environmental assessment will be performed in Task 5 and reported in the
following milestone.
The textile production processes are characterised by a large use of resources and numerous emissions into
water bodies and into the atmosphere. The European Environment Agency estimated that the textile industry is
the fifth industrial sector for primary use of materials and greenhouse gas emissions, and the third industrial
sector for water and land use (EEA, 2022b).
Use of land
The European Environment Agency estimated that in 2020 the purchase of apparel by European households
used about 77 400 km
2
of land (EEA, 2022b). About 92% of this land is located outside Europe, and it is mainly
used for cultivation of cotton in China and India (Manshoven et al., 2019). The grazing of sheep and cashmere
goats for the production of animal fibres such as wool require also use of land. In this case the attribution of
environmental impacts to the fibre should take into account that the same animals are used to produce meat,
milk and leather. The United Nation Environment Program estimates that the use of land in cellulose supply for
the production of MMCF and the production of synthetic fibres is smaller than what is requested by natural
fibres (UNEP, 2020).
In general, use of land and land use change are relevant because they influence biodiversity and the emission
of greenhouse gases (Newbold et al., 2016; IPCC, 2023).
Use and discharge into water
The textile industry's water consumption is estimated to account for 4% of global freshwater extraction (Ellen
MacArthur Foundation, 2017). The European Environment Agency reported that the production of clothing,
footwear and household textiles purchased in the EU in 2020 was equal to 4 000 million m
3
of blue water (
40
),
meaning about 9 m
3
per person (EEA, 2022b). Water is mainly used in numerous stages of the entire life cycle
of textile apparel (Table
8).
The BREF for the EU textile industry sets ambitious thresholds for emissions into
water due to their highly negative effects. Numerous parameters are considered including carbon-load-related
parameters (chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total organic carbon (TOC)),
suspended solids, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, metals, adsorbable organic halides (AOX), pesticide,
flame retardants and many more. Use of dyes generates highly polluted wastewater, which needs to be properly
treated before its release into the environment. Also, other processes like production of polyester fibres and the
treatment of knitted fabrics generate wastewater with a high load of heavy metals, such as antimony, and with
a high hydrocarbon oil index (HOI), respectively (Roth et al., 2023). Additionally, when treating natural fibres, a
series of substances, such as biocides, are released into the wastewater even before pre-treating the fibres
(Zhang et al., 2022; Roth et al., 2023).
Use of chemicals
Numerous life-cycle stages of textile apparel involve the use of chemical substances and mixtures (hereafter
called ‘chemicals’)
(Table
8).
Some of them are pesticides, solvents, surfactants, dyes and pigments, water and
stain repellents, flame retardants, biocides and many more (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017). Some of these
chemicals are directly in contact with soil and water bodies, like during the cultivation of natural fibres using
fertilisers and pesticides. Other chemicals are usually dissolved and released in the wastewater produced in
several processes (Zhang et al., 2022; Roth et al., 2023).
Humans are also directly exposed to chemicals used in textile apparel. Farmers and factory workers face
exposure to these chemicals, and people wearing textile products are potentially at risk due to chemicals that
remain bound to the products placed on the market (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017).
Use of energy
Almost all life-cycle stages of the textile apparel have a significant energy consumption (Table
8).
In particular,
some processes are highly energy-demanding, like the extraction of raw materials, specifically in the cases of
(
40
) ‘Blue’ water is reported as ‘surface
water or groundwater that is consumed or evaporated during irrigation, industry processes or
household use’
in
(EEA, 2022b).
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567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
fibres like silk or synthetic fibres, and production processes such as spinning, knitting, and weaving. Furthermore,
thermal treatments are crucial during production, as well as in the use phase for washing, ironing and drying
(Niinimäki et al., 2020; Munasinghe et al., 2021).
Generation of waste
In 2019, the EU generated about 12.6 Mt of textile waste, including post-industrial, pre-consumer and post-
consumer waste, representing 11%, 3% and 86% of the total, respectively. Nevertheless, regarding waste
generation, it is not possible to distinguish the impact of textile apparel from other textile products (Huygens et
al., 2023).
Huygens et al. (2023) estimated that, in 2019, about 90% of post-industrial and pre-consumer waste was
incinerated and landfilled, and about 10% was recycled. Additionally, in the same year, about 8.5 Mt of post-
consumer waste was not separately collected and was sent to incinerators or landfilled. The majority of post-
consumer waste that is separately collected is sent outside the EU
as ‘used product’, producing
negative
environmental and social impacts (Lingås et al., 2023; Huygens et al., 2023).
The landfilling and incineration of waste generates pollution, especially if it is not well controlled (Christensen,
2010). The Ellen MacArthur Foundation estimates that about 2 000 tonnes of hazardous substances annually
are released in the EU due to degradation of textiles in landfills (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017).
Emissions into the atmosphere
The apparel industry is responsible for about 6.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This mainly depends
on the use of energy and the sources employed for its production (Niinimäki et al., 2020). The European
Environment Agency estimated that textile consumption in the EU in 2020 emitted 121 million tonnes of
greenhouse gases. Around 75% of the emissions occurred outside Europe, specifically in Asian countries (EEA,
2022b).
The BREF for the EU textile industry sets ambitious thresholds for emissions into the atmosphere due to their
highly negative effects. Numerous parameters are considered including volatile organic compounds,
formaldehyde, oil mist, dust, ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides and many more (Roth et al., 2023).
These compounds are generated in processes associated with thermal treatments, wet processes (coating,
laminating and other finishing), and the use of agents and carriers in the production phase (Roth et al., 2023).
Pollution originated from textile fragmentation
Due to the publication of recent studies highlighting the adverse environmental and health impacts of
microplastics, the release of synthetic fragmented fibres from textile products is under the spotlight (Amobonye
et al., 2021; Leslie et al., 2022). One of the leading sources of microplastics pollution is the fragmentation of
synthetic textiles (Boucher and Friot, 2017). Fibres are released throughout the textile value chain, from the
production phase to the end-of-use phase. During the manufacturing stages, microplastics are released into
the atmosphere and into the wastewater produced. Household laundering during the use phase is another
leading source of microplastics release into wastewater. During the end-of-use phase, landfilling, incineration
and recycling are believed to be an important source of airborne and terrestrial microplastics (UNEP, 2020).
Estimations of microplastics releases exhibit considerable uncertainty, with annual figures for the EU oscillating
between 1 649 tonnes and 61 078 tonnes (DG ENV, 2023). This uncertainty is primarily attributable to the
scarce data available regarding the production and use phases of the microplastics life cycle, and a complete
lack of information for the disposal stage. The imprecision comes from the challenge of quantifying
microplastics emissions, rather than any issues with the underlying assumptions of the baseline projection (DG
ENV, 2023). Current patterns indicate that emissions of microplastics from textiles are projected to rise by
approximately 22% by the year 2030 (DG ENV, 2023).
Once released into the environment, microplastics can be ingested by organisms, leading to problems due to
physical and chemical properties of the microplastics. Their small size and persistence make them difficult to
remove from the environment, and they can act as vectors for other pollutants, including persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) that can adhere to their surfaces (Xiang et al., 2022). The ubiquity of microplastics has
prompted global concern, necessitating research into their environmental distribution, fate, and long-term
implications.
Despite the biodegradability of natural fragmented fibres, their potential risk is still under evaluation, because
their release could be associated with harmful substances (UNEP, 2020). The release of natural fragmented
fibres is an emerging environmental concern that parallels the issues posed by synthetic fragmented fibres
(microplastics). Although natural fragmented fibres are biodegradable, their extensive release into aquatic
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620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
systems may still result in ecological disruption. (Athey and Erdle, 2021; Zambrano et al., 2021) The concern is
that, similar to synthetic fragmented fibres, they can transport hazardous substances, introduce invasive species
via attachment, and affect the feeding behaviour within food webs. Additionally, understanding the full
environmental impact of natural fragmented fibres, including their degradation rates and interactions with
aquatic life, remains a critical area to be explored.
Table 9
provides an overview of important negative environmental impacts in the value chain of textile apparel
based on available literature:
—
Climate impacts are mainly generated during the processes of bleaching / dyeing and finishing.
—
Fresh water is mainly affected during the use phase, the processes of bleaching / dyeing and
finishing, and in raw material production.
—
The impacts on land use are mainly generated during the raw material production.
—
Impacts on both ecosystem quality and human health are mainly generated in raw material
production, the processes of bleaching / dyeing and finishing, and during the use phase.
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634
Table 9
Negative environmental impacts across the global apparel value chain
Climate
(% in the value
chain)
Water resources
(% in the value chain)
Freshwater
use
21
Water scarcity
footprint
33
Land use
(% in the value
chain)
Ecosystem quality
(main factors)
Habitat loss when using land,
Water use,
Soil degradation,
Agrochemicals use
NA
NA
NA
NA
Chemicals released in fresh
waters,
High use of energy based on
fossil fuels
NA
NA
High electricity consumption
NA
NA
Human health
(main factors)
Phase
Process
Raw material
production
Fibre production
Material processing &
sourcing
Fibre preparation
Yarn and fabric
production
Yarn preparation
(spinning)
Weaving, knitting,
bonding
Bleaching / dyeing and
finishing
Assembly
Distribution and retail
Consumption
Use
Collection and sorting
End-of-life
Landfilling / waste to
energy
12
56
Emission of harmful substances
NA
NA
12
10
NA
NA
7
7
NA
NA
21
16
NA
NA
6
4
NA
NA
NA
NA
Emission of harmful substances
and due to the extraction and
burning of fossil fuels
NA
NA
Hazardous chemicals retained in the
textile apparel
NA
NA
Textile production
36
5
1-11
14-24
<1
<1
24
5
<1
35
<1
NA
10
2
<1
18
NA
NA
10
12
<1
13
<1
NA
635
636
637
638
NA: Not Available
Breakdown of phases is aligned with the analysis reported by UNEP (2020).
Source: own elaboration based on
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017; Niinimäki et al., 2020; UNEP, 2020).
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639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
4
Legislation, strategies and voluntary environmental labels relevant for
the textile sector
The sound development of the PS includes a good understanding of the EU legislation (existing and in
preparation) and legislation from outside EU. This will allow the proposed ecodesign requirements to establish
synergies with other legislation and strategies at EU and global level. For this reason, this section analyses the
textile legislative context at different levels: EU, Member State, and third country (Sections 4.1 and 4.2). Textile
strategies promoted by the United Nations are addressed in Section 4.3.
The textile industry currently uses numerous standards to measure and identify numerous technical
aspects/parameters of a textile product. Section 4.4 analyses and classifies many standards used by the textile
industry because they could potentially be used to propose and/or verify ecodesign requirements, when the PS
addresses tasks 6 and 7 of the MEErP.
Finally, Section 4.5 provides an overview of the voluntary environmental labels used in the textile sector. This
analysis focuses on the type and the environmental aspects mostly addressed by these labels. This investigation
is mainly important for the following points:
•
•
•
•
the background for the revision process of the EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products (see
Section 1);
the identification of the most recognised negative environmental impacts of the textile
industry;
the identification of requirement areas, which could inspire future requirements;
the analysis of possible information on environmental labels to potentially be reported in the
Digital Product Passport.
4.1 EU legislation
Currently the EU has no specific legislation addressing the mandatory sustainability of textiles. As mentioned
in Section 1, there are the current EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products
(
41
), which belong to a voluntary
scheme for companies willing to show the good environmental performance of their products. Additionally, a
number of EU legal acts have a direct impact on the placing on the market of textile products. Furthermore,
profound changes in the EU acquis in the areas of consumer protection, consumer rights and product policy
were, at the time of drafting this study, at different stages of the ordinary legislative procedure. In addition, a
number of important policy documents, adopted by the Commission following the European Green Deal
Communication, and mentioned in Section 1, address the relevance of textiles as a key product group. This
section outlines the most relevant acts, existing and in preparation, related to textile products.
4.1.1
Existing EU legislation
Textile Labelling Regulation (TLR)
(
14
)
The TLR applies to textile products and products with textile components made up of at least 80% by weight of
textile fibres. It defines rules on:
•
•
•
the labelling and marking of the fibre composition of textile products;
the labelling or marking of textile products containing non-textile parts of animals;
the determination of the fibre composition of textile products, including of textile fibre
mixtures.
The Regulation, which is currently under revision, aims to improve the functioning of the internal market and
provide accurate information to consumers. It sets out a framework on how the textile composition is to be
declared and how fibre composition should be determined. The introduction of rules on labelling domains such
41
EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. Commission Decision of 5 June 2014 establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the
EU Ecolabel for textile products. Commission Decision (2014/350/EU). Available at
this link.
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681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
as sustainability and circularity, care, origin, size and presence of allergenic substances is currently under
consideration, with a view to proposing a fundamental revision of the Regulation soon.
Industrial and Livestock Rearing Emission Directive
The Industrial and Livestock Rearing Emissions Directive (IED 2.0)
(
42
)
is the main EU instrument regulating
pollutant emissions from industrial installations and intensive livestock farms (pig and poultry). Industrial
activities listed in Annex I to the Directive are required to operate in accordance with a permit based on the
principles and provisions of the Directive. The IED 2.0 is based on several pillars, in particular an integrated
approach, the use of best available techniques and public participation.
The integrated approach means that permits must take the whole environmental performance of the plant into
account. This covers emissions to air, water and land, generation of waste, use of raw materials, energy
efficiency, noise, prevention of accidents, and restoration of the site upon closure.
The permit conditions including emission limit values must be based on the Best Available Techniques (BAT). In
order to define BAT and the BAT-associated environmental performance at EU level, the Commission organises
an exchange of information with experts from Member States, industry and environmental organisations. This
process results in BAT Reference Documents (BREFs)
(
43
);
the BAT conclusions contained in the BREFs are
adopted by the Commission as Implementing Decisions. The IED 2.0 requires that these BAT conclusions are
the reference for setting permit conditions.
The IED 2.0 ensures that the public has a right to participate in the decision-making process, and to be informed
of its consequences, by having access to permit applications, permits and the results of the monitoring of
releases. Through the European Industrial Emissions Portal (EIEP), established by Regulation (EU)
2024/1244 (
44
), environmental data reported by Member States, and some other countries
(
45
),
are made
accessible in a public register
(
46
).
The IED 2.0 and the EIEP Regulation focus on emissions into air, water and land, prevention of waste generation,
energy, water and material efficiency and reuse, in addition to promoting the use of safer, less toxic or non-
toxic chemicals in industrial processes. They:
—
ensure full and consistent implementation of the IED 2.0 across Member States, with tighter permit
controls on air and water emissions;
—
increase investment in new, cleaner technologies taking into account energy use, resource
efficiency and water reuse whilst avoiding lock-in to obsolete technologies;
—
support more sustainable growth of sectors that are key to building a clean, low-carbon and
circular economy;
—
cover intensive farming and industrial activities, ensuring that sectors with significant potential for
high resource use or pollution also curb environmental damage at source by applying Best
Available Techniques;
—
establish an Innovation Centre for Industrial Transformation and Emissions (INCITE)
(
47
);
—
integrate the previously separate requirements for depollution and decarbonisation so that future
pollution control investments take better account of greenhouse gas emissions, resource efficiency
and water reuse;
42
43
44
45
46
47
Industrial Emissions Directive 2.0. Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial and livestock rearing emissions (integrated pollution prevention
and control). Available at
this link.
Best Available Techniques Reference Documents (BREFs), which are available at
this link.
Last visited on 12 September 2024.
EIEP Regulation (EC) No 2024/1244 on reporting of environmental data from industrial installations, establishing an Industrial
Emissions Portal. Available at
this link.
Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Serbia, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
European Industrial Emissions Portal. Available at
this link.
Last visited on 12 September 2024
The European Innovation Centre for Industrial Transformation and Emissions (INCITE). Available at
this link.
Last visited on 12
September 2024.
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720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
—
enhance data transparency and public access to environmental information by making permit
summaries available online and providing more opportunities for public participation in the setting
and review of permits.
The currently valid BREF for the textile industry dates back to 2023 (Roth et al., 2023). The associated Best
Available Techniques (BAT) conclusions were adopted as Commission Implementing Decision (EU)
2022/2508 (
48
). However, the industry belonging to the value chain of textile apparel could find relevant other
BAT conclusions, such as Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2019/2010 (
49
) and Commission
Implementing Decision (EU) 2018/1147
(
50
),
which are based on the corresponding BREFs dealing with waste
incineration and waste treatments (Pinasseau et al., 2018a; Neuwahl et al., 2019).
REACH Regulation
(
51
)
The Regulation on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) has the main
purpose of ensuring the safe use of chemicals in the EU. More specifically, REACH aims to ensure a high level
of protection of human health and the environment from risks resulting from the intrinsic properties of chemical
substances, as well as the free circulation of substances on the internal market, while enhancing
competitiveness and innovation. REACH regulates, amongst many other aspects, the restriction of the placing
on the market and use of certain substances listed in its Annex XVII, including in some cases, the incorporation
of substances into articles. Consequently, restrictions also cover recycled substances and the presence of
restricted substances in recovered materials. The authorisation title of REACH applies to the placing on the
market and use of substances of very high concern (SVHC), aiming at their progressive substitution by less
hazardous substances or technologies and by subjecting their use to specific conditions.
A number of restrictions in Annex XVII to REACH specifically mention textiles in their scope. These include entries:
4 - Tris (2,3 dibromopropyl) phosphate; 7 - Tris(aziridinyl)phosphinoxide; 8 - Polybrominatedbiphenyls; 18 -
Mercury compounds; 20 - Organostannic compounds; 43 - Azocolourants and Azodyes; 46/46a - Nonylphenol
and Nonylphenol ethoxylates; 47 - Chromium VI compounds (relevant to leather articles); 68 - C9-C14 PFCAs
and 72 - CMRs in textiles and footwear. Other restrictions, of general application to articles placed on the market
for supply to the general public, or covering all articles placed on the market, may also apply to textile articles,
for instance entries 50
–
(certain) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; 51 and 52 (certain phthalates); 61 -
Dimethylfumarate; and 63
–
Lead and its compounds.
In addition, Article 33 of REACH sets up a supply chain communication duty requiring suppliers of articles
containing SVHC above 0.1% to communicate certain information to the recipients of those articles.
Regulation on the classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures (CLP)
(
52
)
Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 (CLP) focuses on the identification and classification of the intrinsic hazards of
chemicals, i.e. the hazardous effects of chemicals on human health or the environment, and on communicating
them to users of chemicals and decision makers (consumers, industry and authorities). Identifying the intrinsic
hazardous properties of substances to derive a hazard classification is the first step in assessing chemical risks.
48
49
50
51
52
BREF for the textile industry. Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2022/2508 of 9 December 2022 establishing the best available
techniques (BAT) conclusions, under Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on industrial emissions, for
the textiles industry. Available at
this link.
BREF for waste incineration. Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2019/2010 of 12 November 2019 establishing the best
available techniques (BAT) conclusions, under Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council, for waste
incineration. Available at
this link.
BREF for waste treatment. Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2018/1147 of 10 August 2018 establishing best available
techniques (BAT) conclusions for waste treatment, under Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council.
Available at
this link.
REACH Regulation. Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning
the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending
Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1488/94 as well as
Council Directive 76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC. Available at
this link.
CLP Regulation. Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on classification,
labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures, amending and repealing Directives 67/548/EEC and 1999/45/EC, and amending
Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006. Available at
this link.
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757
758
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764
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769
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795
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799
800
CLP requires manufacturers, importers and downstream users to classify hazardous substances and mixtures
and provides rules on how to classify them, applicable throughout the EU. For a substance that has a harmonised
classification (an entry in Annex VI to CLP), that classification is legally binding for the hazard classes and
differentiations covered in the entry. The substances not covered in the entry, as well as mixtures, must be
evaluated and self-classified. The hazard classification determines the appropriate labelling and packaging of
the chemicals in the supply chain, in particular to protect workers, consumers and the environment.
Hazard classifications under CLP, including the new hazard classes defined in the recently adopted Delegated
Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/707, are very relevant in determining obligations imposed by many relevant
EU acts, including on products. Article 2(28) of ESPR refers to specific hazard classes under Annex VI of CLP to
define “substances of concern”, whereas under Regulation (EC) No. 66/2010 on the EU Ecolabel, its Article 6(6)
specifies that an EU Ecolabel cannot be awarded to goods containing substances or mixtures meeting the
criteria for certain hazard classifications in accordance with CLP.
POPs Regulation
(
53
)
The POPs Regulation focuses on persistent organic pollutants, and it implements the international obligations
of the EU as a party to the Stockholm Convention. The objective of the Regulation is to protect human health
and the environment from POPs by prohibiting, phasing out as soon as possible, or restricting the manufacturing,
placing on the market and use of substances subject to the Stockholm Convention. Substances listed in Annexes
I and II to the Regulation are, respectively, prohibited or limited, in terms of their manufacture, placing on the
market and use, with some specific exemptions. Some of these restrictions are relevant to textiles, for instance
those associated with certain brominated flame retardants (e.g. certain PBDEs), surface-active substances such
as PFOS or PFOA, or substances with biocidal properties such as pentachlorophenol.
Waste Framework Directive (WFD)
(
54
)
The WFD sets the basic concepts and definitions related to waste management, including definitions of waste,
recycling and recovery. It lays down waste management principles, which contribute to the reduction of the
adverse impact of waste management on human health or the environment, with an emphasis on waste
prevention. The WFD contains provisions on waste prevention, encouraging the reuse of products and the setting
up of systems promoting repair and reuse activities, including in particular for textiles (Article 9), and requires
Member States to set up separate collection for textiles by 1 January 2025 (Article 11) in order to promote
high-quality recycling. Article 9 of the Directive also promotes the reduction of the content of hazardous
substances in materials and products by defining a reporting obligation that applies to suppliers of articles (as
defined under REACH), requiring them to provide information regarding the presence of SVHC in articles,
including textile articles, pursuant to Article 33 of REACH, to the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), as of 5
January 2021. This information is collected in a database, operated by ECHA, and access is provided to waste
treatment operators and consumers.
Waste Shipment Regulation (WSR)
(
55
)
This Regulation aims to (1) ensure that the EU does not export its waste challenges to third countries and
contributes to environmentally sound management of waste; (2) strengthen enforcement to prevent illegal
shipments of waste occurring within the EU, as well as from the EU to third countries; (3) increase traceability
of waste shipments within the EU and facilitate recycling and reuse. Although the WSR entered into force on 20
May 2024, most provisions will apply from 21 May 2026 and most export rules will apply from 21 May 2027.
53
54
55
POPs Regulation. Regulation (EU) 2019/1021 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on persistent organic
pollutants (recast) (Text with EEA relevance) Text with EEA relevance. Available at
this link.
Waste Framework Directive (WFD). Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on
waste and repealing certain Directives (Text with EEA relevance). Available at
this link.
Waste Shipment Regulation (WSR). Regulation (EU) 2024/1157 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 April 2024 on
shipments of waste, amending Regulations (EU) No 1257/2013 and (EU) 2020/1056 and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006.
Available at
this link.
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801
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805
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811
812
813
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815
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819
820
821
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823
824
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826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD)
(
56
)
The primary objective of the CSDDD is to promote sustainable and responsible corporate practices throughout
companies' operations and global value chains. The new rules aim to ensure that in-scope companies identify
and mitigate adverse human rights and environmental impacts arising from their activities, both within and
outside the EU.
This Directive establishes a mandatory corporate due diligence obligation, comprising the following key
elements:
—
Companies must identify and address potential and actual human rights and environmental
impacts within their own operations, subsidiaries, and value chains, including those of their
business partners.
—
Large companies are required to adopt and implement, to the best of their abilities, a transition
plan for climate change mitigation, aligned with the 2050 climate neutrality objective of the Paris
Agreement and intermediate targets under the European Climate Law.
The CSDDD applies to: (1) large EU limited liability companies and partnerships with more than 1,000 employees
and a global turnover exceeding EUR 450 million, and (2) large non-EU companies with a turnover of more than
EUR 450 million in the EU. Micro companies and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are exempt from
the proposed rules. However, the Directive provides supportive and protective measures for SMEs that may be
indirectly affected as business partners in value chains
The Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD)
(
57
)
The CSRD modernised and strengthened the rules governing the social and environmental information that
companies must report. A broad range of large companies, including listed small and SMEs, are required to
report on sustainability. Non-EU companies generating over EUR 150 million on the EU market are also subject
to reporting requirements.
The CSRD aims to provide investors and other stakeholders with access to the necessary information to assess
the impact of companies on people and the environment, as well as to evaluate financial risks and opportunities
arising from climate change and other sustainability issues. Furthermore, the harmonisation of reporting
requirements is expected to reduce reporting costs for companies in the medium to long term.
Companies subject to the CSRD will be required to report according to the European Sustainability Reporting
Standards (ESRS), drafted by an independent body representing various stakeholders. The first set of ESRS was
published in December 2023, in the form of a Delegated Regulation
(
58
).
These standards apply to all companies
within the scope of the CSRD, regardless of their sector of operation. The ESRS are aligned with EU policies,
while also building on and contributing to international standardisation initiatives.
The CSRD also requires assurance on the sustainability information that companies report and will provide for
the digital taxonomy of sustainability information.
The first companies will be required to apply the new rules for the 2024 financial year, with reports to be
published in 2025.
Unfair Commercial Practices Directive (UCPD)
(
59
)
56
57
58
59
Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD). Directive (EU) 2024/1760 of the European Parliament and of the Council of
13 June 2024 on corporate sustainability due diligence and amending Directive (EU) 2019/1937 and Regulation (EU) 2023/2859.
Available at
this link.
Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD). Directive (EU) 2022/2464 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14
December 2022 amending Regulation (EU) No 537/2014, Directive 2004/109/EC, Directive 2006/43/EC and Directive 2013/34/EU, as
regards corporate sustainability reporting. Available at
this link.
Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2023/2772 of 31 July 2023 supplementing Directive 2013/34/EU of the European Parliament
and of the Council as regards sustainability reporting standards. Available at
this link.
Unfair Commercial Practices Directive (UCPD). Directive 2005/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2005
concerning unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices in the internal market and amending Council Directive 84/450/EEC,
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840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
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854
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856
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858
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860
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862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
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871
872
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875
876
877
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879
880
881
The UCPD concerns unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices, and it aims to boost consumer
confidence and make it easier for businesses, especially small and medium-sized enterprises, to trade across
borders. It regulates unfair commercial practices that occur before, during and after a business-to-consumer
transaction has taken place.
The Directive does not provide specific rules on environmental claims or specifically for textiles. However, it
provides a legal basis to ensure that traders do not present environmental claims in ways that are unfair to
consumers. It does not prohibit the use of ‘green claims’ as long
as they are not unfair. On the contrary, the
UCPD can help traders invest in the environmental performance of their products by enabling them to
communicate these efforts to consumers transparently and by preventing competitors from presenting
misleading environmental claims. The Directive states that claims should not be misleading and that all claims
which lead a consumer to choose one product over another must be trustworthy.
The Directive’s
Annex I lists
which practices are considered unfair and misleading in all circumstances.
The proposal from the Commission for a Directive on empowering consumers for the green transition will amend
the Unfair Commercial Practices Directive and the Consumer Rights Directive, introducing specific provisions to
avoid greenwashing. See further details in Section 4.1.2.
Directive on empowering consumers for the green transition
(
60
)
The proposal from the Commission for a Directive on empowering consumers for the green transition will amend
the Unfair Commercial Practices Directive (2005/29/EC) and the Consumer Rights Directive (2011/83/EU). It
addresses problems identified with consumer information at the point of sale, in particular the fact that
consumers lack reliable information for choosing more environmentally sustainable products, and aims to
protect consumers against certain unfair commercial practices.
This is to be achieved through the improved participation of consumers in the circular economy by providing
better information on the durability and reparability of certain products to consumers and stepping up the
protection of consumers against unfair commercial practices by preventing: greenwashing, early obsolescence
practices, use of unreliable and non-transparent sustainability labels and information tools. The co-legislator
adopted this Directive on 20 February 2024.
4.1.2
EU legislation in preparation
Proposal for a targeted amendment of the Waste Framework Directive
(
61
)
The overall objective of the WFD revision is to reduce environmental and climate impacts, increase environment
quality and improve public health associated with textiles waste management in line with the waste hierarchy.
The Commission proposal aims to make producers responsible for the full life cycle of textile products and to
support the sustainable management of textile waste across the EU. This initiative also aims to accelerate the
development of the separate collection, sorting, reuse and recycling sector for textiles in the EU, in line with the
EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles.
The Commission proposal intends to introduce mandatory and harmonised Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR) schemes for textiles in all EU Member States. According to this Commission proposal, producers will cover
the costs of management of textile waste, which will also provide incentives to reduce waste and increase the
circularity of textile products, resulting in a better design of products from the start. The proposal envisages
that the contribution to EPR schemes will be adjusted based on the environmental performance of textiles (eco-
modulation) based on parameters aligned with ecodesign requirements under the ESPR.
60
61
Directives 97/7/EC, 98/27/EC and 2002/65/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 of
the European Parliament and of the Council (‘Unfair Commercial Practices Directive’) (Text with EEA relevance).
Available at
this link.
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directives 2005/29/EC and 2011/83/EU as regards
empowering consumers for the green transition through better protection against unfair practices and better information.
COM/2022/143 final. Available at
this link.
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2008/98/EC on waste. COM/2023/420
final. Available at
this link.
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882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
Proposal for a Directive on substantiation and communication of explicit environmental claims
(Green Claims Directive)
(
62
)
The Commission Green Claims Directive proposal will address greenwashing by tackling false environmental
claims made to consumers, and stopping the proliferation of public and private environmental labels. Together
with the proposal for a Directive on empowering consumers for the green transition, the proposal establishes a
clear regime for environmental claims and labels. Their purpose is to ensure that consumers receive trustworthy
information about the environmental credentials of the products they buy.
The proposal targets ‘green
claims’ made by businesses that state or imply a positive environmental impact,
lesser negative impact, no impact, or improvement over time for their products, services, or organisation. It
requires that green claims are substantiated and this substantiation be verified
ex-ante.
This only concerns
claims that are not covered by other EU rules, notably the ESPR and the TLR. The proposal also addresses
environmental labelling schemes, stopping the proliferation of public and private labels and ensuring the
transparency and robustness of labelling schemes.
Proposal on common rules promoting the repair of goods
(
63
)
The
proposal introduces a new ‘right to repair' for consumers, both within and beyond the legal guarantee. It
aims to provide consumers savings and support the objectives of the European Green Deal by reducing waste.
The proposal will make it easier and more cost-effective for consumers to repair as opposed to replace goods.
Additionally, it aims to promote the repair sector, incentivising sustainable business models.
4.2 Legislation and initiatives in EU Member States and non-EU countries
The publication of Directive (EU) 2018/851 (
64
) (the 2018 revision of the WFD) promoted the establishment of
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
schemes for textile products in several Member States. For textile,
France
(
65
),
the Netherlands
(
66
)
and Hungary (Decree 80/2023) were pioneers in establishing systems where
economic operators placing textile products on the market contribute to the collection, sorting, reuse, preparing
for reuse and recycling infrastructure for the same products.
Other Member States establishing EPR schemes are Greece (Law 4819/2021), and Spain (Law 7/2022), while
Italy
(
67
)
is not far behind.
Within the national Climate Law, France is establishing the
Eco-Score
(
68
), which is an online tool that provides
the consumer with an idea about the environmental impacts of apparel, with specific characteristics (e.g. weight,
fibre composition) selected directly by the consumer from a defined list. In the future, it is planned that economic
operators will be able to report the environmental performance of their products via the Eco-Score, so that the
Eco-Score will work as an environmental labelling tool. Additionally, it is planned to connect the Eco-Score with
the EPR scheme to deploy eco-modulation.
The Dutch Government established the
Denim Deal
(
69
), which aims to bolster the use of post-consumer
recycled cotton in denim products marketed in the Netherlands. In particular, the signatories of the initiative
aim to use 20% post-consumer recycled cotton fibres in 3 million pairs of jeans produced until the end of 2023.
The Luxembourg Ministry of the Economy developed the
Product Circularity Data Sheet (PCDS)
(
70
), which
aims to provide basic product information about the several steps of the supply chain. Information is gathered
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Green Claim Directive. Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on substantiation and communication
of explicit environmental claims (Green Claims Directive). COM/2023/166 final. Available at
this link.
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on common rules promoting the repair of goods and amending
Regulation (EU) 2017/2394, Directives (EU) 2019/771 and (EU) 2020/1828. COM/2023/155 final. Available at
this link.
Directive (EU) 2018/851 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 May 2018 amending Directive 2008/98/EC on waste
(Text with EEA relevance). Available at
this link.
French Anti-Waste law for a circular economy. AGEC- Law nº2020-105, 10 February 2020. Available at
this link.
Code de
l'environnement
L.541-10-27.
Code de l'environnement
R.543-214 to R.541-219.
Last accessed on 17 December 2023.
Dutch Decree on extended producer responsibility for textiles. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 17 December 2023.
Announcement of the Italian EPR scheme. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 17 December 2023.
Eco-Score. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 17 December 2023.
The Demin Deal. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 17 December 2023.
Product Circularity Datasheet. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 17 December 2023.
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920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
in five areas: general information, composition, design for better use, design for disassembly, and design for
reuse.
In February 2023, the State of
California
(USA) introduced the
Responsible Textile Recovery Act
(
71
)
with
Senate Bill 707 (SB-707), which aims to establish an Extended Producer Responsibility scheme for textile
products. The bill is currently under scrutiny before its implementation. The bill introduces the concept of a
programme operator to oversee the implementation of a stewardship programme. Additionally, the bill would
also establish a Textile Stewardship Recovery fund which would receive fees paid by programme operators. This
fund will cover the costs associated with programme implementation and enforcement.
4.3 Strategies of the United Nations
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) offers strategic guidance and promotes collaboration
across sectors to foster a fair shift towards a sustainable and circular textile value chain. To this end, UNEP
promotes numerous activities and publishes studies on its website
(
72
).
In particular, UNEP proposes a roadmap with collective actions focusing on nine points (UNEP, 2023a):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Adopt globally sustainable and circular business models.
Contrast overconsumption and overproduction.
Design sustainable and circular textile products.
Improve product care and durability.
Reduce the emissions into the environment during the production stages.
Address social issues along the value chain.
Use of sustainable or recycled materials.
Improve the shared infrastructure of the value chain.
Develop a suitable textile waste management system that avoids landfilling and incineration of textile
products.
UNEP promotes the engagement of all stakeholders in the value chain to focus on the nine points of the
roadmap (UNEP, 2023a).
4.4 Tests and standards
Textile standards in Europe are coordinated by CEN-CENELEC
(
73
).
Several working groups are related to the
textile industry, mainly CEN/TC248 TEXTILES AND TEXTILE PRODUCTS.
Table 66
in Section 10.3 reports details
of technical working groups and scientific committees. On the other hand, ISO/TC 38 TEXTILES encompasses
several working groups that deal with international standards for textile properties, testing methods, and quality
control.
Table 67
in Section 10.3 includes the technical working groups in ISO/TC 38 that focus on aspects of
the textile industry.
The knowledge of the available standards in the textile sector is crucial in the development of the PS, because
it provides an overview of the technical aspects/parameters of a textile product that can currently be measured
via a commonly recognised test/method/tool. Specific standards could potentially be used to propose and/or
verify ecodesign requirements, when the PS addresses tasks 6 and 7 of the MEErP.
Numerous standards used in the textile industry were classified and some of them were related to the product
aspects reported in Article 5 of the ESPR (see Section 10.3):
•
Standards directly related to the intrinsic durability of the textile product, which could address
abrasion, pilling, colourfastness, dimensional stability, seam slippage, tear strength, etc.
(Table
68).
Specific textile frameworks already use some of these standards to address
71
72
73
SB-707 Responsible Textile Recovery Act of 2023. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 17 December 2023.
United Nations environment programme. Building Sustainability and Circularity in the Textile Value Chain. Available at
this link.
Last
accessed on 17 December 2023.
CenCenelec website. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 17 December.
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961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
•
durability aspects of textile products.
Table 69
compares how durability parameters for
textile products are tested by PEFCR A&F, EU Ecolabel criteria, Blue Angel criteria, and Nordic
Swan Ecolabel criteria (see Section 4.5 for information about ecolabels and other
environmental labels).
Standards related to the functionality of the textile products, such as antifungal activity,
antiviral activity, oil stain repellency, resistance to chlorinated water, resistance to insects,
resistance to surface wetting, stain repellency, water repellency, water resistance after aging,
wicking (Table
70).
Standards used for textile characterisation, such as identification of dyestuff and fibres,
thickness, mass per unit area and composition (Table
71),
which could be a reference for
characterising and referring to specific textile products.
Standards for the identification of specific substances, such as alkylphenol ethoxylates
(APEO), formaldehyde, and other chemicals (Table
72),
which are of environmental concern
as reported in Section 3.1.3.
Standards related to the loss of fragmented fibres (Table
73),
which are of environmental
concern as reported in Section 3.1.3.
Standards potentially related to circularity and environmental aspects. Almost all of these
standards are still under development (Table
74).
Standards related to potential information on the care of textile products, because they
describe and report labelling symbols (Table
75).
Apparel properly maintained is more likely
to have a longer lifespan (see Section 6).
•
•
•
•
•
Some of the standards available for the textile industry measure a specific parameter using different methods
(e.g. Determination of the abrasion resistance on coated fabrics. Part 1 using taber abrader and Part 2 using
martindale abrader). The selection of the method depends mainly on the laboratory equipment used for testing.
Only one standard was found addressing non-woven technology to measure the tensile strength and elongation;
all the other standards focused on woven and knitted technologies.
The analysis did not reveal any standard capable of recognising whether a fibre is of virgin or recycled origin,
or of identifying the type of fibres being mechanically recycled. Specific methods to verify this type of
information will be investigated in the following milestone, when the PS addresses task 6.
In addition to the investigated standards, the textile industry widely deploys a multitude of other standards that
are tailored to specific industrial sectors or regional contexts. Notably, several standards are of relevance,
including those promulgated by organisations such as the AATCC (American Association of Textile Chemists and
Colorists), ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), British Standards Institution, JIS (Japanese
Industrial Standards), and the GB standards (National Standards of the People's Republic of China), and many
more. By adhering to such comprehensive and recognised frameworks, the textile industry can foster
consistency, reliability, and quality assurance throughout its global operations.
4.5 Voluntary environmental labels
In general, there are many types of labels, addressing single or multiple environmental issues and covering
different sectors and regions. See Section 10.4.1 for more information. Three ISO standards classify voluntary
environmental labels as follows:
—
ISO Type I environmental labels
(ISO 14024:2018)
(
74
),
known as
Ecolabels,
are defined as
‘voluntary, multi-criteria-based
and third party-verified labels that indicate an overall
environmental preference in a life cycle perspective of a product or service within a specific product
category’.
74
ISO 14024:2018. Environmental labels and declarations. Type I environmental labelling. Principles and procedures. Available at
this
link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
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1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
—
ISO Type II environmental labels
(ISO 14021:2016) (
75
), known as
Self-declared
Environmental Claims,
are neither third-party verified nor based on a Life Cycle Thinking
approach. Many self-declared environmental claims on the EU market do not necessarily follow
ISO 14021:2016.
—
ISO Type III environmental labels
(ISO 14025:2016) (
76
), known as
Environmental
Declarations,
are labels presenting
‘quantified
environmental information on the life cycle of a
product to enable comparisons between products fulfilling the same function’.
The establishment
of Product Category Rules ensures that the life-cycle assessment is performed with specific rules
aiming to foster transparency and facilitate comparisons between different Environmental
Declarations.
Global environmental labels used in the textile industry were recently analysed (Ranasinghe and Jayasooriya,
2021) via an investigation including bibliographic research, the Ecolabel Index
(
77
),
and the Global Ecolabelling
Network (
78
). Ranasinghe and Jayasooriya (2021) report that on 20 March 2021 there were 107 environmental
labels for textiles in the world: 55 used in Europe, 54 used in the USA, 41 used in Asia, 18 used in Latin America,
19 used in Oceania, and 12 used in Africa. When looking for the same information on 7 February 2024, the ITC
Standard Map (
79
) provided 73 environmental labels for textiles used globally: 58 used in Europe, 50 used in
USA, 54 used in Asia, 42 used in Latin America, 48 used in Oceania, and 45 used in Africa.
Table 10
reports the topics that were addressed the most by environmental labels for textiles globally in 2021.
The majority of the concerns focused on the use of harmful chemicals and toxic substances, as well as natural
resources. Additionally, specific global regions used environmental labels addressing specific topics: such as
Europe with ‘Pesticides/herbicides/fungicides’, and Latin America with ‘Carbon/GHG offsets’.
Table 10.
Top topics addressed by environmental labels for textiles globally in 2021
Topic
Toxics
Harmful chemicals
Natural resources
Pesticides/herbicides/fungicides
Material use
Waste
Energy use/efficiency
Carbon/GHG offsets
Europe
X
X
X
X
X
USA
X
X
X
X
X
Asia
X
X
X
X
X
Latin America
X
X
Oceania
X
X
X
Africa
X
X
X
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
N.B.
The topic ‘Toxics’ addresses harmful substances that are already prohibited or regulated; whereas the topic ‘Harmful
chemicals’
addresses substances that are known to be harmful to health, but are not officially banned. The authors of the referenced study use
the term ‘Chemicals’ when referring
to
‘Harmful chemicals’.
The authors of the referenced study do not specify if the topic ‘Waste’ addresses any kind of waste generated along the value
chain, or
waste generated at a specific stage. No further explanation/specification is provided for other topics.
Source: Ranasinghe and Jayasooriya (2021)
Figure 2
shows the topics addressed by environmental labels used for textiles in 2021 in Europe and their
number. These environmental labels addressed most of the environmental impacts described in Section 3.3.2.
The analysis showed that the textile industry largely relies on environmental labels, but most of the time actors
do not state which ISO type standard they follow
–
if they follow any. This situation causes confusion for the
consumers, who cannot identify governance, reliability, environmental scope and level of environmental
ambition of all environmental labels. To fill this gap, some voluntary initiatives try to score, compare and
describe some environmental labels (
80
). The lack of transparency of the numerous environmental labels could
be further analysed in the 3
rd
milestone, when the PS addresses the content of the Digital Product Passport.
75
76
77
78
79
80
ISO 14021:2016. Environmental labels and declarations. Self-declared environmental claims (Type II environmental labelling).
Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
ISO 14025:2006. Environmental labels and declarations. Type III environmental declarations. Principles and procedures. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
Ecolabel Index. Website available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
Global Ecolabelling Network. Website available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
ITC Standards Map App, selecting sectors of clothing and textiles. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 7 February 2024.
ITC Standards Map App. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 7 February 2024.
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1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046
Section 7 assesses in detail the EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products in light of their revision process, as
described in Section 1. As established by Article 6(3.f) of the EU Ecolabel Regulation, the analysis performed
considers other ecolabels used in the EU (Blue Angel
(
81
)
and Nordic Swan Ecolabel
(
82
)) to enhance synergies.
Further information about voluntary environmental labels used in Europe is reported in
Table 76
in Section
10.4.2.
Figure 2.
Main topics addressed by environmental labels used in 2021 in Europe
Toxics
Natural resources
Chemicals
Pesticides/herbicides/fungicides
Material use
Waste
Energy use/efficiency
Recycling
Water quality
Carbon/GHG emissions
Water sue
Wastewater/sewage
Forests
Soil
Energy production/sources
GMOs
Bioidiversity
Animal welfare
Carbon/GHG offsets
Other
0
5
36
35
35
29
27
25
25
24
24
23
23
23
22
22
21
18
18
13
12
Topic
9
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Nº of environmental labels
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
N.B.
The topic ‘Toxics’ addresses harmful substances that are already prohibited or regulated, whereas the topic ‘Chemicals’ addresses
substances that are known to be harmful to health, but are not officially banned. The authors of the referenced study do not specify
if the topic ‘Waste’ addresses any kind of waste generated along the value chain, or waste generated at a specific stage.
No further
explanation/specification is provided for other topics.
Source: (Ranasinghe and Jayasooriya, 2021)
81
82
Label Directory
–
Siegelklarheit. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 7 February 2024.
Labels Environnementaux. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 7 February 2024.
Blue Angel
–
The German Ecolabel. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 7 February 2024.
Nordic Swan Ecolabel. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 7 February 2024.
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1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
5
Market analysis
This section analyses the market of the products included in the scope of the PS, addressing many aspects. The
information collected at this stage will feed into the following tasks of the MEErP, in particular task 4 (Section
9) to task 7.
The first subsections analyse the market at different scales: global, EU and Member State (Sections 5.1, 5.2
and 5.3). Section 5.4 presents available market information of elements affecting the production and recycling
of textile apparel. The market structure and the value chain are analysed in Section 5.5 and Section 5.6,
respectively. Section 5.7 analyses the competitiveness at global level, focusing on different environmental
compliance costs that companies placed in different countries must face. Section 5.8 analyses the lifespan of
the products included in the scope. This information is particularly crucial to build a suitable model for the
environmental and economic assessment, as well as the stock analysis (tasks 5 to 7 of the MEErP). The section
concludes with a brief comment about the penetration in the market of the environmental labels used in the
textile sector (Section 5.9).
5.1 The global market
Historical overview
In 1947, the Grant Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed by 23 countries to promote free
movement of goods among signing countries. The GATT set the bases for the future institution of the World
Trade Organization (WTO) in 1994 (
83
).
From 1974 to 1994, under a special regime outside the GATT framework, the Multifibre Arrangement (MFA) set
rules for international trade of textile products. The MFA was a framework for bilateral agreements or unilateral
actions that established quotas
(
84
)
limiting imports into countries whose domestic industries could be damaged
by a quick rise of imports
(
85
).
The MFA applied only to trade between developed and developing countries, but
not to trade among developed countries. Although the MFA did not comply with the principle of non-
discrimination established in the GATT, developed countries used it to protect their textile industry (Stephen
MacDonald, 2006).
In 1995, within the establishment of the WTO and the revised GATT, the MFA was substituted by the Agreement
on Textiles and Clothing (ATC), which represented the 10-year-long transition towards an international textile
market without quotas
(
86
).
The ATC applied to all the WTO members (
87
). Between 1995 and the end of 2004,
quotas were gradually removed
(
88
).
Since 1 January 2005, the trade of textile products among WTO members has been free of quotas.
In June 2005, the European Commission signed a Memorandum of Understanding with China to keep the
imports of specific textile products
(
89
)
below some thresholds until the end of 2007. This action was intended
to prevent distortion of the European textile sector
(
90
).
Since 2005, the European textile market has been completely open to imports of any product coming from any
country belonging to the WTO.
In 2005, the removal of quotas from the global textile market caused an increase in production and employment
in Asian countries, such as China, India, Türkiye, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, and Indonesia (Hildegunn Kyvik Nordås,
2004). Already in the 1970s, textile production had started moving from Europe and North America mainly to
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT 1947)
–
the legal text available on
this World Trade Organization webpage,
last
accessed on 29 September 2023.
A quota is a government-imposed trade restriction that limits the number or monetary value of goods that a country can import or
export during a particular period (Adam Barone, 2022)
Textiles: back in the mainstream
–
World Trade Organization webpage,
last visited on 29 September 2023.
Textiles Monitoring Body (TMB) The Agreement on Textiles and Clothing
–
World Trade Organization website,
last accessed on 29
September 2023. Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization
–
World Trade Organization website,
last accessed
on 29 September 2023.
The
list
of
WTO
members
and
dates
of
membership
are
available
here:
https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/sli_e/4wtomembers.pdf
Textiles: back in the mainstream
–
World Trade organization webpage,
last visited on 29 September 2023.
Ten types of products were included in the Memorandum of Understanding between EU and China: pullovers, men's trousers, blouses,
t-shirts, dresses, bras, flax yarn, cotton fabrics, bed linen, table and kitchen linen.
EU
–
China textile agreement 10 June 2005. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 29 September 2023.
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1091
1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
Asia and other developing regions of the world
(
91
).
In 1996, Asia was the predominant global exporter of apparel
products, contributing to more than 32% of the world's apparel exports (ILO News, 1996). However, the general
lack of transparency of the textile supply chain until the 2010s does not allow a description over time of EU
textile outsourcing
(
92
).
In September 2008, the financial crisis that originated in the USA rapidly affected major economies due to their
interconnections. The EU experienced the Great Recession between 2008 and 2009. Following a brief period of
recovery, many Member States subsequently became vulnerable to the sovereign debt crisis (Szczepanski,
2019). This global crisis significantly impacted the European textile industry which had already been hit by
offshoring and the increased competitiveness of the Chinese industry after 2005 (Maya Forstater, 2010).
In 2020, the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic led to international economic and social disruptions, including
the most significant global recession since the time of the Great Depression in the 1930s (Gita Gopinath, 2020).
The main effects of the pandemic on the European textile industry were: (a) a decrease in production, (b) the
conversion of traditional production, for some companies, into the manufacture of sanitary products or face
masks, and (c) an extraordinary growth in sales via online channels (Vet et al., 2021).
In 2022, two main factors negatively affected the competitiveness of the European textile industry. First, the
increase of the energy price in Europe which was over six times that in the USA, China, and other Asian countries.
In this context, numerous textiles and apparel companies either operated with a net loss or ceased their
production activities (EURATEX, 2022b). Second, countries strongly supported their domestic textile industries,
despite being minimally affected by the energy crisis (EURATEX, 2022b).
Table 11
sums up the historical events and international agreements affecting the European apparel sector.
Table 11.
Main historical events and international agreements affecting the European apparel sector
Year
1974 to 1994
1995 to 2004
2005 onwards
2005 to 2007
2008
2020
2022
Event
The Multifibre Arrangement (MFA), with the establishment of import quotas, protected the
domestic market of developed countries from products produced in developing countries.
The Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) established a progressive removal of import quotas
set with the MFA.
Among members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), any trade of textile products were free
of barriers
–
all import quotas were removed.
The Memorandum of Understanding between the EU and China allowed the monitoring of specific
types of textile products imported from China. It aimed to prevent market distortions in the
European textile sector.
The Great Recession impacted the European textile sector.
The COVID-19 pandemic led to global recession.
The price of energy strongly increased in EU.
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
Source: own elaboration based on World Trade Organization website
Global figures
Globally, the apparel sector includes two thirds of the textile industry (EURATEX, 2020; EURATEX, 2022a). It is
part of one of the largest industries in the world, if teamed up with the footwear sector in the fashion industry
(McKinsey & Company and BOF, 2016).
Table 12
reports the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the size of
the fashion market from 2019 to 2021. The fashion market shrank about 4% and 21% at global and European
scale, respectively.
Table 13
lists the largest global exporters and importers of apparel in 2019 in terms of
value as reported by the World Trade Organization. A more detailed description of producing countries at specific
phases of the apparel value chain is provided by a study published by the United Nations Environmental
Programme (Figure
3
and
Figure 4)
(
93
).
—
The apparel export market is dominated by China and the EU, followed by Bangladesh, Vietnam,
India and Türkiye.
91
92
93
Globalization Changes the Face of Textile, Clothing and Footwear Industries. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 29 September
2023.
Follow the Thread - The Need for Supply Chain Transparency in the Garment and Footwear Industry. Available at
this link.
Last accessed
on 29 September 2023.
It is not clear to the authors which parameter, e.g. value, mass or any other, was used to develop the percentages reported in
Figure
4,
which is Figure 5 on page 16 of UNEP, (2020).
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1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
—
The apparel import market is dominated by the EU and the USA, followed by Japan, the UK, Hong
Kong, Canada and the Republic of Korea.
—
The role of China is prominent in all production phases of the value chain.
—
The role of the EU is prominent both in terms of exports and imports.
Table 12.
Market data of the apparel and apparel & footwear industries at global and European scale
Industry
Apparel and footwear
Apparel
Market
Global
European
Economic parameter
Retail Sale Price
Turnover
Year
2019
2021
2019
2021
Reported value
USD 1 773 bn
USD 1 717 bn
EUR 72.8 bn
EUR 65.3 bn
Value
(bn EUR)
(
a
)
1 644.3
1 592.3
72.8 bn
65.3 bn
Source
(b)
(c)
(d)
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
N.B. The retail sale price is the price declared by the producer or importer of the goods after deducting any tax included in that price.
The turnover refers to the totals invoiced by the unit, and it corresponds to market sales of goods.
(a)
1 USD = 0.92739 EUR Feb 08, 2024 10:12 UTC.
Source: (b) Fashion United, based on Euromonitor (
94
), (c)
EURATEX (2020)
, (d)
EURATEX (2022)
Table 13.
Top global exporters and importers of apparel in 2019
Exports
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
(a)
Imports
Value
(bn EUR)
141.0
39.9
31.5
28.7
15.8
14.8
11.1
8.3
8.3
8.3
Share in world
exports (%)
30.8
8.8
6.8
6.2
3.5
3.2
NA
1.8
1.7
1.7
Country
EU
USA
Japan
United Kingdom
Hong Kong, China
Canada
(c)
Republic of Korea
China
(a)
Russian
Federation
(c)
Switzerland
Value
(bn EUR)
88.1
88.1
27.8
24.1
10.2
10.2
10.2
8.3
7.4
7.4
Share in world
imports (%)
18.1
18.2
5.7
5.0
NA
2.1
2.1
1.7
1.5
1.5
Country
China
(a)
EU
Bangladesh
(b)
Vietnam
(b)
India
Türkiye
Hong Kong,
China
United Kingdom
Indonesia
Cambodia
(b)
1134
1135
1136
Includes significant shipments through processing zones.
(b)
Estimates of WTO.
(c)
Imports are valued free on board.
1 USD = 0.92739 EUR Feb 08, 2024 10:12 UTC.
Source: (WTO, 2020)
94
Information collected from the website Fashion United, Global Fashion Industry Statistics, available
here,
Euromonitor International,
a market research provider, last accessed on 24 October 2023.
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1137
Figure 3.
Geographical breakdown of global apparel production and consumption
–
representation A
1138
1139
1140
1141
N.B. The European Union is different to Europe.
Source: (UNEP, 2020)
Figure 4.
Geographical breakdown of global apparel production and consumption
–
representation B
1142
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
N.B. The EU figures include the United Kingdom. The EU is different to Europe.
Source: (UNEP, 2020)
A global mapping of the textile waste management is currently not available. However, the United Nations and
the European Environment Agency investigated the fate of used textile products (Lingås et al., 2023; UNECE
and ECLAC, 2024).
Figure 5
and
Figure 6
show the most exporting and importing countries in the world of
second-hand apparel in terms of mass. The European Union is the largest exporter, while Pakistan is the largest
importer.
Figure 6
shows that the European Union is the second largest importer, most probably because there
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1150
1151
1152
are five countries
(
95
)
in EU that export to countries outside EU what is collected locally and what it is imported
by other EU countries (Lingås et al., 2023).
Figure 5.
Top ten exporting countries of second-hand apparel by mass (million tonnes)
1153
1154
Source: (UNECE and ECLAC, 2024) based on UN Comtrade - HS Code 6309: Worn Clothing and Other Worn Textile Articles
95
Overall Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Poland, are the hubs responsible for most of the exports (Lingås et al., 2023)
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1155
Figure 6.
Top ten importing countries of second-hand apparel by mass (million tonnes)
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
1161
Source: (UNECE and ECLAC, 2024) based on UN Comtrade - HS Code 6309: Worn Clothing and Other Worn Textile Articles
Over the last 20 years, the EU exported an increasing amount of used textile waste:
The export of used textiles from the EU has steadily risen over the last 20 years, from a little more than 384 000
tonnes in 2000, to almost 1.7 million tonnes in 2019 (Figure
7).
The value of these exports has, however
steadily decreased, from EUR 0.76 in 2000, to EUR 0.57 per kilogram in 2019.
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1162
Figure 7.
EU-27 exports of used textiles
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
EU global partners
UAE is an acronym for United Arab Emirates
Source: (Lingås et al., 2023) based on UN Comtrade
Only a few key partners dominate the EU's trade interactions. In 2021, the top 10 EU suppliers of textiles and
apparel made up 84% of all EU imports from non-EU countries. In the same year, the top 10 export partners of
the EU purchased 68% of all exports to third countries. (EURATEX, 2022a)
(
96
):
Figure 8
and
Figure 9
show the
main EU suppliers and customers of textiles and apparel in 2021.
The pivotal role of the
EU goes beyond economics due to Europe’s consolidated history and reputation in fashion
and design.
96
EURATEX (2022) reports data as textile and clothing, which includes the following types of textile products: clothing and accessories,
industrial and technical textiles, fabrics, home textiles, knitwear, man-made fibres, yarns, underwear, and workwear.
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1174
Tunisia
Cambodia
Morocco
United Kingdom
Vietnam
Pakistan
India
Türkiye
Bangladesh
Figure 8.
The EU’s main
suppliers of textiles and apparel in 2021
China
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
m EUR
1175
1176
1177
Source: EURATEX (2022a)
Figure 9.
The EU’s main
customers of textiles and apparel in 2021
Japan
Morocco
Honk Kong, China
Norway
Türkiye
Russia
China
United States of America
United Kingdom
Swizerland
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
m EUR
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
Innovation
The European textile industry is an innovation leader worldwide. In 2019, more than 200 000 industrial designs
were released by the EU-27, compared to about 50 000 and 20 000 from USA and China, respectively.
Additionally, from 2015 to 2019, about 6 600 patents were filed by the EU-27, compared to about 6 000,
5 800, and 3 900, by the Republic of Korea, the USA and China, respectively (EURATEX, 2022a).
Source: EURATEX (2022a)
5.2 The EU market
The PRODCOM dataset (
28
) collects information about the textile apparel market. This section reports an analysis
focusing on the evolution of market indicators of the EU-27 from 1995 to 2022. Details about data used are
available in Section 10.1. In particular,
Table 59
describes the codes used for the analysis and their allocation
to the specific product categories. Additionally,
Table 60
describes how codes merged or were introduced over
the years and specifies potential missing data.
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1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
The available data allow an analysis of big trends over time, rather than interpretation of small changes, or
differences, in a specific year.
The textile apparel market in the EU-27 was affected by all the historical events reported in Section 5.1.
Figure
10
shows its evolution via four market indicators: production, import, export, and apparent consumption
(
29
).
These indicators were analysed from the perspective of the mass, the value and the value-to-mass ratio of the
textile apparel. The analysis led to the following observations.
Apparent consumption
—
Apparent consumption followed the evolution of imports in all analysed perspectives: mass, value
and value-to-mass ratio. This means that the market is largely affected by imported products.
—
From 2004 to 2005, the apparent consumption increased by 90% if expressed as mass, and 50%
if expressed as value. This corresponds to the year when import quotas were removed (Table
11).
Production
—
From 2003 to 2009, production decreased by about 53% if expressed as mass and about 35% as
value, most probably due to the expected import quota removal in 2005 and the subsequent
increase in imports. Sector experts revealed that in those years many EU-27 producers relocated
their production to third countries.
—
From 2009 to 2019, production evolved relatively constantly, fluctuating between 0.7-0.9 billion
kg, and EUR 23.9-27.9 billion.
Export
—
With the exception of a disruption around 2003-2004, export followed a relatively constant trend
in terms of mass, and a slightly increasing trend in terms of value.
—
Between 2009 and 2019, while production evolved relatively constantly in terms of mass and
value, exports increased by 63% and 110%, in terms of mass and value, respectively. These very
different increase rates led export to overtake production in terms of value from 2015 to 2022.
These figures are possible because, as reported in Section 10.1.2, PRODCOM accounts for every
time a product passes through EU customs. This means that a product could be imported and
subsequently exported without undergoing any mass modification, but with an increased value.
Most probably, after 2015, export has higher values than production because many EU companies
import products that afterwards are exported with a higher value.
Import
—
The removal of the import quota established the largest change in the EU market of textile apparel.
Table 14
reports the change that occurred in the apparent consumption when comparing two time
intervals: 1995-2004 and 2005-2019, before and after the EU removed the import quota. The
apparent consumption of textile apparel in general increased by 86% in mass and 27% in value.
This increase was mainly driven by product categories like t-shirts (236% in mass and 133% in
value), pants and shorts (194% in mass and 58% in value), jackets and coats (129% in mass and
14% in value), and shirts and blouses (110% in mass and 38% in value) (Table
14).
For the
majority of the product categories, the increase in mass is very much larger than the increase in
value. This could flag the purchase every year of more products at lower prices. More details are
reported in
Table 61
in Section 10.1.5.
Additional observations
—
From 1996 to 2022, the value-to-mass ratio of export, production and import always had the
highest, middle and lowest value each year, respectively. Before 2000, the gap among these
market indicators was limited, but after 2002 the gap progressively increased.
—
In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic strongly impacted the market: production, import and export
decreased by 27%, 20% and 16%, respectively.
The same market indicators were normalised by number of EU-27 citizens over the years to investigate the
possible impact of the change in the EU population. Nevertheless, the analysis provided the same trends over
the years (Figure
29).
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1240
1241
1242
All textile apparel categories were further investigated. The results of this analysis are reported in Section
10.1.5.
Figure 10.
Market indicators for textile apparel in the EU-27
1243
1244
1245
1246
(A) Total mass; (B) Total value; (C) Value-to-mass ratio
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
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1247
Table 14.
Change of apparent consumption between the time intervals 1995-2004 and 2005-2019
Product category or subgroup
1.T-shirts
2. Shirts and blouses
3. Sweaters and mid-layers
4. Jackets and coats
5. Pants and shorts
6. Dresses, Skirts and jumpsuits
7. Leggings, Stockings, Tights and socks
8. Underwear
9. Swimwear
10. Accessories
Textile apparel
Change in mass
(%)
236
110
86
129
194
33
-33
15
100
11
86
Change in value
(%)
133
38
12
14
58
20
-13
-13
13
20
27
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1254
1255
1256
1257
1258
N.B. The change is calculated by comparing the average mass and the average value in the two time intervals.
More details are reported in
Table 61
in Section 10.1.5.
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
5.3 Role of the EU Member States
The PRODCOM database was investigated to understand which Member States play a more relevant role in the
textile apparel market.
Figure 11
and
Figure 12
show the largest producers and exporters, respectively. The
analysis focuses on 2019, because this is the last year without market disruptions. Italy accounted for half of
the EU-27 production, followed by Spain, Portugal and Romania, which covered 11%, 9%, and 7% of the total,
respectively. The most relevant exporters in 2019 were Italy, Germany, Spain and the Netherlands, with 19%,
18%, 12%, and 10% of the total, respectively.
Figure 11.
Member States producing textile apparel in 2019
Bulgaria Denmark
1%
Poland
2%
4%
Others
7%
Germany
4%
Romania
7%
Portugal
9%
France
4%
Italy
51%
Spain
11%
1259
1260
1261
Composition based on value
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
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1262
Figure 12.
Member States exporting textile apparel in 2019
Italy
19%
Portugal
3%
Denmark
3%
Poland
5%
Belgium
7%
Others
14%
Germany
18%
France
9%
Netherlands
10%
Spain
12%
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
1287
1288
Composition based on value
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
The relevance of these countries is confirmed over the years. A recent study published by the EC recognises
Italy, Germany, France and Spain as the most prominent Member States in the textile ecosystem (DG GROW,
2021a). These countries have the largest number of companies and generate the highest value in terms of
production and turnover. Additionally, most of the EU companies operating in the textile ecosystem have their
headquarters in Italy, Germany, France and Spain. central and eastern European Member States focus on more
labour-intensive activities and generate a smaller share of turnover. Nonetheless, the main EU companies often
locate certain production facilities in central and eastern Europe.
The European Apparel and Textile Confederation (EURATEX) confirmed in their last report on key facts and
figures that Italy is recognised as the largest contributor to the textile and clothing industry in the EU. Other
important countries are Germany, France, Spain, the Netherlands and Portugal. These are also the countries
that invest the most in innovation (EURATEX, 2022a).
5.4 Main elements affecting the production of textile apparel
Section 3.3 describes the life-cycle stages of textile apparel, reporting all the main elements that are crucial for
production. This section analyses the market characteristics of these elements, which are fibres, chemicals,
energy and water.
5.4.1
Fibres
In recent years, the estimates of textile fibre production followed an increasing trend going from 104-
111 million tonnes in 2019 to 116-124 million tonnes in 2022 (Textile Exchange, 2020; Textile Exchange, 2023).
About 54% of these fibres are polyester, about 23% cotton, about 6% man-made cellulosic fibres and 5%
polyamide. In 2021 and 2022, the production of viscose was equal to 5.8 million tonnes.
Table 15
reports the
estimates of textile fibre production for 3 recent years, showing that about 70% are chemical fibres, while
about 30% have a natural origin.
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1289
Table 15.
Estimates of global production of textile fibres and group of fibres
2019
(a)
Rank
Fibre
Polyester
Cotton
MMCFs
Other plant
based
Polyamide
Wool-sheep
Down
Other animal-
based
Silk
Acetate
Acrylics
Cupro
Elastane
Flax
Hemp
Lyocell
Modal
Polypropylene
Viscose
Mass
(m
tonnes)
57.70
25.70
7.10
6.50
5.60
1.00
0.27
0.05
0.16
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Share
of the
total
(%)
52
23
6
6
5
<1
<1
<1
<1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2021
(b)
Fibre
Polyester
Cotton
MMCFs
Other plant
based
Polyamide
Viscose
Polypropylene
Acrylics
Elastane
Wool-sheep
Acetate
Down
Lyocell
Modal
Silk
Other animal
based
Cupro
Flax
Hemp
Mass
(m
tonnes)
60.50
24.40
7.20
6.70
5.90
5.80
3.00
1.7
1.20
1.00
0.90
0.57
0.30
0.20
0.17
0.05
0.02
NA
NA
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
NA
NA
Share
of the
total
(%)
51
20
6
6
5
5
2022
(c)
Fibre
Polyester
Cotton
MMCFs
Polyamide
Other plant
based
Viscose
Polypropylene
Acrylics
Elastane
Wool-sheep
Acetate
Down
Flax
Hemp
Lyocell
Modal
Silk
Other animal
based
Cupro
Mass
(m
tonnes)
63.30
25.50
7.30
6.20
6.03
5.80
3.10
1.60
1.20
1.10
0.90
0.61
0.38
0.30
0.30
0.20
0.09
0.05
0.01
Share
of the
total
(%)
56
23
6
5
5
5
3
1
1
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
N.B. Estimates of total production were between: 104 m and 111 m tonnes in 2019; 113 m and 115 m tonnes in 2021; 116 m and 124 m
tonnes in 2022.
MMCF: man-made cellulosic fibres; NA: Not available.
Source: adapted from
(a)
Textile Exchange (2020),
(b)
Textile Exchange (2022),
(c)
Textile Exchange (2023)
Figure 13.
Global fibre production: historical data and future projections (millions of tonnes)
1295
1296
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
Source: Textile Exchange (2022)
Figure 13
shows the evolution of the production of specific fibres from 1975 to 2020, and it foresees quantities
for 2025 and 2030. In the first 25 years (from 1975 to 2000), the total production increased by 49% (from
39 million to 58 million tonnes), whereas in the second 20 years (from 2000 to 2020), the total production
increased by 88% (from 58 million to 109 million tonnes). Future projections foresee a further increase up to
149 million tonnes in 2030. The evolution of fibre production is mainly driven by the increase in production of
polyester.
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1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
Most of the fibres produced globally are of unknown origin, due to the difficulties of tracing information (see
Section 5.6). Nevertheless, the available information shows the global dimension of fibre production, with China
and India producing most of the fibres, and many more countries from all continents producing specific fibres
(from
Table 16
to
Table 20).
Table 16.
Location of production for specific textile fibres
Polyester (PES)
Unknown 70%
China 13%
Others 10%
Türkiye 7%
MMCF
Unknown 58%
China 18%
Others 16%
India 5%
Indonesia 3%
Polyamide (PA)
Unknown 81%
China 15%
Taiwan 3%
USA 1%
Wool
Unknown 55%
Australia 17%
South Africa 15%
New Zealand 10%
Others 3%
Other animal fibres
China 88%
Unknown 9%
Hungary 2%
Poland 1%
1308
1309
1310
N.B. MMCF: man-made cellulosic fibres.
Source: adapted from (Textile Exchange, 2022a)
Table 17.
Production of cotton lint in the season 2021-22
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Country
India
China
USA
Brazil
Pakistan
Uzbekistan
Türkiye
Mass
(1 000 tonnes)
5 900
5 730
3 963
2 678
981
940
833
Share of the total
(%)
22.6
21.9
15.2
10.2
3.8
3.6
3.2
1311
1312
1313
World production was estimated equal to 26 134 000 tonnes
Source: International Cotton Advisory Committee website, available at
this link.
Last visited on 13 December 2024
Table 18.
Import of cotton lint in the season 2021-22
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Country
China
Bangladesh
Vietnam
Pakistan
Türkiye
Indonesia
Mexico
Mass
(1 000 tonnes)
2 520
1 688
1 576
1 200
1 170
539
178
Share of the total
(%)
24.8
16.6
15.5
11.8
11.5
5.3
1.8
1314
1315
1316
World import was estimated equal to 10 153 000 tonnes.
Source: International Cotton Advisory Committee website, available at
this link.
Last visited on 13 December 2024
Table 19.
Export of cotton lint in the season 2021-22
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Country
USA
Brazil
India
Australia
Benin
Greece
Mali
Mass
(1 000 tonnes)
3 375
2 064
816
749
321
299
283
Share of the total
(%)
33.2
20.3
8.0
7.4
3.2
2.9
2.8
1317
1318
1319
World export was estimated equal to 10 153 000 tonnes.
Source: International Cotton Advisory Committee website, available at
this link.
Last visited on 13 December 2024
Table 20.
Consumption of cotton lint in the season 2021-22
Rank
1
2
Country
China
India
Mass
(1 000 tonnes)
8 200
5 698
Share of the total
(%)
31.4
21.8
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Rank
3
4
5
6
7
Country
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Türkiye
Vietnam
Uzbekistan
1320
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
Mass
(1 000 tonnes)
2 152
1 660
1 617
1 541
836
Share of the total
(%)
8.2
6.4
6.2
5.9
3.2
World production was estimated equal to 25 629 000 tonnes
Source: International Cotton Advisory Committee website, available at
this link.
Last visited on 13 December 2024
As mentioned in Section 3.1.1, the ESPR establishes two product aspects that address recycled material: recycled
content and possibility of recycling. Within this framework, information about current recycled material and
recycling plants is crucial for the potential future development of requirements within these two product
aspects.
The current global availability of recycled fibres is very limited (Table
21).
The highest share of recycled
material is available for polyester (15%) and wool (6%) fibres. However, almost all recycled polyester fibres
come from recycling of plastic bottles, which are made of a specific type of polyester that is called polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) (Textile Exchange, 2022a). From 2020 to 2023 the estimates of recycled fibres were
relatively constant (Table
21).
Table 21.
Estimated percentages (%) of recycled fibres in recent years
Fibre
Polyester (PES)
Wool
Polyamide (PA)
Cotton
MMCF
2019
14
NA
NA
NA
NA
2020
15
6
2
0.96
0.4
2021
15
6
2
1
0.5
2022
14
7
2
1
0.5
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342
1343
1344
N.B. Approximately 99% of the polyester recycled fibres come from plastic bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Source: Own elaboration based on Textile Exchange (2020(, DG GROW (2021b), Textile Exchange (2021), Textile Exchange (2022), Textile
Exchange (2023)
The current availability of textile recycling plants was investigated in terms of location, technologies, possible
input fibres and scale of the plants (pilot or full scale).
Figure 14
shows the location of these 130 recycling
plants, highlighting consuming and producing countries (see Sections 5.1 and 5.3). Europe and North America,
which are the largest consumers, host about 50% and 11% of the global textile recycling plants, respectively.
Europe hosts mainly mechanical recycling plants, whereas North America mostly has chemical recycling plants.
Italy and Spain are the largest EU producers and the countries with the largest number of textile recycling
plants. Asia, which is the continent producing the most global apparel, has 33% of the textile recycling plants.
In particular, China and India, the world’s largest producers, host only 7% and 9% of the global textile recycling
plants.
Figure 14
shows that there are currently more textile recycling plants in countries that consume the
most apparel.
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1345
Rest of the
world
Figure 14.
Current number of textile recycling plants classified by location
Others
Morocco
Türkiye
Rest of Asia
Pakistan
Bangladesh
India
China
Rest of Nord America
USA
Europe (Non-EU)
Rest of EU
Spain
Italy
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Europe
North
America
Asia
Number of textile recycling plants
Mechanical
Chemical
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
Source: own elaboration based on Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database (
97
), (Jørgensen et al., 2022; Textile Exchange,
2022a)
Figure 15
shows that some recycling plants are already capable of processing textile products made of many
textile fibres.
Figure 15
shows that most of the investigated recycling plants are capable of processing
polyester and cotton fibres, as well as wool fibres. Additionally,
Figure 16
shows that most of the recycling
plants are full-scale facilities. This is in line with the availability of recycled fibres reported in
Table 21.
More detailed data about current textile recycling plants is available in Section 10.5.1.
Figure 15.
Current number of textile recycling plants classified by input fibre
Silk
Other blends
Other synthetic
Other plant-based
Acrylic (PAC)
Blends of wool and synthetic fibres
Wool
Polyamide (PA)
Man-Made Cellulosic (MMC)
Blends of cotton and PES
Cotton
Polyester (PES)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Input fibres
Number of textile recycling plants
Mechanical
Chemical
1355
97
Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 31 January 2024.
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1356
1357
1358
Source: own elaboration based on Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database (
98
), (Jørgensen et al., 2022; Textile Exchange,
2022a)
Figure 16.
Scale of current textile recycling plants
Recycling
technology
Chemical
Mechanical
0
20
40
60
80
100
Number of recycling plants
Full scale
Pilot scale
Unknown scale
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
Source: own elaboration based on Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database (
99
), (Jørgensen et al., 2022; Textile Exchange,
2022a)
A recent study of the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission estimated that in the EU approximately
30% of the used and sorted textiles (0.55-0.60 Mt yr
-1
) are sent for recycling. The resulting recycled fibres are
mainly used for cleaning wipes, non-woven material and insulation material, due to the fact that the most
abundant resulting recycled material is represented by non-spinnable fibres. In the EU, recycled material comes
from post-industrial waste, which represents only 11% of all textile waste (Huygens et al., 2023).
Table 22
reports the current fibre composition of EU textile waste, which is mainly made up of cotton and
polyester.
Figure 17
shows the composition of single textile products, which are mainly made of blends of two
or more fibres. The current EU recycling capacity is estimated to be equal to 0.7-0.85 Mt yr-1; whereas the
future projection for 2030-2035 is for it to reach 1.2 - 2.7 Mt yr-1, based on the assumption that the textile
industry is expected to generate more waste despite the future regulations in place. Based on the future
projections for 2030-2035, a 30% increase in textile waste is expected, along with more sorting capacities,
increased energy recovery and a reduction in landfilling. The majority of the future textile recycling capacity it
is estimated to be based on mechanical recycling, while lower volumes are claimed by operators using chemical
recycling (Huygens et al., 2023).
Table 22.
Material composition of EU post-consumer textile waste
Material
Cotton
Polyester
Polyamide
Wool, polypropylene, acrylic
Non-textile
Source: Huygens et al. (2023)
1377
Percentage in the waste fraction (%)
34
29
7
30
11
98
99
Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 31 January 2024.
Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 31 January 2024.
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1378
Figure 17.
Composition of textile products
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
Analysis of textile products incoming to sorting facilities. The sample was composed of about 73% of apparel, 9% of home/interior
textiles, 9% of footwear, and 9% of unclassified items. The colour code marks with yellow mono-fibre products, pink the blends of
two fibres, and blue the blends with two or more fibres.
Source: (Refashion, 2023)
5.4.2
Chemicals
The chemical demand of the textile industry is estimated to use about 25% of the global chemical production,
which in 2021 was equal to 9.3 million tonnes (Prasannamedha and Senthilkumar, 2021; Raj et al., 2022).
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation estimated that the textile industry uses approximately 43 million tonnes of
chemicals per year. In particular, the production of 1 kg of cotton requires 0.35–1.5 kg of chemicals, and the
production of 1 kg of synthetic fibre requires 0.11-0.82 kg of chemicals, besides the polymers making the fibre
itself (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017). In general, the manufacturing of 1 kg of apparel usually requires 1–
4 kg of chemicals. This range is relatively large because it depends on the type of apparel, the efficiency of the
supply chain, and the processes used for production (Muthu, 2020).
Figure 18
shows the chemicals most commonly used by the textile industry. Dyes and pigments, surfactants,
caustic soda, and bleaching agents represent 35%, 15%, 10% and 10% of the total consumption, respectively.
These four types of chemicals represent about 70% of the total chemicals used (Rahman et al., 2023).
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1396
Figure 18.
Share of the most commonly used chemicals in the textile industry
Percentage of the total
chemicals used (%)
40
30
20
10
0
35
15
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
2
1
1
1
Type of chemicals
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
N.B. Sodium hydroxide is the caustic soda. Resins are formaldehyde-based.
Source: Own elaboration based on (Rahman et al., 2023)
According to the UN COMTRADE database
(
100
)
and the Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC)
database
(
101
),
the largest global exporters of dyes, identified with HS 32
(
102
)
of the Harmonized System, are
Germany, China and the USA, representing about 15%, 10% and 9% of the global exports (Table
23).
Table 23.
Largest exporters of dyes in 2019
Reporter country
Germany
China
USA
Japan
Netherlands
India
United Kingdom
Italy
Spain
Belgium
Republic of Korea
Other Asia
Trade value
(m USD)
13 036.6
7 719.9
7 548.3
4 624.0
4 474.6
3 504.3
3 450.8
3 430.6
2 995.8
2 631.8
2 352.4
1 409.9
Share of the global market
(%)
15.6
10.2
9.22
5.92
4.91
4.52
4.14
4.08
3.71
3.38
2.88
1.72
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
1412
Dyes are identifies with the harmonised Standard code HS 32.
Source: elaboration based on UN COMTRADE database
(
100
) and OEC database (
101
)
5.4.3
Energy
In 2004, the energy consumption in the global textile industry was estimated to be equal to 2% of the global
energy consumption. Additionally, the production of 1 kg of generic textile product was estimated to require
about 126 MJ (about 35 kWh) of energy (Muthu, 2015).
Table 8
in Section 3.3.1 reports that almost all the stages of the textile value chain require the use of energy.
Nevertheless, the manufacturing stages cover about 70-80% of the total life-cycle energy consumption (Sandin,
Roos, Spak, et al., 2019; Quantis, 2021).
100
101
102
UN COMTRADE database. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC) database. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
HS 32: ´tanning or dyeing extracts; tannins and their derivatives; dyes, pigments and other colouring matter; paints, varnishes; putty,
other mastics; inks´
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1413
1414
1415
1416
1417
1418
1419
1420
1421
1422
1423
The energy consumption largely varies according to the country where the textile production process occurs,
and its impacts depend on the energy source used (Hasanbeigi and Price, 2012; Muthu, 2020). Figure 19 reports
the energy balance of the textile and leather industries of the main producers inside and outside the EU.
Meanwhile,
Figure 20
shows the electricity generation by source of the same countries. Both figures show that
the energy used in the EU has a very different composition to the energy used outside the EU. The energy used
in China and India is mainly generated with coal and oil, which are known to be more polluting than natural gas
and other sources of energy.
Specific stages of textile production consume different amounts of energy (Muthu, 2015; Muthu, 2020; Roth et
al., 2023). These aspects will be detailed in the following milestone, when the PS addresses tasks 4 (Section 9)
and task 5 of the MEErP.
Figure 19.
Energy balance of the textile and leather industries in 2021
Main non-EU
producers
Main EU
producers
Türkiye
India
China
Spain
Portugal
Italy
0%
Coal
20%
Oil
40%
Natural gas
60%
Electricity
Heat
80%
100%
1424
1425
1426
Main EU Main non-EU
producers producers
Source: own elaboration based on IEA World Energy Statistics and Balances
(
103
)
Figure 20.
Electricity generation by source
Türkiye
India
China
Spain
Portugal
Italy
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Coal
Oil
Natural gas
Others
1427
1428
1429
1430
1431
1432
1433
1434
N.B. The group
‘Others’ includes nuclear
power, hydropower and renewable sources.
Source: own elaboration based on IEA (2019)
In the manufacture of apparel, the cost of energy also plays an important role. As already mentioned in Section
5.1, the increase of the cost of energy in the
EU in 2022 negatively affected the Union’s textile production.
Table 24
reports the price of electricity for the countries where most of the production and consumption occurs.
The data gathered report that the electricity price at industrial scale is more expensive in the EU than in China
and India.
103
IEA World Energy Statistics and Balances (database). Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 10 February 2024.
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1435
Table 24.
Electricity prices for selected countries for the base year 2019
Country
Residential - Electricity price
(USD/MWh)
2012
2022
NA
82.32
69.66
NA
184.14
89.52
227.1
NA
115.77
150.89
243.76
NA
101.73
106.81
Industrial - Electricity price
(USD/MWh)
2010
2022
NA
88*
105.51
NA
150.92
204.51
160.38
NA
67.89
83.69
162.11
NA
75.65
104.81
1436
1437
1438
1439
1440
1441
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1448
China
India
Türkiye
EU-27*
USA
Japan
Republic of Korea
N.B. NA: Not available.
Source: UN COMTRADE database (
104
) and * Global petrol prices (
105
)
5.4.4
Water
Table 8
in Section 3.3.1 reports that many stages of the textile value chain require the use of water.
The water demand of the textile industry was estimated to be equal to about 79 billion m
3
per year. Most of
this water is attributed to cotton production. In general, the manufacture of 1 tonne of textiles is associated
with the consumption of 200 tonnes of fresh water (Niinimäki et al., 2020).
Cotton and hemp are the most water-demanding among the textile fibres; whereas polyester and polypropylene
need the least water for their production (Table
25).
Among the manufacturing processes, the finishing
processes are the most demanding, requiring between 40 l kg
-1
and 80 l kg
-1
of fabric (Roth et al., 2023). More
details will be provided in the following milestone, when the PS addresses tasks 4 (Section 9) and task 5 of the
MEErP.
Table 25
Water consumption of fibres
Fibre
Cotton
Wool
Man-made cellulosic fibres
Hemp
Polyester
Nylon (known as polyamide)
Polyethylene and polypropylene (PP)
Acrylic
Viscose rayon
Water consumption
(l/kg of fibre)
1 559
530
92
89
51
–
71
185
–
633
47
–
32
210
640
1449
1450
1451
1452
1453
1454
1455
Source: Muthu (2015), Muthu (2020), Niinimäki et al. (2020)
Due to the large water demand of the finishing processes, the cost of water at industrial scale is a factor
affecting its manufacture.
Table
26
reports the tap water price in several apparel-producing and -consuming countries. Assuming that the
price difference between industrial and tap water has the same ratio worldwide,
Table 26
reports that the
manufacturing of apparel in China and India can be performed with a lower water price than in Europe.
Table 26.
Tap water price for selected countries
Country (city)
China (Shanghai and Beijing)
India (Bangalore)
Turkey (Istanbul)
Europe (cities from 24 countries)
USA (30 cities)
Japan (Tokyo)
Republic of Korea (Seoul)
Tap water price (EUR/m
3
)
0.36-0.68
0.24
0.85
2.80
2.23
1.58
0.77
104
105
UN COMTRADE database available at
this link.
Last accessed on 15 December 2023.
Global Petrol Prices, available at
this link.
Last accessed on 15 December 2023.
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1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1462
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
N.B. Reference year 2019, with the latest updates in 2021.
Source: Tap water price index (
106
) and Eur Eau (2020)
5.5 Market structure and business models
Composition
EU companies in the textile value chain are mostly microenterprises, covering all manufacturing stages (Table
27).
However, medium and large enterprises generate most of the total turnover (Table
28).
After the manufacturing stages, textile apparel go through wholesalers and subsequently retailers (
107
), enabling
their placing on the market and their making available on the market for the first time. In the textile and apparel
sector, wholesalers are understood as companies that sell products to other companies in large quantities and
at low prices, whereas retailers are companies that sell in small quantities and generally with higher prices than
wholesalers. In the EU, retailers in the apparel sector are constituted by a bigger number of enterprises, generate
higher turnover, higher production value, and employ more people than wholesalers of apparel and footwear
together (Table
29).
Among the top 120 players of the EU textile ecosystem, 50 are retailers of fashion
products and about 38 are wholesalers and agents for fashion products (DG GROW, 2021a).
Table 27.
Share of the number of EU-27 enterprises per NACE group in 2021
Economic activity
Weaving of
textiles
Preparation
[C132]
and spinning
&
of textile
finishing of
fibres [C131]
textiles
(%)
[C133]
(%)
80 (p)
13 (ep)
6 (p)
: (c)
85 (p)
9 (p)
6 (p)
2 (pu)
Size of enterprises
Manufacture of
other textiles
[C139]
(%)
Manufacture of wearing
apparel, except fur apparel
[C141]
&
Manufacture of knitted and
crocheted apparel [C143]
(%)
95 (p)
3 (p)
2 (p)
0.2 (pu)
1471
1472
1473
1474
Microenterprises
(from 0 to 9 employees)
Small enterprises
(from 10 to 49 employees)
Medium enterprises
(from 50 to 249 employees)
Large enterprises
(more than 250 employees)
92 (p)
6 (p)
2 (p)
0.3 (p)
N.B. Data from relevant countries like Italy is missing in all the indicators.
p: provisional; ep: estimated, provisional; c: confidential; pu: provisional, unreliable or uncertain data with estimation error from ±1% to
±5%;
“:” not
available.
Source: own elaboration based on EUROSTAT SBS_SC_OVW
(
108
)
106
107
108
Water Price Index. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 11 February 2024. Water Price Index examines and interprets the prices of
tap water and bottled water in 120 cities globally. It presents the actual average expenditure for usage and the percent difference of
the price from the median value of the dataset in each respective location. The factor ‘Tap Water Price (EUR/m³)’ refers to the
monthly
cost for 1 cubic metre of tap water, as indicated by the most recent applicable rate from the database of the International
Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNET), which is available at
this link
(last accessed on 11 February 2024).
According to the Cambridge dictionary: (1) a wholesaler is a buyer and seller of goods in large amounts to shops and businesses; (2)
retailer is a person, shop, or business that sells goods to the public.
Enterprise statistics by size class and NACE Rev. 2 activity (from 2021 onwards). Available at
this link.
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1475
Table 28.
Share of the turnover of EU-27 enterprises per NACE group in 2021
Economic activity
Preparation
and spinning
of textile
fibres
[C131]
(%)
10 (p)
15 (p)
48 (p)
27 (p)
Weaving of
textiles [C132]
&
finishing of
textiles [C133]
(%)
7 (p)
8 (p)
41 (p)
45 (p)
Manufacture
of other
textiles
[C139]
(%)
13 (p)
10 (p)
44 (p)
33 (p)
Manufacture of wearing
apparel, except fur apparel
[C141]
&
Manufacture of knitted and
crocheted apparel [C143]
(%)
19 (p)
15 (p)
28 (p)
38 (p)
Size of enterprises
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
Microenterprises
(from 0 to 9 employees)
Small enterprises
(from 10 to 49 employees)
Medium enterprises
(from 50 to 249 employees)
Large enterprises
(more than 250 employees)
N.B. Data from relevant countries like Italy is missing in all the indicators. Italy is the EU country with the highest turnover and employment
share compared with other MS in 2021 (EURATEX, 2022a). In this context, the data presented are indicative but not precise data.
p: provisional.
Source: own elaboration based on EUROSTAT SBS_SC_OVW
(
108
)
Table 29.
Description of wholesalers and retailers in 2020, according to NACE classes
Economic parameter
Economic activity
Wholesale of
clothing and
footwear [G4642]
52 212
120 758.3
46 047.5
294 255
Retail sale of clothing
in specialised stores
[G4771]
262 403
139 012.2
65 744.7
1 155 453
Number of enterprises
Turnover (m EUR)
Production value (m EUR)
Number of employees
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
1493
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1501
Source: own elaboration based on data from EUROSTAT SBS_NA_DT_R2
(
109
).
Besides numerous SMEs, the fashion industry includes large companies, which are usually active in many
subsectors of the textile ecosystem, as a consequence of acquisitions and mergers, as well as subcontracting
and outsourcing. The largest groups in the fashion industry include several brands, which supply diverse end
markets or propose different product lines that go beyond apparel and footwear. Other companies function
under a single brand, but still with a variety of products (DG GROW, 2021a).
Some large companies are vertically integrated, meaning made up of large groups that design, manufacture
and sell a variety of products. Nevertheless, acquisitions, mergers, subcontracting and outsourcing strongly
define the textile apparel market in a global value chain. The majority of the most important EU companies are
also world players that manufacture, innovate and sell across the globe and acquire (and are acquired by) other
world players (DG GROW, 2021a).
Drawing the boundaries of the EU textile apparel market is not possible because it fully operates in the global
market and value chains. Some important EU companies play a role in distribution, but they are not
manufacturers in the EU. Many of them own hundreds (and in a few cases thousands) of subsidiaries outside
the EU, which are responsible for production and/or retail. At the same time, subsidiaries of non-European
companies are also frequently considered important players in the EU (DG GROW, 2021a).
A recent analysis of the top 120 main players in the EU textile ecosystem identified four broad classes of
companies (DG GROW, 2021a):
—
high-end luxury brands;
—
manufacturers and retailers producing mid- and low-end products;
—
manufacturers of intermediate textile products;
109
Annual detailed enterprise statistics for trade (NACE Rev. 2 G). Available at
this link.
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1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
1508
1509
1510
1511
1512
1513
1514
1515
1516
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523
1524
1525
1526
1527
1528
1529
1530
1531
—
companies specialised in the manufacturing of specific goods.
General business models
Companies in the fashion industry follow different models in relation to the intangible value of the product and
the management of its supply chain. As described in Section 3.1.1, textile apparel are products with physical
and symbolic functionalities. Besides the tangible quality of the manufacturing process, textile apparel must
meet symbolic and aesthetic values, known as intangibles. Since these intangibles change rapidly, companies
working in the textile apparel industry try to gain value via the supply chain, reacting efficiently to the
unpredictable changes in consumer tastes and demands. Within this context, textile apparel companies
inevitably rely on outsourcing to compete in the rapidly changing market (DG GROW, 2021a). The reasons of
the rapid change of consumer taste and demand are further investigated in (Section 9), where business models
and user behaviour are analysed in the context of all relevant product aspects reported in Article 5 of the ESPR.
Regarding the integration of manufacturing and intangibles, two main models can be identified in the textile
apparel industry (DG GROW, 2021a):
—
Consumer-led operation model,
where the requests of the consumer are the centre of the
business model. There is a huge effort to collect customer feedback, and produce what is desired
by the market. In this model, consumers dictate the terms of production and affect the whole
supply chain.
—
Brand-led operation model,
where the brand dictates the design and manufacture. There is a
huge effort in strategies and programmes to promote the interest in the brand.
Two other main models can be identified regarding the approaches to the supply chain (DG GROW, 2021a):
—
Integrated approach,
where the production is entrusted to internal suppliers and the logistics
aims to quickly react to customer’s demands.
—
Centralised approach,
where the production is mostly outsourced, and supported by audit and
quality control programmes, which could eventually change contractors.
Companies also apply hybrid forms of these models.
Distribution, retailing and e-commerce
According to McKinsey & Company
(
110
),
the distribution and retailing channels in the fashion industry are mainly
controlled by fashion brands and retailers.
Table 30
describes the main distribution and retail models of
companies selling textile apparel.
Table 30.
Distribution and retail models of apparel companies
Brand
Only direct to consumer: Fashion brands
that cover various stages within the fashion
value chain, beyond being solely an apparel
brand. This includes managing their own
retail operations and potentially
establishing their own e-commerce
presence, all while avoiding wholesale
distribution.
(Vertically integrated apparel player)
Source: Reported from McKinsey & Company
(
110
).
Mix wholesale/direct to
consumer: Apparel brand that
sells both directly to
consumers (in physical stores
and/or e-commerce) and to
other retailers.
(Hybrid apparel player)
Retailer
On- and offline: multi-
brand retailer with its
own brands, typically
with a physical store
and an online store.
(Multibrand retailer)
Only online: Online
retailer offering a
variety of brands,
including its own.
(Multibrand pure
e-commerce
retailer)
1532
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
In the last few years, e-commerce has been rapidly increasing, especially for online market places and multi-
brand retailers (DG GROW, 2021a). In particular, the EEA used the EUROSTAT database to report a steady
increase in the percentage of individuals purchasing online apparel and footwear between 2020 and 2022
(Duhoux et al., 2024). In 2009, the percentage of textile and apparel turnover generated by e-sales was equal
to 5% of the total. In the following years, it gradually increased up to 11% in 2020 (EURATEX, 2022a).
110
McKinsey & Company webpage on Retail.
–
Measuring the fashion world. Achim Berg, Miriam Lobis, Elizabeth Hunter, Felix Rölkens,
Patrick Simon, and Hannah Yankelevich. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 10 December 2023.
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1538
1539
1540
1541
1542
1543
1544
1545
1546
1547
1548
1549
1550
1551
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
1559
1560
1561
1562
1563
1564
1565
1566
1567
1568
1569
1570
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
1579
1580
1581
Second-hand and rental markets
Second-hand and rental of textile apparel are experiencing fast growth, but are still at the very first stages of
development. Their future success requires the adoption of business models based on collaborative
consumption practices, e.g. utility-based non-ownership, and redistributed ownership of textile apparel. The lack
of consumer awareness is seen as a barrier to the development of these two markets. For the second-hand
market, other barriers are the limited durability of clothes and the need for traceability and guarantee of
authenticity (DG GROW, 2021a).
Figures about the second-hand market are limited. According to RREUSE
(
111
),
in 2022, about 17 of their
members were involved in the collection, sorting, and reuse of used and waste textiles. Members of RREUSE
collect 360 000 tonnes of textiles annually, of which about 15% is reused locally. RREUSE estimates that a
social enterprise employs between 20 and 35 people per 1 000 tonnes of textile waste collected. The same
organization counts about 2 400 second-hand stores across the EU and beyond.
5.6 Characteristics of the value chain
The value chain of textile apparel is defined as global, long, complex, fragmented and opaque (Cai and Choi,
2020; UNECE and UNTRADE, 2020; Brondino, 2022).
The nodes of the value chain could be divided into two parts:
(a) a first part including the life-cycle stages from raw material for fibre production until retailing,
when the product is placed on the market and it is made available on the market for the first
time,
(b) a second part including use phase and waste management.
The first part of the value chain is composed of at least 15 nodes, i.e. the production of an item of textile
apparel involves at least 15 economic operators via the production of raw materials, manufacturing and
retailing operations. Companies placing products on the market do not know the full story behind their products
–
they do not know which were the economic operators involved over the whole supply chain and the processes
and material/chemicals used. Most of the companies in the value chain can get information from their
immediate suppliers, but usually information is lost about suppliers further upstream (UNECE and UNTRADE,
2020). This part of the value chain is highly interconnected with nodes spread worldwide at all stages (UNEP,
2020)
(
112
).
Although there are specific countries producing specific fibres, most fibres can be supplied from
many parts of the world and mixed together (Textile Exchange, 2022a). Fibre processing as well as yarn spinning
and fabric manufacturing occur in several countries and use resources, e.g. chemicals, which are produced in
third countries. This was also shown in
Figure 3
and
Figure 4
in Section 5.1.
This description of the first part of the value chain shows that the manufacturing origin of textile apparel should
not refer to just one country, but it should refer to the many countries where the main production stages
occurred.
Usually, the textile apparel market mainly includes multinational companies based in developed countries that
act as retailers or as producers and retailers. These multinational companies generally outsource production in
developing countries due to the lower production costs (Brondino, 2022). For the first four stages of the
product’s
life cycle (see
Figure 1
and
Table 8),
developing countries offer the possibility to produce textile
apparel facing lower environmental compliance costs than in developed countries (see Section 5.7). Similar
conditions occur for the confectioning stage, which is very labour-intensive: developing countries offer cheaper
labour costs than developed countries (UNECE and UNTRADE, 2020).
Some studies envisage the possibility of reshoring and/or nearshoring production to developed countries,
brought about by increased automation. However, this process is expected to happen only in the long term and
subject to the sector investing strongly in this direction (Brondino, 2022).
111
112
RREUSE website. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 13 December 2025. Reported figures were shared during consultation with
stakeholders.
An exchange with a large global economic actor revealed that a retailer/producer could have more than 1 700 suppliers, which may
have more than 8 200 factories located in 50 supply markets.
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1582
1583
1584
1585
1586
1587
1588
1589
1590
1591
1592
1593
1594
1595
1596
1597
1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
1615
1616
1617
1618
1619
1620
1621
1622
1623
1624
The textile apparel industry has always operated according to seasons, which are associated with the release
of new collections. Over the last decades, the number of seasons has been drastically increasing from two per
year to almost one per week
(
113
).
This seasonality largely affects the supply chain, from procurement to
manufacturing capacity, planning and inventory management.
Within this framework, the first part of the value chain evolves among global dynamics, consumer demands
and the strategies of big retailers (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017; UNECE and UNTRADE, 2020; Brondino,
2022)
In order to increase transparency in the textile apparel value chain, in 2019 the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) launched a project for an international framework initiative to enhance
transparency and traceability for sustainable value chains in the garment and footwear industry
(
114
).
The second part of the value chain is mainly constituted by the post-consumer textile waste treatment market
and by the second-hand market (reuse). The European Environment Agency and the United Nations provide
figures about used textiles, mainly textile apparel, exported outside the EU (Lingås et al., 2023; UNECE and
ECLAC, 2024). Used textile apparel is part of a specialised and traded global value chain. Over the last two
decades, the export of used textiles from the EU has tripled from about 550 000 tonnes in 2000 to almost
1 700 000 tonnes in 2019. These products can have several fates. Usually, what is exported to Africa is first
screened in local markets and subsequently most is dumped via informal waste streams. Used textiles reaching
Asia are usually down-cycled into industrial rags or filling, or re-exported for recycling in other Asian countries
or are further sent to Africa for reuse. Products that cannot be recycled or re-exported are likely to end up in
Asian landfills (Lingås et al., 2023; UNECE and ECLAC, 2024).
5.7 Competitiveness and environmental compliance costs
The global value chain of textile apparel produces most of its environmental impacts in the production stages
(Table
9).
Usually, the production stages occur in Asian countries (Figure
4).
This implies that most of the
negative emissions to the environment occur outside the EU (Table
6),
in particular in countries that allow
production at lower costs due to poor labour conditions and less stringent measures about environmental
protection (UNECE and UN TRADE, 2020).
A recent analysis performed by the OECD investigated the requirements set by several frameworks establishing
Best Available Techniques (BAT) for Preventing and Controlling Industrial Pollution (OECD, 2022). This
publication aimed to gather information on existing BAT reference documents (BREFs) that could stimulate
more countries to implement specific requirements in their territories.
Table 31
reports the comparison of
environmental aspects that are addressed by several BREFs implemented around the world. The analysis
showed the following:
—
Comparison is made difficult by the different approaches used by each BREF, in terms of key
environmental indicators and stages of production.
—
The EU has the most ambitious mandatory system, covering almost all the environmental aspects
(7 out of 8).
—
Among the largest global producers, the BREFs applied in China and India were analysed (
115
). Both
China and India set limits for fewer environmental aspects than the original EU BREF. In particular,
India addresses only emissions to water, with less stringent thresholds than the EU BREF. The
Chinese BREF addresses more environmental aspects than India (4 out of 8), but it sets less
stringent values for emissions to water compared to the EU BREF (Table
79
in Section 10.5.1).
Comparison with values related to emissions to air was not possible due to the different practices
and key environmental indicators used by the several schemes.
113
114
115
Numerous fashion websites report this information. Some of them are: (1)
Digitally Empowering Fashion,
(2)
InStyle,
and (3)
techfashionista.
All websites were last visited on 7 December 2023. The exchange with a large global retailer revealed that this
company updates their collections every week to satisfy the requests of their customers.
UNECE - Traceability for Sustainable Garment and Footwear. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 7 December 2023.
Information about the Minimum National Standard (MINAS) from India was included in the analysis provided by OECD (2022).
Meanwhile, the analysis of the Chinese BREF was performed thanks to a machine translation of the document found on the internet.
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1625
1626
1627
1628
1629
In this context, it is evident that companies producing textile apparel, or their intermediate products, in the EU
must face higher costs than companies producing in China and India due to prevention/reduction of emissions
into the environment set by the EU BREF, within the framework of the EU Industrial Emissions Directive
(
116
).
Table 31.
Environmental aspects covered by the Best Available Techniques (BAT) reference documents (BREFs) for
preventing and controlling industrial pollution around the world
Country/organisation
European
Union
(EU BREF)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
India
(MINAS)
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
South
Korea
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
United
States
(US EPA)
Yes (
a
)
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
World Bank
(EHS
Guideline)
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
China
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
1630
1631
1632
1633
1634
1635
1636
1637
1638
1639
1640
1641
1642
1643
1644
1645
1646
1647
1648
Environmental aspects
Emissions to air
Emissions to water
Consumption of energy
Water usage
Waste generation
Usage and management of
chemicals
Energy efficiency
Noise emission
N.B. MINAS: Minimal National Standard; US EPA: United States Environmental protection Agency; EHS Guideline: World Bank Group
Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines.
a
( ) Covered by the Clean Air Act, National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) (OECD, 2022).
Source:
(Ministry of Ecology and Environment, China, 2021; OECD, 2022).
China implemented its scheme on available pollution prevention and control techniques for the textile
industry
(
117
)
in 2021, but it was not included in the analysis of OECD (2022).
Besides the above-mentioned aspects, the current competitiveness in the global textile value chain is also
influenced by the cost of energy, water and chemicals, as assessed in Section 5.4.3 and Section 5.4.4. Besides
the Industrial Emission Directive, EU industries must comply with requirements established by REACH (Section
4.1.1).
5.8 Lifespan of textile apparel
The apparent consumption in the EU-27 of textile apparel (Figure
10
in Section 5.2) focuses on yearly market
data, which provide a good understanding of the amount of textile apparel traded over the years. Future steps
of the PS will focus on the economic and environmental assessment of textile apparel in the Union. This
assessment will take into account the use phase and therefore the lifespan of the products, which affects their
demand.
The lifespan of a product can be measured according to different descriptors (Murakami et al., 2010). Table 32
lists the different lifespan descriptors used for textile apparel.
Table 32.
Types of lifespans
Type
Total lifespan
Service lifespan
Possession span
Duration in use
Physical lifespan
Definition
The period during which an item of textile apparel retains its original form, irrespective of its functional
condition.
The time an item of textile apparel remains functional and usable, considering its use by both the initial
and subsequent owners. This timeframe initiates upon the product's acquisition by the first owner and
concludes when the last owner disposes of it.
The period of time in which an item of textile apparel is held by a specific owner. This timeframe does not
discriminate whether the item of textile apparel is used subsequently by another person or it is disposed
of.
The period of time a single owner utilises the item of textile apparel, considering only the use time (i.e. the
time it is worn).
The period of time an item of textile apparel can be worn before it exhibits a level of wear beyond what is
deemed acceptable.
116
117
Industrial Emission Directive. Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial
emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control) (Recast) (Text with EEA relevance). Available at
this link.
Chinese guidelines on available pollution prevention and control techniques for the textile industry. Available at
this link.
Last accessed
on 11 December 2023.
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1649
1650
1651
1652
1653
1654
1655
1656
1657
1658
1659
1660
1661
1662
1663
1664
1665
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
Source: adapted from Murakami et al. (2010)
The lifespan of textile apparel is affected by many factors related to the specific type of textile apparel, the
intrinsic physical properties of the product, and the behaviour of the users. Textile apparel is worn and cleaned
with different frequencies according to their specific use, material composition and user choices. This is because
specific textile apparel has seasonal use, or are related to specific activities, like sports. Additionally, many
textile apparel remain stored and not in use in wardrobes. More investigation about factors related to user
behaviour are addressed in Section 6.
The PS will focus on the service lifespan, which considers the time period from the purchase of the new item to
its disposal, disregarding the number of users. Currently, there is no established system that allows the direct
measurement of the service lifespan of textile apparel. The information available in the literature focuses on
the possession span, which refers to the time a single user keeps the item, and the duration in use, which refers
to how much time the owner uses the item (Table 32). This information is collected via surveys where users are
asked to provide their estimates.
The possession span of textile apparel is often expressed as number of years. The duration in use is expressed
as ‘days of wear’.
Table 33
and
Table 34
report data gathered from the literature, using both metrics for most
of the textile apparel categories.
Table 81
in Section 10.5.3 reports a brief description of the investigated
studies.
The figures obtained from the analysis show a relatively large range of values, a consequence of the many
factors affecting this parameter. The analysis addressed only specific products belonging to specific product
categories. Section 10.5.3 provides additional, more granular information on the collected data.
Users and experts perceive that over the last 20 years the service lifespan of textile apparel has decreased.
Some experts estimated that it decreased by 36% (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017). The lack of a direct
measurement method does not allow the provision of a better understanding of this important parameter.
Nevertheless, educated assumptions will be made to be used in the stock model that will be produced in the
following milestone, when the PS addresses task 7 of the MEErP.
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1675
1676
Table 33.
Possession span of textile apparel expressed in years
Textile apparel category
1. T-shirts
2. Shirts and blouses
3. Sweaters and mid layers
4. Jackets and coats
5. Pants and shorts
6. Dresses, skirts and jumpsuits
7. Leggings, stockings, tights and socks
8. Underwear
9. Swimwear
10. Accessories
Gray et al. (2022)
4
4.1
4.4 (Sweatshirts and hoodies)
6.2 (Non-padded)
5.4 (Padded)
4.8 (Shorts)
4.3 (Trousers)
4.1 (Jeans)
4.9 (Skirts)
4.6 (Dresses)
3.8 (Leggings)
2.9 (Socks and hosiery)
2.7
NA
NA
Laitala and Klepp (2020)
4.6
4.8
6
7 (Coats)
6.8 (Jackets)
4.7 (Pants)
3.5 (Jeans)
7.1 (Dresses)
6.9 (Skirts)
2.6 (Socks)
3.5 (Bras)
3.1 (Underpants)
NA
NA
Laitala et al. (2018)
3.3-6.8
3.3-7.2
3.7-10.8
4-11.6 (Coats)
4-11.5 (Jackets)
2.5-6.2 (Pants)
2.5-4.3 (Jeans)
4.1-15.2 (Dresses and skirts)
1.8-3.6 (Socks)
2.4-4.4
NA
NA
WRAP (2017a)
4.5
5 (Shirts)
NA
NA
4 (Jeans)
NA
2.5 (Socks)
NA
NA
NA
Drycleaning Institute (2015)
NA
2-3
3-4
2-4
2-4
1-3 (Dresses)
2-4 (Skirts)
1 (Socks)
1-2
2
1-2
1677
1678
1679
1680
1681
N.B. NA: Not available.
Beton et al. (2014) reports that apparel has a lifespan between 1 and 3 years, based on expert opinions.
Knitwear products were reported to have a possession span of 4.8 years (Gray et al., 2022) and 5 years (WRAP, 2017a).
All investigated studies address specific products belonging to specific textile apparel categories.
Source: own production
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1682
Table 34.
Duration in use of textile apparel expressed in days of wear
Textile apparel category
1. T-shirts
2. Shirts and blouses
3. Sweaters and mid layers
4. Jackets and coats
5. Pants and shorts
6. Dresses, skirts and jumpsuits
7. Leggings, stockings, tights and
socks
8. Underwear
9. Swimwear
10. Accessories
Roos et al.
(2015)
22
NA
NA
100 (Jackets)
200 (Jeans)
10 (Dresses)
NA
NA
NA
NA
WRAP
(2017a)
112.5
80 (Shirts)
NA
NA
300 (Jeans)
NA
125 (Socks)
NA
NA
NA
Klepp et al.
(2020)
90.5
90.5
90.5
90.5
90.5
90.5
90.5
90.5
NA
NA
PEFCR (2022)
45
40
85
100
70 (Jeans)
70
50 (Socks)
70
(Leggings/tights)
50 (Hosiery)
60
30
100
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
1694
N.B. NA: Not available.
Days of wear of knitwear products were reported to be equal to 150 (WRAP, 2017a) and 90.5 Klepp et al. (2020).
All investigated studies address specific products belonging to specific textile apparel categories.
Source: own production
5.9 Market penetration of environmental labels
Although numerous environmental labels are used in the textile sector, currently there is no direct method to
quantify their market penetration. Therefore, it not possible to understand the real success of these labels and
the specific reasons behind their success.
Such information could be helpful for the revision of the EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. The following
milestone of the PS will address the potential inclusion of information requirements for products awarded with
one or more environmental labels. The required information could also include a description of the specific
environmental label in the Digital Product Passport.
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1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1706
1707
1708
1709
1710
1711
1712
1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
6
User behaviour
6.1 Introduction
The aim of this section is to present and analyse information available in the literature regarding behavioural
trends among users with regards to apparel.
The methodology used in the user behaviour analysis is twofold. First, a comprehensive screening and literature
review of scientific papers and other studies on user behaviour related to apparel was conducted. The main
goal of the systematic literature review was to identify the topics usually covered by studies on user behaviour
regarding apparel. As a second step, several questions related to the most common aspects explored by user
behaviour studies were prepared. These questions were included in the first stakeholder consultation through
an online questionnaire (
118
). Stakeholder references to additional scientific papers, consumer surveys and other
relevant documents were analysed in order to complement the literature review carried out in the first step.
The information was analysed considering its potential use when modelling the user phase in the environmental
and economic analysis taking place at a later stage of the preparatory study (task 5 of the MEErP), and also its
connection with potential
ecodesign requirements
to be developed within the aspects listed in Article 5(1) of
the ESPR as well as with potential
EU Ecolabel
and
GPP criteria.
The user behaviour chapter covers aspects such as the way users choose to buy apparel, their habits during the
use phase, and why they decide to dispose of. It distinguishes user behaviour aspects at pre-purchase (section
6.2.), post-purchase (section 6.3.) and disposal stages (section 6.4.).
The table below indicates the main aspects related to user behaviour that will inform the modelling phase and
the development of potential ecodesign requirements. Knowledge of user behaviour can help to identify barriers
and restrictions to possible ecodesign measures resulting from social or cultural factors. Having information
about how frequently consumers buy apparel, the temperature of washing or whether softeners are used or
not, is important for the modelling. Equally, knowing whether consumers can assess the quality of apparel, what
are their priorities when purchasing, whether users follow care labels, reasons for disposal and if consumers
are willing to repair the apparel or not, are relevant considerations for the development of ecodesign
requirements. The table below indicates the main user behaviour aspects that will serve as relevant input in the
modelling of the environmental impacts and the life cycle costs of apparel, and for the development of potential
ecodesign requirements.
118
Initial questionnaire. Preparatory Study on textiles for product policy instruments
–
the initial questionnaire. Available at
this link.
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1724
Table 35.
Potential application of user behaviour aspects in the next steps of the preparatory study
ID
1
2
3
4
5
Aspect
Reasons for
purchasing
Criteria used when
purchasing
Quality assessment
of apparel
Attitude towards
second-hand
purchases
Attitudes towards
chemicals in
apparel
Attitudes towards
the purchase of
apparel made with
recycled materials
Laundering
practices
(a)
Information used for
Potential ecodesign requirements
Potential ecodesign requirements
Potential ecodesign requirements
Potential ecodesign requirements
Potential ecodesign requirements
Comments
Reasons for purchasing showcase the triggers for
new apparel purchases and can shape the
development of ecodesign requirements.
The criteria used when purchasing could give an
indication of which aspects of the apparel are more
relevant to users, e.g. durability.
Quality and longer apparel lifespans are important
to consumers. This supports the focus on durability
ecodesign requirements.
Supports the development of potential durability
requirements.
Supports the development of requirements on
substances of concern.
Provides relevant input for the EU Ecolabel potential
criteria on chemicals.
Supports the development of requirements on
recycled content.
Provides relevant input for the EU Ecolabel and/or
EU GPP potential criteria on recycled content.
Different washing temperatures, washing
frequencies and sorting practices among users can
be modelled to show the way they affect the
durability and quality of apparel.
Potentially relevant input for the assessment of the
environmental impact and the life cycle costs.
The user behaviour informs how care labels are
used by users and what aspects may be missing
from them (
119
), supporting the drafting of
information requirements and the development of
the Digital Product Passport.
Potential reparability and durability ecodesign
requirements can be shaped by user behaviour data
on reparability e.g. the link between the apparel
item and accessories such as buttons that tend to
fail sooner.
The user storage of apparel could affect its
lifespan, thus it may be considered in the LCA
modelling phase.
The early disposal of apparel by users could trigger
the need for the development of durability
ecodesign requirements.
Reasons for apparel disposal include loss of
functionality and quality. These are aspects that
create product-person attachment which translates
into apparel being kept in the system for longer.
This supports the focus on design for durability
requirements.
The lack of quality of ordered apparel is among the
main reasons for returning products ordered online.
This supports potential inclusion of durability
ecodesign requirements.
6
Potential ecodesign requirements
7
Modelling and potential ecodesign
requirements
8
Care labels
Potential ecodesign requirements
9
Reparability
Potential ecodesign requirements
10
11
Long-term apparel
storage
Reasons for
disposal (
120
) and
product-person
attachment
Potential ecodesign requirements
Potential ecodesign requirements
12
Reasons for
returning apparel
Potential ecodesign requirements
1725
1726
1727
(a)
It includes sorting before washing, washing temperature and frequency, choice of detergent and softener, drying, ironing, and storing
after washing and drying
Source: own production
119
120
The ongoing review of the Textile Labelling Regulation is also assessing this same issue.
In this study the term 'disposal' used to refer to the generic action of getting rid of a product, regardless of whether the product
becomes waste or it simply changes ownership as a product. The general use of the term 'disposal' in this Preparatory Study should
not be understood to imply 'disposal operations' described in Annex I of the Directive 2008/98/EC on waste and repealing certain
Directives Available at
this link.
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1728
1729
1730
1731
1732
1733
1734
1735
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
1745
1746
1747
1748
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
1773
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
Note:
The following sections provide a summary of the main learnings and observations derived from an
extensive literature search carried out on user behaviour with regards to apparel.
A more detailed review of
literature corresponding to pre-purchase, post-purchase and disposal aspects is provided in the
annex, Section 10.6.
6.2 Pre-purchase aspects
6.2.1
Reasons for purchasing apparel
Consumer behaviour in the apparel industry is influenced by various factors, including individual perspectives
on purchasing and the prevalence of spontaneous buying behaviour. Understanding the motivations behind
consumer purchases, whether driven by functionality or self-representation, shows what qualities in apparel
users consider to be important for them.
—
Diverse consumer perspectives and reasons for purchasing:
There are two primary consumer
approaches towards apparel - those viewing it as purely functional and those seeing it as self-
representational. These perspectives significantly influence consumer priorities during the purchase process
(McNeill and Moore 2015). Research suggests that the primary purchase motivations include looking good,
replacing old items (Ribeiro et al., 2023), buying essential wear, staying on-trend, and preparing for special
occasions (D&B, 2020).
—
Spontaneous buying behaviour:
Apparel purchases often occur spontaneously, with a considerable
proportion in the 40-70 age group engaging in frequent spontaneous buying. This trend indicates that a
majority of consumers may not thoroughly inform themselves before making apparel purchases and act
on impulse (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018a). Discount offers, including global phenomena like New Year
sales, influence impulsive purchases, leading to more frequent buying and increased monthly spending on
apparel (D&B, 2020a; Djafarova and Bowes, 2021; Heiny and Schneide, 2021; Amasawa and Kimita, 2023).
—
Digital vs. physical shopping dynamics:
While visual aids on social media attempt to replicate physical
store experiences (Djafarova and Bowes, 2021), impulse purchases are more closely associated with
physical stores, particularly affecting the younger population (Cook and Yurchisin, 2017). However,
malicious interface design strategies, such as dark patterns, are prevalent in online shopping sites (Yada et
al., 2022) where they mislead users into making purchases that may not align with their best interests,
including unnecessary spending (Schäfer et al., 2023). An example of a dark pattern frequently observed
in apparel purchases is the 'low-stock message,' which falsely claims that a product is nearly sold out to
induce a sense of urgency and prompt quicker buying decisions (Schäfer et al., 2023).
The level of information provided by surveys on reasons for purchasing apparel is sufficient to get an idea of
the different consumer preferences. It should be noted that the literature does not provide an order of
importance or a priority list for the reasons for purchase mentioned by consumers.
The reasons users have for purchasing apparel are diverse and highly dependent on personal preferences.
However, some seem to be linked to the need to replace apparel that is old, worn out or broken to a certain
extent. In these cases, information requirements on reparability and disposal could guide the user concerning
ways to repair the product to ensure optimum durability.
In the cases in which impulse purchases are involved, information requirements on the product itself regarding
the life-cycle environmental impacts of the apparel item in question, would allow consumers to be more aware
of the impact of their purchase and make evidence-based decisions.
6.2.2
Criteria used when buying apparel
When it comes to purchasing apparel, consumers navigate a complex landscape of decision-making criteria that
encompass various factors influencing their choices. These criteria often include considerations such as product
quality, price affordability, brand significance, durability, ease of care, and alignment with personal values and
preferences. Additionally, age-related preferences and sustainability concerns further shape the decision-
making process, highlighting the diverse range of factors at play in the apparel market.
—
Main apparel purchase decision attributes:
●
Quality and price are paramount factors influencing consumers' apparel purchasing decisions, with
97% emphasising the importance of product quality and 94% expressing a similar sentiment
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1779
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
towards price in a survey run among 26 635 European citizens (European Commission. Directorate
General for Environment, 2023). Similarly, price is for 68% of 11 483 consumers from ten
European countries the most important factor when purchasing clothes, followed by quality (61%)
and fit (56%) (YouGov, 2021).
●
The brand's significance has less importance when purchasing apparel compared to quality and
price (YouGov, 2021; European Commission. Directorate General for Environment., 2023).
●
Other studies indicate that the perceived value of an apparel item by a specific user is also a
significant driver of purchasing behaviour, with quality and functionality following closely behind
(AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a; Mishra et al., 2023; Thredup, 2023).
●
Durability and ease of care seem not to be explicitly considered by users during apparel purchases
but are associated with perceived quality according to De Klerk and Lubbe (2008) and Wakes et
al. (2020). However, other studies highlight durability in the top three main aspects to influence
the decision to purchase apparel items such as coats or jackets (Consumers, Health, Agriculture
and Food Executive Agency et al., 2018) and is also the fourth most important aspect when
purchasing apparel for 30% of 11 483 consumers from ten European countries (YouGov, 2021).
●
According to a Cotton Incorporated (2014) survey, the top pre-purchase drivers for sportswear
among consumers are comfort (77%), fit (69%), washes clean (65%), quality (64%), and durability
(62%).
—
Age-related purchase preferences:
●
Fashion trends hold greater significance for younger consumers, as they see them as a sign of
success (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a; Spaepen et al., 2021).
●
Older generations prioritize new items, comfort, country of origin, textile material, and brand
knowledge (Spaepen et al., 2021).
—
Sustainability considerations:
●
Some sources highlight that across all Member States, a majority of respondents reply that the
environmental impact of a product is 'very' or 'rather important' in their purchasing decisions
(European Commission. Directorate General for Environment, 2023). In fact, in an EU-wide survey
involving 27 498 respondents, three-quarters express the view that apparel should be crafted
from materials that are recyclable (European Commission, 2019). Moreover, around 54% of 2 500
Spanish consumers would appreciate having more information on the recyclability of the apparel
item they purchase (Asociación para la Gestión del Residuo Textil y el Calzado, 2024).
●
Other sources indicate that sustainability and social standards rank lower in importance compared
to price or quality considerations when purchasing (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food
Executive Agency. et al., 2018; AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a). In fact, approximately 32% of
the 27 498 EU survey respondents express agreement with the notion that they are not concerned
about the environmentally-friendliness of their apparel (European Commission, 2019) while only
15% of 11 483 consumers from ten European countries consider important the environmental
impact of the apparel item when purchasing (YouGov, 2021). Moreover, approximately half of the
27 498 respondents indicate that apparel should be offered at the lowest possible price,
irrespective of the environmental impact or working conditions during its production, with a similar
proportion of respondents in disagreement with this statement (European Commission, 2019).
●
Approximately 82% of 27 498 survey respondents believe that there is insufficient information
available regarding environmental aspects and working conditions associated with apparel
(European Commission, 2019).
●
The willingness of having more information on the sustainability of products in the category of
‘textiles, clothing/footwear’ seems relatively high. In particular, 71% out of 26
635 survey
respondents in the EU-27 Member States express a desire to find more of the above-mentioned
products carrying the EU Ecolabel. This sentiment is prevalent in all countries, to varying degrees
(from 54% in Czechia to 83% in Portugal and Romania) (European Commission. Directorate
General for Environment, 2023).
●
Research by consumer organizations indicates that people are becoming increasingly aware of the
environmental issues related to the textile sector and are willing to adjust their behaviours as a
result (BEUC, 2023). For example, national-level surveys, particularly in Spain (OCU, 2018),
Germany (VZBV, 2022), and Austria (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a), have highlighted that a
significant majority of consumers prefer long-lasting clothing and are inclined to avoid purchasing
new items to support climate protection.
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1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
In summary, purchase decisions are very much influenced by the perception of quality and price, but there are
other factors (trends, sustainability, comfort, perceived value), which are of varying importance to different
population segments (based on their age, education level). Given the analysed information provided by surveys,
there is no doubt that quality in apparel is very important for consumers. As apparel quality is closely linked to
its durability, developing ecodesign requirements for this product aspect deserves further consideration.
Moreover, the fact that a high number of consumers believes that environmental information about apparel is
not sufficient is relevant for consideration of possible information requirements on environmental impacts of
apparel.
Equally important is the certainty that consumers would like to find more apparel holding the EU Ecolabel, which
supports the revision of requirements set by this label.
Criteria applied by consumers when buying apparel can support the inclusion and prioritization of ecodesign
requirements on certain product sustainability aspects (e.g. durability) and the setting of classes of
performance, as appropriate.
6.2.3
User quality assessment of apparel: key insights
Understanding how users assess the quality of apparel involves examining various phases and factors that
influence their perceptions. This assessment is influenced by intrinsic attributes like material and fit, as well as
extrinsic factors such as brand reputation and manufacturing location. Additionally, experienced features and
personal values play a significant role in shaping perceptions of quality. Consumers also tend to associate
durability and ease of care with higher quality apparel, with a strong expectation for long-lasting products.
Despite the role of price in influencing perceptions of quality and longevity expectations, studies suggest that
cheaper apparel is not necessarily synonymous with lower quality, indicating a complex relationship between
price and perceived value.
—
Phases of quality assessment by users:
●
Consumer evaluates the quality in apparel in three phases: at the point of purchase, during use,
and upon disposal (Piippo et al., 2022a).
—
Factors influencing the perception of quality:
●
Intrinsic attributes (material, fit), extrinsic factors (brand, manufacturing location), experienced
features, and values influence the perception of quality in apparel (Niinimäki, 2011; Koszewska,
2016; Henninger et al., 2017).
—
Interlinkages between durability and quality in apparel:
●
Durability and ease of care are associated with perceived quality (De Klerk and Lubbe, 2008;
Wakes et al., 2020a).
●
Consumers expect high-quality apparel to be durable (Yuille, 2015). In fact, 43% of survey
respondents declared that long-lasting products are generally better quality (Consumers, Health,
Agriculture and Food Executive Agency et al., 2018).
●
In 2019, nine in ten respondents (88 % out of 27 498 EU-27 citizens) indicated that apparel should
be made to last longer (European Commission, 2019). Among the reasons, over 45% of
respondents of another survey indicated that they will save money if apparel items such as coats
or jackets last longer (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency et al., 2018).
—
Role of price in apparel quality perception and longevity expectations:
●
Consumer expectations of apparel longevity are linked to the price, particularly for younger
generations (Monitor, Cotton Incorporated Lifestyle, 2018; Wakes et al., 2020a).
●
Price may not always accurately reflect quality and durability (Ghaani Farashahi et al., 2018a;
Wakes et al., 2020a). In fact, some studies indicate that cheaper apparel is not always synonymous
with lower quality (Wakes et al., 2020a; Badgett, 2017).
●
43% of Austrian survey participants express a willingness to buy long-lasting apparel despite the
price, with 30% already practising this behaviour (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a) while 55%
out of 1 000 German consumers would be willing to pay more for their apparel if being certain
about increased durability (VZBV, 2022).
●
For coats or jackets, over 60% of 1
001 respondents’ observations indicated that
it is hard to tell
how long a product will last (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency et al.,
2018).
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Overall, the references analysed provide consistent views on the fact that the assessment of quality by users
is multifactorial and somewhat subjective because, inter alia, it is largely based on tactile experience with the
apparel.
In the previous section, apparel quality has been highlighted as a key aspect users deem to be important in the
apparel they purchase. However, how consumers assess quality is not always clear as this can be very
subjective. For this reason, information on the performance of the product could provide consumers with
additional, objective quality parameters for the apparel. Information requirements on product aspects linked to
durability, and even reliability, could enable consumers to better understand and assess the quality of apparel.
In order to facilitate the user’s assessment of the quality of apparel, performance requirements based on
product durability, reliability and reusability aspects could, as appropriate, include minimum levels. Another
possibility could be to define requirements connected to the functional performance of apparel. Information
requirements related to the above-mentioned
product parameters could serve as metrics to guide users’
assessment of quality in apparel.
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6.2.4
Consumer behaviour towards labels on apparel
Consumer behaviour towards labels on apparel plays a pivotal role in shaping purchasing decisions and
influencing perceptions of product quality and sustainability. Expectations regarding label information vary, with
consumers expressing preferences for receiving details about durability and/or reparability either via official EU
labels, product descriptions, or retailers. Offering such information on labels has the potential to impact the
relative importance of price in purchasing decisions, highlighting the growing interest in transparency and
sustainability among consumers. This interest extends to EU Ecolabel products, with a substantial proportion of
survey respondents expressing a desire for more environmentally friendly options in apparel.
—
Consumer attention to labels in general:
•
There is limited information regarding the level of consumer attention to apparel labels generally
speaking, except for care labels (Section 6.3.2).
—
Expectations regarding label information:
•
Around 18% of over 4 880 user responses indicate that consumers expect to receive information
regarding the durability of coats or jackets via an EU official label while the majority prefers to receive
such information via product descriptions (39.9%) or via the retailer (36%) (Consumers, Health,
Agriculture and Food Executive Agency. et al., 2018).
•
Offering details about durability on labels could alter the relative importance of price when making
purchasing decisions (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency. et al., 2018).
•
A significant 74% of 1 000 Italian consumers expressed a strong need for clearer and more transparent
information about the sustainability of apparel and the production processes involved (Altroconsumo
and IPSOS, 2024).
•
In the case of reparability information, 14% of survey respondents expect to have such information
via an EU official label while the majority would opt to have it via the retailer (35.6%) and via product
descriptions (33.6%) (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency. et al., 2018).
—
Growing interest in EU Ecolabel products:
•
There is increasing interest in EU Ecolabel textile products. A total of 71% of 26 635 EU survey
respondents express a desire for more EU Ecolabel textile products. There is a consistent level of
interest across countries, ranging from 54% in Czechia to 83% in Portugal and Romania (European
Commission. Directorate General for Environment, 2023).
Understanding the way and extent to which consumers respond to information contained on labels can support
the development of information requirements, for instance related to the environmental impacts of a product
and its performance on specific product sustainability aspects.
6.2.5
Attitudes towards second-hand apparel purchase
There is a growing interest in second-hand apparel reflected in consumer attitudes. Evidence suggests a
significant portion of consumers are open to purchasing second-hand items. While concerns about hygiene and
a preference for new items persist among some, the appeal of financial savings and eco-friendly practices
drives many to incorporate second-hand pieces into their wardrobe. Additionally, emotional attachment to
clothing items further boosts positive attitudes towards second-hand shopping, highlighting a nuanced
approach to fashion consumption.
—
Consumer inclination towards second-hand apparel:
●
There is a certain interest among consumers towards second-hand apparel, as indicated by 34%
of the 26 595 respondents showing a readiness to buy second-hand apparel (European
Commission. Directorate General for Environment, 2014).
●
Over 70% of 27 498 respondents in the EU agree that the promotion of second-hand apparel
should be increased (European Commission, 2019).
●
About 37.4% of the population actively engages in buying second-hand apparel, while concerns
about hygiene and a preference for new items are primary reasons for non-participation (D&B,
2020a).
●
Those incorporating second-hand apparel tend to purchase fewer new items, with financial
savings, sustainability, and a preference for unique pieces being primary drivers (D&B, 2020a).
●
The emotional value users have for apparel items significantly boosts positive attitudes towards
second-hand clothing (Rulikova, 2020; Amini et al., 2021; Koay et al., 2022).
—
Marketing strategies in second-hand apparel:
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2006
Preliminary observations from Turunen and Gossen (2024) suggest that current second-hand
business models often employ consumption-promoting marketing strategies and include a rise in
unworn or lightly used items on second-hand platforms. Additionally, subscription models may
lead to shorter apparel lifespans, and self-service flea markets, with their low prices, can attract
shoppers more interested in the experience than in making responsible purchases (Turunen and
Gossen, 2024).
—
The concept of replacement rates and second-hand apparel:
●
The 'replacement rate' refers to the extent to which purchasing second-hand apparel substitutes
the need for new items (Nørup et al., 2019; Trzepacz et al., 2023). Studies show that second-hand
purchases generally reduce the need for new apparel, potentially extending the lifespan of existing
clothing (Nørup et al., 2019; Trzepacz et al., 2023). For example, a survey indicated that 39% of
second-hand buyers would have otherwise bought a new product (Vinted, 2021). However,
replacement rates vary, and factors such as the quality of second-hand items can influence their
environmental benefits (Farrant et al., 2010; Sandin and Peters, 2018; Trzepacz et al., 2023).
—
Gender and age dynamics:
●
Women show a higher inclination to purchase second-hand apparel, with approximately 40%
embracing this trend compared to just over 25% of men (European Commission. Directorate
General for Environment, 2014; D&B, 2020a).
●
The younger population, especially those aged 18-25, lead in the adoption of second-hand apparel,
while participation decreases in the 26-40 age group (D&B, 2020a).
The willingness of users to purchase previously used apparel (second-hand) can be relevant in view of the
potential definition of ecodesign requirements on reusability.
●
6.2.6
Attitudes towards the purchase of apparel made without harmful chemicals
Consumer attitudes towards chemicals in apparel encompass a spectrum of perceptions shaped by factors such
as fabric type, geographical location and evolving consumer preferences. Insights from surveys and analyses
offer valuable perspectives on the perceived risks associated with chemicals in apparel fabrics, highlighting
varying degrees of concern and priorities among consumers.
—
Chemical perception in apparel:
●
In a survey spanning 27 EU Member States, 60% of 26 718 respondents perceive chemicals in
apparel fabrics as minimally risky, with most not seeing them as a threat to people (European
Commission, 2009). However, more recent evidence shows that consumers are increasingly
concerned about the use of hazardous chemicals in apparel (Evaluation report of the Textile
Labelling Regulation, under development). In a survey of over 2 000 Spanish consumers, around
61% identified restricting hazardous chemicals in clothing as the second most important action
for policymakers (CECU, 2023).
●
Synthetics are perceived as posing the highest risk among fabric types, with only 22% categorising
them as significantly risky (European Commission, 2009).
—
Country-level variances in risk considerations:
●
A country-level analysis reveals that environmental and health risks are deemed very important
by about two-thirds of respondents in Germany and Slovakia. In contrast, more than six in ten
respondents in Denmark and the United Kingdom consider this aspect unimportant (European
Commission, 2009).
●
Data from the Fashion Revolution (2020) survey, covering 5 000 consumers across the United
Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, indicates that an average of 37% considers it
important to buy apparel produced without harmful chemicals. Similarly, 36% of 11 483
consumers from ten European countries consider important that there are less or no chemicals in
the apparel they are buying (YouGov, 2021).The surveys do not provide detailed information about
the types of chemicals.
The user perception towards chemicals in apparel, especially as regards substances that pose a risk to human
health or to the environment, could support the establishment of information requirements on the presence of
substances of concern. This in turn can inform possible actions that could be addressed in specific legislation
on the safe use of chemicals such as REACH (e.g. via prioritisation in the REACH restrictions “roadmap” which is
subject to periodic review by the Commission).
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2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
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2057
2058
2059
6.2.7
Attitudes towards the purchase of apparel made with recycled materials
Knowledge of consumer attitudes towards apparel containing recycled material (recycled content) is relevant
for the analysis of technologies reported in Section 9.
—
Consumer preference for recycled materials:
●
According to the Fashion Revolution (2020) survey of 5 000 consumers in the United Kingdom,
France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, an average of 11% emphasize the importance of their apparel
containing recycled materials.
Nearly 60% of the 2 500 Spanish consumers surveyed expressed a desire to purchase textiles
and/or footwear made from recycled materials, while around 25% reported that they have already
made such purchases (Asociación para la Gestión del Residuo Textil y el Calzado, 2024).
—
Age group differences:
●
Younger respondents (12-24 years old) give it greater importance, with 14% indicating a
preference for apparel containing recycled materials, compared to only 7% in the 55-75 age group
(Fashion Revolution, 2020).
6.3 Post-purchase aspects
6.3.1
User behaviour during use: laundering practices
User laundering practices include sorting before washing, use of a certain washing temperature, washing
frequency, choice of softeners and detergents, drying methods, ironing, and storage. Consumer behaviour
related to apparel laundering practices influences the environmental impact during the life of the product and
constitutes relevant input for the assessment of the environmental impact and the life cycle costs of an apparel
product.
Moreover, research indicates that consumer behaviour during the use and care of apparel may significantly
impact the lifespan of apparel too. It could therefore be a good idea for apparel items to be accompanied by
information for consumers and other end users on how to maintain the product to ensure a longer lifespan.
—
Sorting before washing:
●
Sorting practices vary based on factors like washing temperature, colour, fibre type, and care
labelling (Laitala et al., 2012).
●
Sorting based on washing temperature is more common among consumers compared to washing
everything together (Laitala et al., 2012).
—
Washing temperature and washing frequency:
●
The average European washing temperature is 42.4 °C (A.I.S.E, 2020).
●
Differences in washing habits (i.e. washing temperature used, choice of detergent and softeners,
etc.) are observed across countries. Factors like age, location and societal norms contribute.
●
Sportswear often features distinct fibres and fabrics that can quickly absorb sweat and may lead
to unpleasant odours, necessitating more frequent laundering compared to everyday casual wear
(Wei et al., 2020; Chang and Wang, 2023) typically after a single use (Brice and Thorpe, 2021).
●
User beliefs about hygiene and convenience may impact the apparel washing frequency (D&B,
2020a).
—
Choice of softeners and detergents:
●
Users often dose detergent arbitrarily; overdosing is common (A.I.S.E, 2020).
●
Fabric softeners are used in approximately 55% of washing cycles in Europe (Stamminger, 2016
as cited in Klepp and Laitala, 2023a).
●
Economic factors play a substantial role in users' choices of laundry products.
—
Consumer awareness on microplastics release during washing cycles:
●
A survey of 411 Belgian citizens revealed that while 68% are aware of plastic pollution, only 37%
are aware of microfiber pollution and its connection to the issue. Awareness of synthetic fibre
pollution is lowest among individuals under 25 (29%) and highest among those aged 41 to 60
and over 60, though still less than half in these groups are informed (43%) (Herweyers et al.,
2020).
—
Drying and ironing:
●
Analysing domestic apparel ironing and drying phases is challenging due to the limited availability
of data (Munasinghe et al., 2021).
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Diverse drying methods include air-drying, electric dryers and dedicated drying spaces. Survey data
provide insights into specific drying methods where line-dried outdoors (natural drying) is one of
the most commonly used drying methods for apparel (Laitala et al., 2020; GINETEX, 2017a).
●
Ironing practices have decreased over the years; habits vary across countries and demographics.
The frequency of ironing is influenced by gender and age; men and younger respondents tend to
iron less (Klepp and Laitala, 2023b).
—
Storage after washing and drying
●
The folding and storage of apparel after washing and drying may influence the lifespan of apparel.
However, no studies have been found on post-washing, drying and storage behaviours.
Sufficient information is available on commonly used washing temperatures among users as well as washing
frequency. When it comes to sorting before washing, drying and ironing practices, the literature is more limited.
Additionally, the surveys analysed on choice of softeners and detergents provide valuable information for the
LCA modelling phase given that softeners could be a source of substances of concern to be taken into
consideration.
●
6.3.2
Following apparel care label instructions
Apparel care labels provide instructions on washing temperature, cycles, detergents, etc. Surveys and studies
shed light on consumer attitudes and behaviours regarding care label instructions, revealing insights into
adherence rates, preferences for accessing instructions, and associations with care label symbols.
—
Attitudes towards care label instructions:
●
Surveys indicate that a significant percentage of users follow care instructions on apparel labels
(GINETEX, 2017a; GINETEX, 2019).
●
Users’ adherence to care labels diminishes after the initial wash (McLaren et al., 2015).
●
Some users cut out care labels, affecting the resale potential of apparel (GINETEX 2017).
●
Some users prefer new ways to access the apparel care instructions, such as QR codes on
smartphones (COFREET, 2023; Ribeiro et al., 2023).
—
Association with care label symbols:
●
Surveys show consistent understanding of symbols like ironing and washing (AB-REOC and BV-
OECO, 2019; GINETEX, 2017a).
●
Users’ poorer understanding of symbols for bleaching, drying, and professional cleaning may be
due to them being less intuitive (AB-REOC and BV-OECO, 2019; GINETEX, 2017a).
Relevant information can be extracted from the available surveys on user interaction with care labels, especially
when it comes to the extent to which users follow care labels in Europe. For other user behaviour patterns in
relation to care labels, information is available only from one survey, and so not allowing the comparison of
information from different sources. Nonetheless, all the surveys related to user behaviour and apparel care
labels have an ample respondent base, making the results valuable for the preparatory study at hand.
Additionally, the user behaviour analysis provides insights on apparel maintenance aspects that may either be
missing or need further clarification on care labels. This is valuable data for the development of information
requirements for consumers on how to use and maintain the product in order to minimise its impact on the
environment and to allow for optimal duration.
Finally, consumer opinions about care label instructions and their level of adherence to them can guide the
manner in which the information could be provided (e.g. in the Digital Product Passport or directly on a label as
referred to in Article 14 of the ESPR final compromise text).
6.3.3
Reparability
The consumer relationship with apparel often exhibits a transient nature, characterised by the disposal of items
before they reach the end of their lifecycle. This disposability stems from factors such as overconsumption and
the convenience of replacing rather than repairing apparel. Moreover, diminishing sewing skills and limited
access to repair services further impact consumers' decisions regarding garment maintenance and repair.
—
Transitory relationship with apparel:
●
Consumers have a transient relationship with apparel, often disposing of items before they are
worn out or broken (Harris et al., 2016).
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2160
2161
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2165
2166
Reasons for this behaviour include overconsumption and the convenience of replacing unwanted
items rather than repairing them. A lack of emotional attachment to the product is observed
(Terzioğlu, 2021; EEA, 2022a).
●
Most survey respondents rated reparability as unimportant when purchasing apparel items such
as coats or jackets while only about 11% considered reparability to be important (Consumers,
Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency. et al., 2018).
—
User decisions and repair capabilities:
●
Sewing skills for apparel repair are diminishing, attributed to a lack of dedicated teaching in
schools and at home and a scarcity of time and repair equipment (Finnish Ministry of the
Environment, 2023a).
●
Trust in one's own skills is a significant motivator for engaging in sewing and repairs (Finnish
Ministry of the Environment, 2023a).
●
Users decide to mend apparel based on sewing skills; some can sew a button, but fewer can
replace zippers (Laitala and Boks, 2012).
—
The apparel repair sector in the EU:
●
Repair in Europe is common, but the total cost is influenced by high labour costs, equipment, and
materials (EEA, 2022a).
●
On average, the share of survey respondents rating the availability of repair services as having a
lot of influence on their purchasing decision was relatively low (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and
Food Executive Agency et al., 2018).
●
Difficulties accessing repair services notably diminished the appeal of repair (Consumers, Health,
Agriculture and Food Executive Agency et al., 2018).
●
Lack of information about, trust in, and satisfaction with repair services hinder consumer
engagement (EEA, 2022a).
●
Research by Laitala et al., (2023) emphasizes the need for clear guidelines on what constitutes
unacceptable wear versus normal use.
The user behaviour analysis identifies a series of common apparel repairs that users generally carry out. These
apparel repairs are generally limited to simple ones, such as substituting a button, and only a limited fraction
of the population is skilled enough to engage in more demanding repairs such as changing a zipper.
Performance requirements for reparability could be considered to ensure the availability of replacement
components that, according to users, tend to break or wear out most frequently. Moreover, information on the
period of availability of spare parts (e.g. buttons and other accessories) and the possibilities of repairing may
also contribute to further user engagement in repair activities whether privately or by visiting repair shops.
It could also be envisaged that information requirements would provide instructions or 'use cues' in the product
to guide the correct repair or replacement of the above-mentioned apparel components. This could facilitate
the ease of self-repair by the user but also guide tailors when repairing apparel, guaranteeing that a certain
level of quality in the apparel repair is achieved. Some of this information could be included in the Digital
Product Passport.
●
6.3.4
Storage of apparel
User behaviour regarding storage of apparel is linked to aspects described in Section 6.2 and Section 6.4.3. The
storage of apparel items, whether temporary or permanent, appears to be strongly connected to the emotional
attachment individuals have to their apparel. Increasing the emotional durability could potentially make users
keep their items for longer, avoiding disposal and potentially increasing the number of uses. However, such
storage does not prevent users from continuing to buy more apparel.
—
Types of apparel storage:
●
Apparel storage can be classified into two categories: active and inactive. Active apparel storage
involves placing regularly worn items inside wardrobes or easily accessible spaces. Inactive apparel
storage refers to keeping items at home without use for an extended period. Inactive storage
constitutes over 30% of apparel in European closets (European Parliamentary Research Service,
2019).
—
Reasons for inactive apparel storage:
●
Inactive apparel may include items that no longer fit, stored with the hope they will fit again, and
as a means of monitoring weight (Bye and McKinney, 2007).
—
Temporary storage practices:
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2167
2168
2169
2170
2171
2172
2173
2174
2175
2176
2177
2178
2179
2180
2181
2182
2183
2184
2185
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2193
2194
2195
2196
2197
2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205
2206
2207
2208
2209
2210
2211
2212
2213
Temporary storage occurs when users are contemplating disposal methods, waiting for apparel to
come back into fashion, repairing, or determining if there are still ways to utilise the apparel
(Cluver, 2008a).
—
Storage of basic apparel:
●
Essential but outdated or worn-out basic apparel is stored until substitutes are purchased (Cluver,
2008a).
Information requirements related to the end-of-use options (e.g. reusability) for apparel that is no longer wanted
could encourage users to opt to give a second life to their apparel, for instance via donation. This would avoid
the storage of apparel users no longer wish to wear or to keep in their closets.
●
6.4 User behaviour related to the disposal of apparel
6.4.1
Reasons for the disposal of apparel
Disposal (
120
) of apparel happens when a user transfers its ownership to another person or entity (Cluver,
2008a).
The main reasons for apparel disposal seem to be due to certain product characteristics changing over time,
damage or simply for reasons related to consumer preferences.
—
Factors influencing disposal decisions:
●
Individual characteristics, habits, demographics, product traits, and quality influence the decision
to dispose of an apparel products (Cluver, 2008; Goworek et al., 2012, as cited in Harris et al.,
2016; Sandin et al., 2019).
●
Perceived quality is crucial; low quality may lead to early disposal, and owning new apparel
frequently shortens usage time (Aakko and Niinimäki, 2022).
●
Loss of symbolic perceived value also contributes to early disposal (Gwozdz et al., 2017a).
—
Reasons for apparel disposal:
●
A review by Laitala and Klepp, (2022) of 17 consumer studies involving around 20 000
participants identified the most common reasons for apparel disposal as intrinsic quality (34%),
perceived value (31.4%), and fit issues (25.8%). These findings are consistent with the results
summarized in
Table 36,
which also highlight these factors as the primary reasons for apparel
disposal. While quality-related concerns are the leading cause, perceived value and fit issues are
almost equally significant.
●
Price influences disposal frequency, with consumers valuing higher-priced items and disposing of
cheaper apparel more frequently (Morgan and Birtwistle, 2009; Joy et al., 2012).
—
Intrinsic durability and user perceptions:
●
Intrinsic durability, defined during product design, influences the ability of apparel to withstand
wear without compromising functionality and aesthetics (Alliance of Commerce and Deloitte,
2022).
●
Physical issues like abrasion, colour changes, and broken zippers contribute to the perceived loss
of intrinsic durability (Laitala and Boks, 2012).
—
Disposed apparel problems:
●
Predominant problems of disposed apparel: colour fading and fabric-related issues.
●
Other issues: pilling, fabric breakdown, accidental damage, loss of dimensional stability, logo
failure, discoloration, holes in seams, and trim failure (Cooper and Claxton, 2022b).
The combined dataset in
Table 36
from various studies (detailed in Section
10.6.3.1)
provides a comprehensive
view of global apparel disposal trends. Survey participants across countries commonly cite intrinsic quality and
fit as reasons for disposal of apparel.
Perceived value, taste-related factors, situational reasons, and fashion trends also play a role in apparel
disposal. Overall, there is a complex interplay of individual factors contributing to disposal decisions.
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2214
Table 36.
Main reasons for apparel disposal
Main reasons for the disposal (expressed in % of respondents)
Other (e.g.
Intrinsic
Perceived
Situational
quality (e.g
value (e.g.
Fashion
Fit issues
reasons,
worn-out
taste-related
changes
functional
items)
unsuitability)
shortcomings)
92
60
49
72
9
19
64
21
11
40
NA
NA
NA
4
19
Publication
Country
Greenpeace,
(2015)
Ungerth and
Carlsson,
(2011)
Laitala and
Boks, (2012))
Laitala and
Klepp (2020)
WRAP (2017b)
Lang,
Armstrong,
and Brannon
(2013)
Morell-
Delgado et al.,
(2024)
YouGov,
(2019)
Accenture,
(2022)
Germany
Sweden
Norway
China,
Germany,
Japan, United
Kingdom, and
USA
United
Kingdom
USA
44
13
35
NA
9
18
30
42
31
33
39
NA
NA
NA
NA
Spain
Italy
Poland
NA
60
38
44
47
21
21.5
16
7
NA
12
6
2.5
2
21
2215
2216
2217
2218
2219
2220
2221
2222
2223
2224
2225
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
2231
2232
2233
2234
2235
2236
2237
2238
2239
2240
2241
N.B. NA: Not Available
Source: Own elaboration based on data provided in the indicated publications.
Changes in the product’s characteristics may relate to apparel quality issues that can shed light on which types
of performance and information requirements could be prioritised extend the duration of use of apparel
products. For instance, in order to enhance technical durability for an extended usage period, it is crucial to
understand the reasons behind consumer apparel disposal. Gaining such insights should aid in assessing
possible ecodesign requirements that foster the durability of the apparel, while also addressing practices
associated with premature disposal of apparel which have an overall negative impact on the environment.
Moreover, the reasons for disposal can focus on certain
aspects of the product’s performance.
6.4.2
Disposal channels
Users may dispose of apparel directly in the residual waste, donate it for reuse or pass on to family and friends.
—
Disposal trends:
●
The person-product type of attachment plays a key role in how apparel may be disposed of.
Sharing within social circles is consistent behaviour when there are positive associations with the
user’s apparel. Negative associations with the apparel may result
in donation, swapping, or
disposal in the waste bin (Joung and Park-Poaps, 2013; Lewis, 2015). At the same time, throwing
away usable apparel is generally perceived negatively and as socially reproachable behaviour.
●
The overarching observation made by the European Commission. Directorate General Joint
Research Centre (2021) study regarding the quality of apparel found in residual waste is that there
exists a correlation between the proportion of apparel collected separately and the average quality
and value of apparel discarded in residual waste. According to the above-mentioned study, this
relationship is partly attributable to households' discerning decisions regarding the perceived
monetary value of apparel, determining which items merit donation or resale for reuse, and which
have minimal reuse potential. Supporting this notion, a 2018 study conducted in Denmark (Watson
et al., 2018) lends credence to this theory. It suggests that the 42 000 tonnes of apparel disposed
of in Danish residual waste for incineration in 2017 held an estimated value of 12-15 million
euros prior to disposal. In contrast, the 36 000 tonnes of apparel separately collected were sold
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2242
2243
2244
2245
2246
2247
2248
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2254
2255
2256
2257
2258
2259
2260
2261
2262
2263
2264
2265
2266
2267
2268
2269
2270
2271
2272
2273
2274
2275
2276
2277
2278
2279
2280
2281
2282
2283
2284
2285
2286
2287
2288
2289
2290
2291
2292
2293
2294
on reuse markets for an estimated 65 million euros, signifying a value per tonne that is four to
five times higher.
The way users dispose of their apparel provides valuable data that can help shape information requirements
related to end-of-life behaviour. For instance, information requirements may guide consumers and public
authorities towards more sustainable choices when disposing of apparel, which could also contribute to
enhanced separate apparel collection rates as prescribed by the Waste Framework Directive by Member States
given the significant reuse potential of apparel.
6.4.3
Person-product attachment
The emotional attachment formed between the apparel and the consumer is generally referred to as ‘person–
product attachment’.
This type of connection between a user and an
apparel item has an influence on how long
consumers own certain apparel and how often they make use of it. This person-product attachment is usually
embedded in the term ‘emotional durability’, which goes
beyond just functionality. The Ellen MacArthur
Foundation report (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2021)
defines emotional durability as: ‘the product’s relevance
and desirability to a user, or multiple users, over time’.
—
Ownership categories:
●
Ownership categories include 'active' (daily use), 'seldom' (several times a year), and 'inactive/in
storage' (rarely or never used) (Niinimäki and Armstrong, 2013).
●
A survey by Niinimäki and Armstrong (2013) identified elements fostering person-product
attachment:
o
Functionality: Comfort, good fit, multi-function, ease of matching, easy to put on.
o
Memory: Memories, received from a special person, family ties.
o
Emotional satisfaction: Looking/feeling good, receiving compliments, love for the brand.
o
Design and style: Good design, in style.
o
Fabric and material: Nice colour, pleasant touch, aesthetic, flexible.
o
Personal values, quality, effort invested, and financial value: Uniqueness, feeling relaxed,
durability, high quality, hand-made, reward for self, price (Niinimäki and Armstrong, 2013).
—
Value of new apparel and barriers to reuse:
●
Newly purchased apparel holds the highest emotional attachment due to its perceived intrinsic
value (Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022).
●
New apparel is used more frequently than older apparel; second-hand apparel is used 30% less
(Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022).
●
Reuse may extend the possession span but does not necessarily increase apparel usage (Laitala
and Klepp, 2021).
—
Emotional durability as a forward-looking issue:
●
Emotional durability, linked to consumer perceptions, is challenging to measure, relying on social
science concepts (Alliance of Commerce and Deloitte, 2022).
—
Quality as a key factor in prolonged use:
●
Quality is a significant factor in incentivising prolonged apparel use. In fact, consumers express
willingness to wear apparel longer if it is of better quality, maintains shape and colour, and has a
bonding effect (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2019; Laitala et al., 2021a).
—
Role of designers in increasing emotional attachment:
●
Strategies to promote the product-person attachment include designing for long-term needs,
incorporating added value, and creating adaptable, modular, or timeless products (Niinimäki and
Armstrong, 2013; Alliance of Commerce and Deloitte, 2022).
6.4.4
Returns of apparel
The dynamics of online shopping and returns encompass various facets that influence consumer behaviour and
preferences. Convenience emerges as a primary driver for the proliferation of online purchases, while return
policies and processes significantly shape the shopping experience. This overview delves into return rates,
underlying reasons for returns, and the factors influencing return behaviour, shedding light on the complexities
of the retail returns landscape.
—
Online shopping and returns:
●
Convenience is a key reason for online shopping (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a).
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2295
2296
2297
2298
2299
2300
2301
2302
2303
2304
2305
2306
2307
2308
2309
2310
2311
2312
2313
2314
2315
2316
2317
2318
2319
2320
2321
Long return periods encourage more apparel orders, while inconvenient return processes lead to
items being stored rather than returned (Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022).
—
Return rates and demographics:
●
Casual dresses, jackets and jeans have high return rates, with expensive products more likely to
be returned (EEA, 2024).
●
Women tend to return more online purchases than men (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a; British
Fashion Council’s Institute of Positive and Roland Berger, 2023).
●
Young consumers, more active in online shopping, tend to return apparel more frequently, ordering
multiple sizes (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a).
—
Reasons for returns:
●
Fit issues:
Fit issues is the main reason for returns, followed by taste-related unsuitability
(including shape, material, colour, or pattern dislike), quality and faulty items (Foresight Factory,
2021; Zimmermann et al., 2021).
●
Mis-buying:
Common issue with online shopping, driven by fitting problems and consumer dislikes
(Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022).
●
Quality concerns:
Low quality, lack of durability, and buyer's remorse also contribute to returns
(Bernon et al., 2011).
—
Factors influencing returns:
●
Sizing issues:
Difficulty interpreting sizing scales and inconsistent sizing contribute to fitting
problems (Vladimirova et al., 2022).
●
Return policies:
Consumers often check return policies before purchasing, and their return
experience influences repeat purchases (Asdecker and Sucky, 2019).
●
Assumptions about returns:
Many consumers assume returned items are always resold,
impacting their return behaviour (Makov, 2023).
Similarly to the reasons for apparel disposal, the causes for apparel returns may shed light on the product
aspects that are important for users, e.g. quality. This could support the potential inclusion of durability
ecodesign requirements.
●
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2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2327
2328
2329
2330
2331
2332
2333
2334
2335
2336
2337
2338
2339
2340
2341
2342
2343
7
Current EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products
This section analyses the current EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products
(
121
) in light of their revision. Section
7.1 reports the facts and figures of the criteria, whereas Section 7.2 provides the main suggestions for the
criteria revision received via the initial questionnaire (see Table 1 in Section 1). Section 7.3 describes the
relationship between the new mandatory ecodesign framework (ESPR) and the revision of the EU Ecolabel
criteria for textile products. Finally, Section 7.4 provides a detailed comparison of the criteria for textile products
set by the EU Ecolabel, Blue Angel and Nordic Swan. This analysis set the bases to address Article 6(f) of the
EU Ecolabel Regulation which promotes synergy with other officially recognised ISO Type I environmental labels
(Ecolabels).
7.1 Facts and figures
In recent years, the number of licences and products awarded the EU Ecolabel for textile products has
continuously increased (Figure
58
in Section 10.7.1). In September 2023, the EU Ecolabel for textile products
counted 86 licences and 9 250 products. The most licences were awarded by Denmark, Italy and Norway,
representing 28%, 21% and 13% of the total, respectively. The most products were awarded by Portugal, Italy
and Denmark, representing 42%, 36% and 14% of the total, respectively. More details are available in
Table
100
in Section 10.7.1.
Table 37 reports the figures published in September 2023 according to the type of products. Most licences and
products awarded were textile apparel: 76% and 32% of the total products and licences, respectively.
Home/interior textiles were 8% and 18% of the total products and licences, respectively. Cleaning products were
11% and 16% of the total products and licences, respectively. Intermediate products represent a significant
percentage in terms of licences but less in products.
Table 37.
Figures of types of products awarded the EU Ecolabel for textile products in September 2023
Licences
Type of product
Textile apparel
Home/interior textiles
Textile cleaning products
Intermediate products,
such as textile fibres, yarns, fabrics and knitted panels
Intermediate products,
such as non-fibre elements
Number
27
15
14
27
2
Percentage
of the total (%)
32
18
16
32
2
Products
Number
6 947
688
1 012
512
4
Percentage
of the total (%)
76
8
11
6
<1
2344
2345
2346
2347
2348
2349
2350
2351
2352
2353
2354
2355
2356
2357
N.B. The number of licences and products is affected by the reporting methods used by competent bodies. This results in small discrepancies
compared to the total statistics.
Source: own elaboration based on data provided by EU Ecolabel Helpdesk
7.2 Suggestions for the revision of EU Ecolabel criteria
When voting on the final draft of the current EU Ecolabel criteria, in November 2013, the Commission and the
Member States identified some aspects to potentially be assessed during the subsequent revision process of
the EU Ecolabel criteria. The proposal suggested investigating the extension of the scope to silk, bamboo fibres,
man-made fibres, as well as the use of additional recycled materials and potential alternatives to the use of
fluorinated membranes.
The initial questionnaire (see
Table 1
in Section 1) allowed the collection of respondents’ opinions on the current
EU Ecolabel criteria and on the potential topics to investigate during the revision process. Out of 34 respondents,
10 belonged to the manufacturing industry and 6 to governmental institutions (4 competent bodies of the EU
Ecolabel), 29% and 18% of the total, respectively. More details about the types of respondents are provided in
Table 101
in Section 10.7.2.
121
EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. Commission Decision of 5 June 2014 establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the
EU Ecolabel for textile products. Commission Decision (2014/350/EU). Available at
this link.
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2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
2363
2364
2365
2366
2367
2368
2369
2370
2371
2372
2373
2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
2380
2381
2382
2383
2384
2385
2386
2387
2388
2389
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
2395
2396
2397
2398
2399
2400
2401
2402
2403
2404
2405
In general, current EU Ecolabel criteria are perceived to be too complex, and the application process cumbersome
and bureaucratic, with most of the costs and difficulties being related to the involvement of suppliers, tests and
certifications.
In particular, two competent bodies declared that applicants usually need clarifications/guidance on which
products are included in the scope, and which are the corresponding criteria that these specific products must
meet. A couple of competent bodies reported that some applicants gave up with the application, because they
lacked data and information on their supply chain. This is further confirmation of the features of the supply
chain discussed in Section 5.6.
Respondents had different general perceptions about the interest in the EU Ecolabel criteria: 32% think that
consumers look for textile products with the EU Ecolabel, 52% think that consumers do not look for products
with the EU Ecolabel, and 16% have no opinion.
Respondents to the initial questionnaire gave specific suggestions on the requirements of the current EU
Ecolabel criteria for textile products, reported in Section 10.7.2,
Table 102
to
Table 106.
General suggestions on how to improve the EU Ecolabel criteria included:
•
•
•
•
•
•
simplification of the application process;
harmonisation of the requirements with the ones of other Type I ecolabels;
use of more third-party certifications to prove compliance with the criteria (e.g. on chemicals)
to streamline the verification process;
facilitating the retrieval of information from the supply chain actors outside the EU;
inclusion of criteria addressing product recyclability and packaging;
alignment with ecodesign requirements developed in the framework of the ESPR.
7.3 Revision of EU Ecolabel criteria within the ESPR framework
The establishment of the ESPR brings a change in the revision of the EU Ecolabel criteria for products addressed
by a delegated act of the ESPR. This is the case of the EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. As mentioned in
Section 1, Article 34(3) of the ESPR establishes synergies between the mandatory ecodesign legislative
framework and the EU Ecolabel, as the EU Ecolabel could be used as proof of compliance to Ecodesign
requirements when ESPR and EU Ecolabel cover the same product groups. The ESPR and EU Ecolabel
requirements must therefore be coherent and synergic to guarantee that products awarded the EU Ecolabel
comply with the ESPR requirements set in the relevant delegated act. Therefore, the revision of the EU Ecolabel
criteria for textile products remains regulated by the EU Ecolabel Regulation, but it should also follow the
framework of the ESPR.
In particular, this means that the EU Ecolabel criteria should complement ecodesign requirements, increasing
the ambition level set by the ESPR, complying with the specificities of the EU Ecolabel Regulation. For instance,
the EU Ecolabel criteria could restrict hazardous chemicals and consider ethical and social aspects where
appropriate, as well as they could forbid or restrict the use of specific chemicals and substances.
The EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products set the product environmental performance at fibre, fabric and
product level:
•
•
•
specific fibres must meet requirements on sourcing and emissions at their production stage;
fabrics must demonstrate that they satisfy specific physical durability parameters;
the product, as well as its components, must meet specific requirements regarding chemical
content.
These EU Ecolabel criteria disregard the final function of the product, e.g. there is no distinction as to whether
a fabric is used as component of a T-shirt, a winter jacket, or a sofa. As explained in Section 3.2, the same
approach cannot be used in the PS because ecodesign requirements must include aspects like durability and
recycled content, which are closely related to the function and use of the textile product. A preliminary exchange
with the textile industry and associations provided important information on this subject. First, a fabric must be
designed considering its final use because it undergoes different wear and tear according to the function and
use of the textile product. Second, the fact that mechanically recycled natural fibres are shorter than virgin
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2406
2407
2408
2409
2410
2411
2412
2413
2414
2415
2416
2417
2418
2419
2420
2421
2422
2423
2424
2425
2426
2427
natural fibres significantly affects the physical characteristics of the yarn and consequently of the fabric. The
longer the fibre, the thinner the manufactured yarn can be. Specific yarns are used to produce specific fabrics.
In general, a T-shirt, which requires thin yarns, can contain less mechanically recycled natural fibre than a coat,
which can be manufactured with thicker yarns. This means that the possibility to use a specific quantity of
recycled natural fibres in a textile product depends on the function performed by the textile product. Additionally,
the characteristics of the yarn affect the aesthetic and it influences the comfort provided to the user.
7.4 Looking for synergies with other Ecolabels used in the EU
Article 6(f) of the EU Ecolabel Regulation promotes synergy with other officially recognised ISO Type I
environmental labels (Ecolabels). In the EU, besides the EU Ecolabel for textile products, there are the following:
•
•
Blue Angel
–
The German Ecolabel: criteria are set by DE-UZ 154 Basic Award Criteria. Edition
January 2023, version 2
(
122
).
Nordic Swan Ecolabel: criteria are set by
‘Textiles,
hides/skins, and leather’. Version 5.4
(
123
).
Table 38
reports the scope of these Ecolabels according to the classification adopted in this PS. Besides some
differences, the three Ecolabels include in their scope apparel, home/interior textiles, technical textiles like
cleaning textiles (with the exception of Nordic Swan), and intermediate textile products. Nordic Swan is the only
Ecolabel addressing hide and leather products.
Section 10.7.3 (from
Table 107
to
Table 113)
describes in parallel the topics addressed by the criteria of the
three Ecolabels, which all have the same approach. They set the product environmental performance at fibre,
fabric and product level, as described for the EU Ecolabel criteria in Section 7.3.
The three Ecolabels address the same main topics, even if there are differences in terms of ambition level,
specific substances and test methods used as verification.
122
123
Blue Angel
–
The German Ecolabel: DE-UZ 154 Basic Award Criteria. Edition January 2023, version 2. Available at
this link.
Last
accessed on 12 January 2024.
Nordic Swan Ecolabel: Textiles, hides/skins, and leather. Version 5.4. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
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2428
Table 38.
Scope of the textile Ecolabels used the most in the EU
Type of
product
EU Ecolabel (
a
)
Blue Angel (
b
)
- Textile clothing and textile
accessories consisting of at
least 90% textile fibres by
mass.
- Functional clothing in which
more than 90% by mass of the
material is textile fibres or
textile substances that have
undergone finishing processes
(impregnation, sealing, etc.).
- Textile products for use inside
buildings (house and home
textiles incl. uncoated carpets)
consisting of at least 90%
textile fibres by mass.
- Bedding consisting of at least
90% textile fibres by mass.
- Cleaning textiles: woven or
non-woven textiles consisting of
at least 90% textile fibres by
mass that are designed for the
wet or dry cleaning of surfaces
or for drying household articles.
- Textile products designed for
food contact (e.g. waxed cloths).
Nordic Swan
(
c
)
Apparel
Textile clothing and
accessories: clothing and
accessories consisting of at
least 80% by weight of textile
fibres in a woven, non-woven
or knitted form.
Apparel and accessories, for example
trousers, shirts, jackets, workwear,
uniforms, underwear, handkerchiefs,
scarves.
Home/interior
textiles
Interior textiles:
textile products for interior use
consisting of at least 80% by
weight of textile fibres in a
woven, non-woven or knitted
form.
Furnishing fabrics (for both private and
professional use), such as towels,
bedding, curtains, tablecloths, pillows,
duvets, plus textiles for use in the
furnishing of cars/trains/aircraft/boats.
Technical
textiles
Cleaning products:
woven or non-woven products
made from textile fibres and
intended for the wet or dry
cleaning of surfaces and the
drying of kitchenware
Textile fibres, yarn, fabric and
knitted panels:
intermediate products intended
for use in textile clothing and
accessories and interior
textiles, including upholstery
fabric and mattress ticking
prior to the application of
backings and treatments
associated with the final
product.
Non-fibre elements:
intermediate products that are
incorporated into textile
clothing and accessories and
interior textiles, including zips,
buttons and other accessories,
as well as membranes,
coatings and laminates.
NA
Intermediate
products
- Fibres, yarn, fabric, knitted and
crocheted items, non-wovens
(including textile composites).
- Fibres made of stainless steel
and mineral fibres are limited to
a maximum of 10% by mass.
- Fibres*, yarn, fabric.
* Only the following fibre types can be
certified with the Nordic Swan Ecolabel
as a certified fibre and only if the
relevant fibre requirements of the
criteria are met: Organic cotton fibres,
wool, and other creatine fibres (either
sheep, camel, alpaca, or goat),
regenerated cellulose produced by
closed loop process, flax (linen), silk,
bamboo, sisal and other bast fibres.
- Durable non-woven textiles that are
to be used for apparel and accessories
or in interior furnishings.
- Purses, wallets, and bags.
- Hide and leather products, such as
jackets, trousers or bags, and
hides/skins and leather as raw
materials for clothing or home
furnishings (including for
cars/trains/aircraft/boats), from the
following species of animal: sheep,
goat, cow, horse, pig, elk, deer, and
reindeer.
Other
products
NA
Handbags, bicycle bags,
backpacks and school bags
consisting of at least 70%
textile fibres by mass.
2429
2430
2431
2432
2433
2434
(a)
(b)
EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. Commission Decision (2014/350/EU).
Blue Angel
–
The German Ecolabel: DE-UZ 154 Basic Award Criteria. Edition January 2023, version 2.
(c)
Nordic Swan Ecolabel: Textiles, hides/skins, and leather. Version 5.4.
N.B. The classification of the type of products follows the classification adopted in this PS, which does not necessarily correspond to the
classification given by the specific Ecolabel. NA: Not available.
Source: own production
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2435
2436
2437
2438
2439
2440
2441
2442
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
2449
2450
2451
2452
2453
2454
2455
2456
2457
2458
2459
2460
2461
2462
2463
2464
2465
2466
2467
2468
2469
2470
2471
2472
2473
8
Public procurement and current EU voluntary Green Public Procurement
criteria
As mentioned in Section 1, the PS will provide the scientific and technical basis for the future development of
the possible mandatory EU GPP requirements for textile products within the framework of the ESPR. To this
aim, it is important to assess the current public procurement of apparel in the EU (Section 8.1), and the current
status of the voluntary EU GPP criteria, which could provide important learnings for the development of future
mandatory criteria (Section 8.2).
8.1 Public procurement in the EU
Public procurement in the EU is regulated by Directive 2014/24/EU
(
124
),
Directive 2014/23/EU (
125
) and Directive
2014/25/EU
(
126
).
Monitoring public procurement is currently a challenging task. The first reporting and
monitoring exercise (COM(2021) 245 final)
(
127
)
submitted by Member States showed that all reports contained
more qualitative information than quantitative data. Additionally, the incomplete available data limited the
analysis at EU level (COM(2021) 245 final). The monitoring exercise showed that Member States follow
different methodologies for data collection, and that in several cases there were discrepancies between figures
collected at country level and figures reported on Tenders Electronic Daily (TED)
(
128
).
TED is the online version of the 'Supplement to the Official Journal' of the EU, which is dedicated to European
public procurement. TED gathers information covering public procurement for the European Economic Area,
Switzerland, and the Republic of North Macedonia from 1 January 2006 to 31 December 2021. These data
include the most important information of the contract notice and contract award notice standard forms, such
as who bought what from whom, for how much, and which procedure and award criteria were used. Therefore,
TED is the only platform that can currently be used to analyse public procurement in the EU.
Generally, the data reported in TED consist of tenders above the procurement threshold of EUR 139 000.
Nevertheless, many public authorities register on TED data of their tenders below this mandatory threshold.
Goods, works, and services that are being procured are classified with Common Procurement Vocabulary (CPV)
codes. CPV codes help procurement personnel to classify their contract notices and to help suppliers find the
notices which are of interest.
Each CPV code nine digits: the first two digits identify the divisions (XX000000-Y); the first three digits identify
the groups (XXX00000-Y); the first four digits identify the classes (XXXX0000-Y); the first five digits identify the
categories (XXXXX000-Y). Each of the last three digits gives a greater degree of precision within each category.
A ninth digit serves to verify the previous digits.
Table 114
in Section 10.8.1 reports the CPV codes for products in the scope of the PS.
CPV codes related to apparel were investigated in the TED dataset (
129
) for 5 years before the pandemic (2015-
2019). This time interval was chosen to investigate the latest evolution of public procurements without
considering the market disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.
The description of CPV codes reported in the Contract Award allowed the analysis of apparel public procurement
as reported in
Table 39.
The number of Contract Awards procuring apparel in the EU gradually increased from
556 in 2015 to 1 261 in 2019. Products included in the CPV group of
‘Occupational clothing, special workwear
and accessories’
were the most purchased by public authorities in the investigated years, representing between
42% and 46% of the total procured apparel reported in TED.
124
125
126
127
128
129
Public Procurement Directive. Directive 2014/24/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on public
procurement and repealing Directive 2004/18/EC (Text with EEA relevance)Text with EEA relevance. Available at
this link.
Award of Concession Contracts Directive. Directive 2014/23/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014
on the award of concession contracts (Text with EEA relevance) Text with EEA relevance. Available at
this link.
Directive 2014/25/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on procurement by entities operating in
the water, energy, transport and postal services sectors and repealing Directive 2004/17/EC (Text with EEA relevance)Text with EEA
relevance. Available at
this link.
Report from the Commission - Implementation and best practices of national procurement policies in the Internal Market.
COM/2021/245 final. Available at
this link.
Tenders Electronic Daily (TED). The online version of the 'Supplement to the Official Journal' of the EU, dedicated to European public
procurement. Available at
this link.
Last visited on 12 January 2024.
Tenders Electronic Daily (TED) (csv subset)
–
public procurement notices. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
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2474
2475
2476
The analysis showed that the Member States with the highest number of Contract Awards reported in TED were
France, Germany, Poland and Czechia. More details about the analysis are available in Section 10.8.2.
Table 39.
Number of Contract Awards procuring apparel in the EU
CPV code
181XXXXX-X
Occupational clothing,
special workwear and accessories
182XXXXX-X
Outerwear
183XXXXX-X
Garments
184XXXXX-X
Special clothing and accessories
351134XX-X
Protective and safety clothing
3741XXXX-X
Sport goods and equipment
3581XXXX-X
Individual and support equipment
Total
2015
N
%
241
61
57
110
14
7
66
556
43
11
10
20
3
1
12
100
2016
N
%
285
68
60
47
37
11
108
616
46
11
10
8
6
2
18
100
2017
N
%
360
93
88
97
50
8
133
829
43
11
11
12
6
1
16
100
2018
N
%
431
93
99
111
69
10
158
971
44
10
10
11
7
1
16
100
2019
N
533
124
138
142
103
15
206
1 261
%
42
10
11
11
8
1
16
100
2477
2478
2479
2480
2481
2482
2483
2484
2485
2486
2487
2488
2489
2490
2491
2492
2493
2494
2495
2496
2497
2498
2499
2500
N.B. N: number of Contract Awards. %: Percentage of Contract Awards compared to the total number of contracts related to textile products.
Source: own elaboration based on Tenders Electronic Daily (TED) (csv subset)
–
public procurement notices
(
129
).
8.2 Current voluntary EU Green Public Procurement criteria
As mentioned in Section 1, the PS will provide the scientific and technical basis for the future development of
the mandatory EU GPP requirements for textile products within the framework of the ESPR. To this aim, the
analysis of current voluntary EU GPP criteria
(
130
)
could provide some important learnings.
The current voluntary EU GPP criteria are based on the current EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. In
addition to EU Ecolabel criteria, the voluntary EU GPP criteria suggest some requirements about textile services
related to laundry operations and take-back systems.
The initial questionnaire (see
Table 1
in Section 1) allowed the collection of respondents’ opinions on the status
of the current voluntary EU GPP criteria and on the lessons learnt so far. Out of 34 respondents, 12 belonged
to the governmental institutions and 6 to the manufacturing industry, 35% and 18% of the total, respectively.
More details about the types of respondents are provided in
Table 120
in Section 10.8.3.
The questionnaire showed that although many European countries
(
131
)
have GPP schemes on textile products,
it is not possible to understand the uptake of the EU GPP criteria. This is mainly due to their voluntary nature,
and the lack of a framework to collect this kind of data.
In light of possible future mandatory EU GPP criteria, respondents provided the following suggestions:
—
Provide a clear and fixed set of requirements, which will allow manufacturers to produce goods
that meet the demand.
—
Assess administrative obstacles related to the premature disposal of textile products caused by
contracting or budget period reasons.
—
Facilitate the verification of product characteristics to procurers, who are usually not sustainability
experts.
—
Establish a framework based on Life Cycle Costing of durable textile products.
130
131
EU GPP criteria for textile products and services. Commission Staff Working Document on EU green public procurement criteria for
textiles products and services. SWD(2017) 231 final. Available at
this link.
These countries are: Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands,
Portugal, Sweden and Norway.
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—
Establish a framework which considers environmental and social aspects in the whole value chain,
possibly promoting the purchase of second-hand products.
—
Support public authorities to develop a common strategy in purchasing and disposing of textile
products.
The positions expressed by the respondents to the initial questionnaire are complemented by COM(2021) 245
final (
127
). This Communication lists the main aspects hindering the adoption of current voluntary EU GPP criteria:
•
•
•
•
•
•
the lack of legal obligation;
the lack of legal certainty on the correct interpretation of the requirement for a
‘link to the
subject matter of the contract’ and the general fear of litigation;
the lack of data proving the economic benefits of applying GPP criteria;
the difficulty to monitor their application;
the lack of specific knowledge and skills of the public servants engaged in tendering
procedures;
the fact that GPP may be perceived as an obstacle to competition, specifically restricting SME
participation in public tendering.
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9
Technologies
This section addresses the Task 4 of the MEErP providing a
general technical analysis of the products in
the scope.
This analysis aims to describe the following types of product technologies:
—
The Base Case of technologies (BC), which is the average product on the market.
—
The Best Available Technologies (BAT), which have the most ambitious performances available on
the market. BAT are implemented at scale.
—
The Best Not yet Available Technologies (BNAT), which have the most ambitious performances,
but they are not implemented at scale, therefore they are considered not available on the market.
In this context, product technologies are products with defined characteristics related to a specific product
aspect reported in Article 5(1) of the ESPR, such as durability, repairability, etc.
Section 9.1 identifies the relevant product aspects for the products in scope, and groups those that can be
potentially addressed with the same product parameters via future requirements. This approach aims to
streamline the multi-criteria analysis that will be performed in the following Tasks of the PS.
Section 9.2 describes the product technologies for each relevant product aspect, analysing the complexity of
their ecosystems.
Section 9.3 reports on the influence that product aspects have upon each other and proposes product categories
based on the analysis performed in section 9.2. Information reported in Tasks 1 to 4 will feed the models in
Tasks 5 and 6, which will describe the base cases and design options, respectively. Each product category
reported in section 9.3 will be described with a representative product, which will be used as reference for all
products belonging to the specific category.
The analysis performed in Section 9 goes beyond the directions reported in the MEErP. It aims to address Task
4 of the MEErP in the context of the ESPR.
9.1 Relevant product aspects
Article 5(1) of ESPR establishes that, in order to address environmental impacts of products, the ecodesign
requirements in the delegated acts shall improve a specific list of product aspects. This list includes 16 product
aspects:
(a) durability
(b) reliability
(c) reusability
(d) upgradability
(e) repairability,
(f) the possibility of maintenance and refurbishment
(g) the presence of substances of concern
(h) energy use and energy efficiency
(i) water use and water efficiency
(j) resource use and resource efficiency
(k) recycled content
(l) the possibility of remanufacturing
(m) recyclability
(n) the possibility of recovery of materials
(o) environmental impacts, including carbon footprint and environmental footprint
(p) expected generation of waste
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2600
2601
2602
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2605
Article 5 of ESPR also establishes that ecodesign requirements in the delegated acts shall be based on the
above product aspects, when they are relevant to the product group concerned. Therefore, this section aims to
evaluate the relevance of the 16 product aspects in the context of textile apparel. To this aim, two main actions
were performed:
—
Discarding product aspects that are not relevant in the context of textile apparel;
—
Grouping product aspects that can be addressed together in order to streamline the following steps
of the study.
Section 9.1.1 describes in general methodology followed, whereas Section 9.1.2 describes the specific steps
involved. Finally, section 9.1.3 describes the proposed grouping of product aspects.
9.1.1
Methodology
The analysis undertaken started from the list of 16 product aspects in Article 5 of ESPR, and aimed to: (a)
exclude product aspects which were not relevant for textile apparel, and (b) group product aspects that could
be potentially addressed with the same product parameters via future requirements. This approach streamlines
the multi-criteria analysis that will be performed in the following tasks of the PS.
Non-relevant product aspects were excluded following three steps:
•
•
•
Generic description of textile apparel,
Guiding questions, and
Qualitative assessment.
First, textile apparel were described considering the following characteristics: final vs intermediate product;
complex vs non-complex product; and durable vs consumable product. This description set the understanding
of the product characteristics that are crucial for steps 2 and 3. Second, key guiding questions identified product
aspects that evidently were not relevant for textile apparel. Third, a qualitative assessment investigated
technical, socioeconomic and environmental dimensions. This qualitative assessment was based on information
found in the literature and did not aim to perform a comprehensive analysis given this will be performed in the
following tasks of the PS. The purpose of the qualitative assessment is to further refine the justification to
exclude product aspects that are evidently not relevant for textile apparel, and to serve as a basis for the
grouping of product aspects.
Finally, only the relevant product aspects were grouped taking into account the characteristics of each product
aspect and the product parameters reported in Annex I to ESPR. This grouping streamlined the following steps
of the PS because it allowed the use of the same parameters to address more than one product aspect.
Therefore, this grouping decreased the number of relevant product aspects to be investigated in the analysis
of technologies (see section 9.2) and Tasks 5 and 6 of the PS.
9.1.2
Exclusion of non-relevant product aspects
This section followed the methodology described in section 9.1.1 and identifies product aspects that are
considered not relevant for textile apparel.
Generic description of textile apparel
Textile apparel were screened following three sets of characteristics:
—
Intermediate product or final product
—
Complex product or non-complex product
—
Durable product or consumable product
According to Article 2(3) of the ESPR, an intermediate product is a product that requires further manufacturing
or transformation such as mixing, coating or assembling to make it suitable for customers. Conversely, a final
product is understood to be a product that is already suitable for users. One of the main differences between
intermediate and final products is the lifecycle stages that can be considered. While all lifecycles stages could
be evaluated in the assessment of final products, in the case of intermediate products a cradle-to-gate
approach is followed, where the use stage is disregarded and the end-of-life stage is only partially assessed.
Product aspects that serve to reduce the impacts of use and end-of-life stages would be considered as not
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2606
2607
2608
2609
2610
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615
2616
2617
2618
2619
2620
2621
2622
2623
2624
2625
2626
2627
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2629
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2641
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2647
relevant for intermediate products. By definition, textile apparel belongs to
final
products, because it is suitable
for users.
According to Council Regulation (EC) 6/2002
(
132
),
a complex product is a product which is composed of multiple
components which can be replaced permitting disassembly and re-assembly of the product. In contrast, non-
complex products do not include components or priority parts, thus they do not have components that can be
replaced. A product's priority part is functionally important and is likely to fail or to be upgraded. The part will
have high priority if it is necessary to deliver either primary (necessary to fulfil the intended use) or secondary
functions (necessary to enable, supplement or enhance the primary function) (Cordella, Alfieri, et al., 2019).
Textile apparel belongs to
complex
products, because often it is composed of multiple components which can
be replaced permitting disassembly and re-assembly of the product. Additionally, the complexity of textile
apparel relies on the numerous fibre types used in blends and processed in several ways along spinning, fabric
manufacturing and finishing processes (
133
). Therefore, even textile apparel that is not made of components is
considered to be a complex product.
Finally, textile apparel belongs to
durable
products because it is conceived and designed to last. Conversely,
once used, consumable products are expected to be consumed or discarded.
Therefore, textile apparel encompasses final, complex and durable products whose relevant product aspects
should consider all life-cycle stages, the technological product complexity and its durable function.
Guiding questions
Key guiding questions were used to identify product aspects that evidently are not relevant for textile apparel.
These questions addressed only the circularity aspects and did not focus on substances of concern, generic
environmental impacts or use and efficiency of water, energy and resources, because these product aspects
were considered already relevant based on the analysis performed in Section 3.1.3 and 3.3.
Durability
Is the functionality of the textile apparel expected to be provided for a long lifetime and/or for a high amount
of multiple uses?
Yes, it is. Therefore, durability can be considered a relevant product aspect.
Reliability
Can the use of the textile apparel or a part/component thereof cause a limiting event in the product?
Yes, fatigue and or ageing of the product (or of a specific part/component) due to its use can cause a limiting
event that prevents its use. Therefore, reliability can be considered a relevant product aspect.
Reusability
Could the reuse of textile apparel potentially entail a health risk?
In general, reuse of textile apparel do not entail health risks for consumers. Therefore, reusability can be
considered a relevant product aspect.
Upgradability
Would it be technically feasible to upgrade a priority part that could potentially stop functioning, that is already
not allowing textile apparel to perform at its fullest and/or there is potential to redesign the product in a way
that can be upgraded?
Yes, it is technically feasible to upgrade a priority part in an item of textile apparel. For instance, reassembling
a zipper of better quality. It is also possible to redesign textile apparel in a way that they can be upgraded. For
instance, improving their ability for disassembly. Therefore, upgradability can be considered a relevant aspect.
Repairability
132
133
Council Regulation (EC) No 6/2002 of 12 December 2001 on Community designs. Available at
this link.
A description of this complexity is reported in Section 9.2.1.1.
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2648
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2650
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2653
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2656
2657
2658
2659
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2661
2662
2663
2664
2665
2666
2667
2668
2669
2670
2671
2672
2673
2674
2675
2676
2677
2678
2679
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2695
Would it be technically feasible to repair/replace the no longer functioning priority part and/or there is potential
to redesign the product in a way that can be repairable?
Yes, it is. Therefore, repairability can be considered a relevant aspect.
Possibility of maintenance
Will the use and/or storage of textile apparel in specific conditions maintain its expected lifetime or extend it?
Would it be possible to postpone a limiting event by performing maintenance activities to any of the
parts/components of textile apparel?
Yes, appropriate use and storage of textile apparel can extend their expected lifetime. Moreover, maintenance
activities (proper washing, drying and ironing) can postpone limiting events. Therefore, possibility of
maintenance can be considered a relevant aspect.
Possibility of refurbishment
Is it technically feasible to refurbish textile apparel by the manufacturer and/or third party operators?
Yes, it is. Therefore, possibility of refurbishment can be considered a relevant aspect.
Recycled content
Is there a waste stream from which material can be recycled and reintroduced in the manufacturing process of
textile apparel?
Is the waste stream available for using it in the manufacturing of textile apparel?
Is the waste stream generated within an acceptable distance from the recycling and manufacturing sites?
Can the recycled material be used for the manufacturing of textile apparel with the same or an acceptable
minimum quality to keep the properties and function of the product?
Yes, there is a waste stream of textile apparel from which material can be recycled. This material is available
for using in the manufacturing of textile apparel. Generally, the waste stream is not generated close to the
most common sites for recycling and manufacturing of products. Only post-industrial textile waste is generated
at manufacturing facilities. The quality of mechanically recycled fibres is generally lower than that of virgin
fibres. Future developments of chemical recycling techniques could produce recycled fibres with the same
quality of the virgin fibres. The possibility to incorporate recycled content largely depends on the type of fibre
concerned: chemical recycling of cotton waste cannot generate new cotton fibres, but it can generate chemically
modified (regenerated) fibres, such as man-made cellulosic fibres (MMCFs). Therefore, recycled content can be
considered a relevant aspect.
Possibility of remanufacturing
Would it be technically possible to disassemble textile apparel without damaging those components or parts
that could have potential to be used in a new product and/or would be possible to design the product in a way
that allows it?
Yes, depending on the specific product and manufacturing process it may be technically possible to disassemble
textile apparel so that some parts are used in a new product. It is also possible to redesign textile apparel in a
way that they can be remanufactured. Therefore, possibility of remanufacturing can be considered a relevant
aspect.
Recyclability
Is textile apparel made of components/parts or materials that can or have potential to be separated and
recycled?
Is there available waste derived from the product from which materials can be recovered and recycled?
Is the technology to recycle textile apparel’ material available? Is there an existing or potential demand for the
recycled material?
Yes, textile apparel is made of materials that can be separated and recycled. There is available waste derived
from textile apparel from which materials can be recovered and recycled. Some recycling technologies are
already available. There is certain demand for material recycled from textile apparel, although it is limited due
to non-competitive prices of recycled fibres. Therefore, recyclability can be considered a relevant aspect.
Possibility of recovery of materials
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2696
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2701
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2704
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2717
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2721
2722
Besides preparation for re-use and recycling, is there another way to recover materials from the products in the
scope?
No, the only way to recover materials from textile apparel is via preparation for re-use and recycling. Therefore,
possibility of recovery of materials via any other route can be considered a non-relevant aspect.
The outcome of the qualitative analysis based on key guiding questions is that only the product aspect
‘possibility of recovery of materials’ can be considered as non-relevant
at this point of the analysis.
Qualitative assessment
The qualitative assessment investigated technical, socioeconomic and environmental dimensions of the 15
relevant product aspects screened in in the guiding questions. This qualitative assessment used information
gathered through literature review and did not include a comprehensive analysis because this is the aim of the
following steps of the PS, mostly the analysis of technologies (section 9.2), Task 5 and Task 6.
The qualitative assessment aimed to further refine the exclusion of product aspects that are evidently not
relevant for textile apparel, and to serve as a basis for the grouping of product aspects. In this way, the following
steps of the PS can exclude their assessment for a streamlined process.
The qualitative assessment included:
—
The technical dimension, which addressed product characteristics and/or improvement potential
from a technical perspective.
—
The socioeconomic dimension, which addressed the economic feasibility, impacts on job
loss/creation and user-related aspects.
—
The environmental dimension, which addressed environmental impacts caused by the consumption
of the product and potential improvements.
The results of the qualitative assessment showed that all screened product aspects had at least one dimension
that resulted relevant for textile apparel. Section 10.9.1 in the Annex provides details of the qualitative
assessment.
Finally,
Table 40
reports the outcome of the analysis aiming to exclude non-relevant product aspects.
Table 40.
Relevance of product aspects for textile apparel
Relevant product aspects
Durability
Reliability
Reusability
Upgradability
Repairability
Possibility of maintenance and refurbishment
Presence of substances of concern
Energy use and energy efficiency
Water use and water efficiency
Resource use and resource efficiency
Recycled content
Possibility of remanufacturing
Recyclability
Environmental impacts
Expected generation of waste
Source: own production
Non-relevant product aspects
Possibility of recovery of materials
2723
2724
2725
2726
2727
2728
2729
9.1.3
Grouping of relevant product aspects
Grouping of relevant product aspects aimed to streamline the multi-criteria analysis that will be performed in
the following tasks of the PS. Each product aspect represents a criterion of the analysis. If the number of these
criteria decreases, the analysis is more efficient.
To this aim,
Table 41
reports some of the characteristics typical for specific product aspects, using the results
of the qualitative assessment performed in section 9.1.2. Additionally,
Table 42
reports the direct interaction
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2730
2731
2732
between product aspects and product parameters reported in Annex I to the ESPR. The product aspects that
have common characteristics were grouped because they can be addressed via the same product parameters.
Table 41.
Product aspects and required characteristics of products
Product aspect
Required characteristics of products (Annex I of ESPR)
Durability
Reliability
Reusability
Upgradability
Repairability
Possibility of
maintenance
Possibility of
refurbishment
Presence of
substances of
concern
Energy use and
energy efficiency
Water use and
water efficiency
Resource use and
resource efficiency
Recycled content
Possibility of
remanufacturing
A highly durable item of textile apparel should have, among others, the following characteristics:
high resistance to abrasion, tearing, pilling, colour-fastness, soiling, dimensional changes and
seam slippage. It should have easily accessible information for repair and maintenance.
Moreover, a durable product should be desirable to the user for a long time.
If textile apparel is modular, its priority parts should have easy physical access. Additionally, the
process, tools and fasteners required for disassembly should be simple.
A highly reliable item of textile apparel should have, among others, the following characteristics:
high resistance to abrasion, tearing, pilling, colour-fastness, soiling, dimensional changes and
seam slippage. Additionally, a reliable product should be desirable to the user for long time.
A highly reusable item of textile apparel should have, among others, the following characteristics:
high resistance to abrasion, tearing, pilling, colour-fastness, soiling, dimensional changes and
seam slippage. It should have easily accessible information for repair and maintenance.
Moreover, a durable product should be desirable to the user for a long time.
If textile apparel is modular, its priority parts should have easy physical access. Additionally, the
process, tools and fasteners required for disassembly should be simple.
A highly upgradable item of textile apparel should have, among others, the following
characteristics: it should be highly modular in design, with easy physical access to priority parts.
The process, tools and fasteners required for disassembly should be simple.
A highly reparable item of textile apparel should have, among others, the following
characteristics: it should be highly modular in design, with easy physical access to priority parts.
The process, tools and fasteners required for disassembly should be simple. The product should
also have access to repair services.
An item of textile apparel with possibilities for maintenance should have, among others, the
following characteristics: it should have easily accessible information for care in terms of
cleaning, drying, ironing and storing the product.
An item of textile apparel with possibilities for refurbishing should have, among others, the
following characteristics: it should be highly modular in design, with easy physical access to
priority parts. The process, tools and fasteners required for disassembly should be simple.
An item of textile apparel with good information on presence of substances of concern is
accompanied with a comprehensive list of all the substances of concern that it contains (above
specified thresholds, as appropriate). Substances are used in order to give specific characteristics
to the product, facilitate the manufacturing process or to help during the treatment of the product
when it becomes waste. Consequently, substances of concern could affect durability, recyclability
and environmental impacts.
An item of textile apparel with low energy use or high energy efficiency should (1) be
manufactured with low energy consumption, (2) use materials which are not energy intensive in
their manufacturing stage, (3) allow to reduce the energy consumption during the use phase in
laundering, drying and ironing activities, and (4) be treated at its end of life with non-energy
intensive techniques.
An item of textile apparel with low water use or high water efficiency should (1) be manufactured
with low water consumption, (2) use materials which are not water intensive in their
manufacturing stage, (3) allow to reduce the water consumption during the use phase in
laundering activities, and (4) be treated at its end-of-life with non-water intensive techniques.
An item of textile apparel with low resource use or high resource efficiency should, among other
things, use materials that throughout its life cycle stages (1) consume raw materials produced in
sustainable way, (2) indirectly use land assuring its future use with the same activity, (3) use
ecosystems without damaging their biodiversity and general balance.
An item of textile apparel with recycled content should contain recycled materials, in substitution
of virgin materials. The recycled material should come from recyclable textile products to meet
the fibre-to-fibre recycling objectives identified by the EU Textile Strategy.
An item of textile apparel with possibilities for remanufacturing should have, among others, the
following characteristics: it should be highly modular in design, with easy physical access to
priority parts. The process, tools and fasteners required for disassembly should be simple. It
should have easily accessible information for repair.
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Product aspect
Required characteristics of products (Annex I of ESPR)
Recyclability
Environmental
impacts
Expected generation
of waste
In order to be recyclable, an item of textile apparel should meet all the following five
characteristics when it becomes waste: (1) it can be effectively collected; (2) it can be sorted, i.e.
segregated from other waste and sent to the subsequent recycling pathways; (3) it can be
prepared for recycling, or can be sent directly recycling without specific preparation; (4) its fibre
content can fully be used as feedstock for one or more recycling techniques to produce recycled
fibres usable in textile products; (5) it has no elements or substances that disrupt the collection,
sorting, preparation for recycling and recycling, or that limit the use of the recycled fibre.
An item of textile apparel with low environmental impact should have, among others, the
following characteristics: in all life cycle stages it should (1) use a limited quantity of energy and
water, (2) release directly and indirectly a limited quantity of pollutants (e.g. SOx, NOx, COD,
microplastics) into the environment, use in the product and emit into the environment minimum
possible amounts of substances of concern.
An item of textile apparel with low expected generation of waste should have, among others, the
following characteristics: (1) in all life cycle stages, it should generate minimal amounts of waste,
(2) it should be designed and manufactured to prevent the generation of post-industrial waste,
(3) ideally it should be designed to increase emotional attachment to the user to limit the demand
for new products, (4) it should be durable to postpone the demand for new products.
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Table 42.
Interaction between product aspects and product parameters reported in Annex I to ESPR
Product parameters
Resource use and resource efficiency
Presence of substances of concern
Energy use and energy efficiency
Water use and water efficiency
Possibility of remanufacturing
Product's guaranteed
lifetime
Technical lifetime
Mean time between
failures
Indication of real use
information on the
product
Resistance to stressor
ageing mechanisms
Characteristics,
availability, delivery
time and affordability
of spare parts
Modularity
Compatibility with
commonly available
tools and spare parts
Availability of repair
instructions
Availability
maintenance
instructions
Number of materials
and components used
Use of standard
components
Not applicable to textile apparel
99
Expected generation of waste
Possibility of refurbishment
Possibility of maintenance
Environmental impacts
Recycled content
Upgradability
Repairability
Recyclability
Reusability
Reliability
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Product parameters
Resource use and resource efficiency
Presence of substances of concern
Energy use and energy efficiency
Water use and water efficiency
Possibility of remanufacturing
Use of component and
material coding
standards for the
identification of
components and
materials
Number and
complexity of
processes and whether
specialised tools are
needed
Ease of non-
destructive
disassembly and
reassembly
Conditions for access
to product data
Conditions for access
to or use of hardware
and software needed
Conditions of access
to test protocols or not
commonly available
testing equipment
Availability of
guarantees specific to
remanufactured or
refurbished products
Conditions for access
to or use of
technologies protected
by intellectual property
rights
Use of easily
recyclable materials
Safe, easy and non-
destructive access to
recyclable components
and materials
Material composition
and homogeneity
Possibility for high
purity sorting
Avoidance of technical
solutions detrimental
to reuse
Avoidance of technical
solutions detrimental
to upgrading
Avoidance of technical
solutions detrimental
to repair
Not applicable to textile apparel
Not applicable to textile apparel
Not applicable to textile apparel
100
Expected generation of waste
Possibility of refurbishment
Possibility of maintenance
Environmental impacts
Recycled content
Upgradability
Repairability
Recyclability
Reusability
Reliability
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Product parameters
Resource use and resource efficiency
Presence of substances of concern
Energy use and energy efficiency
Water use and water efficiency
Possibility of remanufacturing
Avoidance of technical
solutions detrimental
to maintenance
Avoidance of technical
solutions detrimental
to refurbishment
Avoidance of technical
solutions detrimental
to remanufacturing
Avoidance of technical
solutions detrimental
to recycling
Use of substances, in
particular the use of
substances of concern
Use or consumption of
energy, in one or more
life cycle stages of the
product
Use or consumption of
water, in one or more
life cycle stages of the
product
Use or consumption of
other resources, in one
or more life cycle
stages of the product
Use or content of
recycled materials and
recovery of materials
Use or content of
sustainable renewable
materials
Weight and volume of
the product and its
packaging
Incorporation of used
components
Quantity,
characteristics and
availability of
consumables needed
for proper use
Environmental
footprint of product
Carbon footprint of
product
Material footprint of
product
Microplastic and
nanoplastic release
Emissions to air
101
Expected generation of waste
Possibility of refurbishment
Possibility of maintenance
Environmental impacts
Recycled content
Upgradability
Repairability
Recyclability
Reusability
Reliability
Durability
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Product parameters
Resource use and resource efficiency
Presence of substances of concern
Energy use and energy efficiency
Water use and water efficiency
Possibility of remanufacturing
Emissions to water
Emissions to soil
Noise
Amounts of waste
generated
Functional
performance
Reduction of material
consumption
Load and stress
optimisation of
structures
Integration of
functions within the
material or into a
single product
component
Use of lower density
or high strength
materials and hybrid
materials
Waste reduction
Not applicable to textile apparel
Not applicable to textile apparel
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Coloured cells highlight relevant product parameters for specific product aspects.
Source: JRC own elaboration.
In the context of textile apparel, the product aspects of durability, reliability and reusability were grouped
because they have common characteristics and have overlapping aims which can be reached with the same
actions. A durable product is likely to be reliable and reusable.
Physical durability
is taken as the leading
aspect of this group because it focusses on intrinsic measurable properties of the product which are reported
in Annex I to ESPR and allow to indirectly address reliability and reusability. Conversely, emotional durability
refers to the emotional attachment that the user has to the product and it does not fall into the definition of
“durability” reported in the ESPR (Table
2).
Although emotional durability is not a product aspect, its relevance
to the life-cycle environmental impacts of the textile apparel was largely taken into account in the following
sections of the PS.
Although the product aspect of
maintenance
is strictly connected to the physical durability, it was addressed
separately because it is mostly related to information to be provided to the user, rather than connected to the
physical performance of the product.
The third group of product aspects is led by
repairability
which has a definition and characteristics that closely
relates to upgradability, possibility of refurbishment, and possibility of remanufacturing. When addressing
repairability with product modularity, use of standard components, and the other relevant parameters, the
product aspects of upgradability, refurbishment and remanufacturing is indirectly addressed.
The expected
generation of waste
is considered as a product aspect to be addressed individually, providing
the feedstock for the recycling system.
The fifth group gathers
recyclability and recycled content,
because recycled material should come from
recyclable textile products. From this perspective, these product aspects share the same ecosystem and are
102
Expected generation of waste
Possibility of refurbishment
Possibility of maintenance
Environmental impacts
Recycled content
Upgradability
Repairability
Recyclability
Reusability
Reliability
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affected by the same process techniques, business models, legislation, and industrial practices. More details
about this will be provided in the analysis of technologies in section 9.2.5.
The product aspect addressing
environmental impacts
includes the assessment of use (and efficiency) of
water, energy and resources, which are the fundamental elements affecting the environment (see section 3.3).
The following steps of the PS will develop the environmental and economic model that will take into account
all resources used in the entire life-cycle of the textile apparel. In particular, the part of the model related to
raw material production will gather available data coming from the most commonly used practices. This
approach will support the identification of resource use that less negatively impact the environment in this
specific stage. Additionally, Task 5 will report a specific analysis on microplastics release in the whole life-cycle
of textile products.
Although the
presence of substances of concern
strongly affects other product aspects, it is suggested to
be addressed separately because it mainly refers to information requirements to be reported by the economic
operator placing/making available the product on the market. Substances are used to give specific
characteristics to the product, facilitate the manufacturing stage, or affects the treatment of the product when
it becomes waste. Consequently, substances of concern could directly affect the physical durability, the
recyclability, the recycled content and the environmental impacts.
Therefore, the next stages of the PS will address the following groups of relevant product aspects:
—
Physical durability, which includes physical durability, reliability and reusability;
—
Maintenance;
—
Repairability, which includes repairability, upgradability, possibility of refurbishment, and possibility
of remanufacturing;
—
Generation of waste;
—
Recyclability and recycled content;
—
Environmental impacts, which include environmental impacts, energy use and energy efficiency,
water use and water efficiency, resource use and resource efficiency; and
—
Presence of substances of concern.
9.2 Analysis of technologies
For each relevant product aspect, this section describes the product technologies following a three-step analysis:
—
Step 1: analysis of the ecosystem related to the specific product aspect;
—
Step 2: identification of a methodology to describe the product technologies;
—
Step 3: description of the product technologies based on previous steps. This description could be
supported by a categorization to best describe the products in the scope.
In step 1, the ecosystem related to the specific product aspect was studied considering four elements:
•
•
•
•
the
process techniques,
which are the instruments and practices used along the stages of
the product's life-cycle to manufacture or treat product technologies,
the
business models
of economic operators in the ecosystem,
the
user behaviour,
the
legislative framework
and
industrial best practices.
In step 2, the methodology used was specific to the product aspect and it was based on the analysis of the
specific ecosystem. In step 3, the categorization aimed to gather all products that can be subject to the same
future requirements.
Sections 9.2.1, 9.2.2 and 9.2.3 address the extension of product lifespan in term of physical durability,
maintenance and repairability, respectively. Section 9.2.4 analyses the waste generation, while section 9.2.5
addresses the recirculation of materials in terms of recyclability and recycled content. Section 9.2.6 analyses
the environmental impacts, including the use and efficiency of water and energy. Finally, section 9.2.7 addresses
the presence of substances of concern.
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9.2.1
Physical durability
This section describes the physical durability of textile apparel, focussing on measurable intrinsic properties
linked to the physical resistance against degrading factors due to use and maintenance habits. These degrading
factors generate failures, such as fabric breakdown, pilling, loss of dimensional stability and discolouration
(Cooper and Claxton, 2022c).
9.2.1.1
The ecosystem of physical durability
Manufacturing factors and process techniques
The characteristics of the product technologies related to physical durability are strictly related to all process
techniques involved in the manufacturing stage, as well as the choice of raw materials and the choice of
function of the product made at the design stage.
Figure 21
shows a simplification of the complex relations among the numerous factors influencing the physical
durability of textile apparel. These factors are grouped according to the specific process during the
manufacturing stage. The fibre characteristics directly affect yarn and fabric manufacturing and finishing
processes. At the same time, there are external factors such as environmental and storage conditions, and
chemical exposure that directly affect the characteristics of the fibres. During the manufacturing of the yarn,
the chosen spinning method provides specific levels of evenness, softness and strength. Moreover, spinning
parameters such as the twist level, spinning tension, temperature and humidity control play a crucial role on
the characteristics of the yarn. The fabric manufacture is strictly related to the final application: weaving is
generally used for relatively more rigid and stronger fabrics (e.g. used in pants and shirts), whereas knitting is
usually used for relatively more elastic fabrics (e.g. used in T-shirts and dresses). Fabric manufacturing is
affected by the specific process techniques used and the ability to control temperature and humidity during the
process. During the finishing processes, dyeing and printing give colour-related characteristics, whereas
chemical and mechanical finishing provide functional and physical properties, respectively. Fabric
manufacturing and finishing directly affect the confectioning process where the physical characteristics of
sewing, the precision of cuts and seam strength play an important role in the final appearance and physical
durability of the textile apparel. Section 10.9.2 provides more details about the complexity simplified in
Figure
21.
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Figure 21.
Overview of the main factors influencing the physical durability of textile apparel
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User behaviour
Source: Own production based on AITEX’s knowledge and
(Rahman et al., 2023)
Users influence the physical durability of textile apparel mainly at the moment of the purchase when choosing
a product with specific characteristics
(
134
).
Therefore, users set a specific market demand for future products
to be placed on the market. This is particularly true whenever the product is placed on the market by a company
following the consumer-led operation model (see Section 5.5).
The analysis of user behaviour in Section 6 revealed that product quality is an important parameter taken into
consideration when users buy an item of textile apparel. Physical durability is considered one of the main quality
aspects. However, when choosing a textile apparel in physical shops, users are driven by their subjective
judgement based on the look and touch. When buying online, users still rely on the possibility to check the look
and touch of the textile apparel if there is the possibility to return it.
Price is another important aspect that users take into account when buying textile apparel, but they generally
do not consider it an indicator of quality, and therefore they also do not consider it to be an indicator of physical
durability (Section 6). At the same time, the literature revealed that relatively cheap products are disposed of
more frequently than higher-priced ones (Morgan and Birtwistle, 2009a; Joy et al., 2012a). However, no research
was found analysing the potential relation between price of products and their intrinsic durability properties.
All in all, although physical durability refers to intrinsic properties of textile apparel, currently users have no way
to access this information.
Legislative frameworks and industrial practices
Currently, the industry uses numerous standards to measure specific parameters related to the physical
durability of textile apparel (Section 4.4). In France, economic operators placing products generating waste on
134
Users also affect the actual lifespan of the products with their maintenance practices, but this topic is addressed in section 9.2.2,
where the product aspect of maintenance is analysed.
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the French market are requested by the Law n° 2020-105
(
135
)
to report information about durability of the
product. It is unknown to the authors what specific parameters and framework should be used to describe the
physical durability of textile apparel in this context.
Business models
Companies in the textile apparel industry adopt numerous business models (Sections 5.5. and 5.6). Some of
them promote physically durable products and tend to communicate the intrinsic characteristics of the textile
apparel. This approach is most common among economic operators dealing with sportswear and workwear.
Other companies place on the market textile apparel with high frequency, either to satisfy the demand of
customers for new items, or to promote consumption of new collections. Usually, economic operators using this
business model would not promote physical durability of the textile apparel because the item would be changed
or disposed of by the user relatively soon after purchase.
9.2.1.2
Natural vs synthetic fibres
–
duality or complexity?
The physical durability of textile apparel is often perceived to be higher for products made with synthetic fibres,
compared to those made with natural fibres. This perception may be attributed to the fact that synthetic fibres
are man-made fibres designed to be stronger than natural fibres (
Table 121
in section 10.9.2 reports
comparison on characteristics). However, the reality is more complex and the factors influencing the physical
durability of textile apparel are multifaceted and interconnected (Section 9.2.1.1 and Section 10.9.2). In practice,
a textile apparel with a dense cotton fabric and well-constructed seams can outlast a polyester-based product
with loosely woven fabric and inadequately constructed seams. Additionally, each fibre and fibre blend has
specific properties used for particular applications.
To meet consumer needs, textile apparel must satisfy three key requirements: (1) perform a specific function,
(2) meet consumer taste and comfort expectations, and (3) be reasonably priced. Achieving these requirements
involves a complex engineering process that takes into account the various factors influencing physical
durability. The diverse range of fibres, each with unique characteristics, plays a crucial role in providing specific
properties to textile apparel.
As a result, the majority of textile apparel on the EU market is made from blends of natural and chemical fibres
(48-60%). Single-fibre products account for a smaller share, with 18-28% made of cotton and 11-17% made
of polyester (Refashion, 2023; Bakowska et al., 2025).
9.2.1.3
How to assess physical durability
The assessment of physical durability should evaluate the capability of textile apparel to maintain its properties
over time, resisting to aging factors, such as wear and tear and cleaning cycles. The following methodology was
adopted in this PS because it takes into account the interaction among manufacturing factors and process
technologies (see section 9.2.1.1), the main causes of failures, and the availability of standardised test methods
to assess specific parameters.
The methodology comprises five steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Selection of the key parameters, complying with the principle of economy
Identification of the characteristics of a new item,
Simulation of the aging process,
Assessment of the effects of the aging process,
Grouping products with homogeneous characteristics.
The selection of the
key parameters
was based on most common failure modes found in the literature and
their corresponding available standardised test methods (Table
43).
135
LOI n° 2020-105 du 10 février 2020 relative à la lutte contre le gaspillage et à l'économie circulaire. Available at
this link.
Last
accessed on 10 October 2024.
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Table 43.
Most common textile apparel failure modes and associated testing parameters
Failure mode
group
Fabric related
Colour related
Fabric related
Fabric related
Fabric related
Logo failure
Colour related
Fabric related
Fabric related
Type of failure
Pilling
Colour fading
Fabric breakdown
Accidental damage
Loss of dimensional
stability
Logo failure
Discolouration
Hole(s) in seams
Trim failure
Occurrence
(*)
(%)
55
53
29
29
20
16
15
14
8
Associated testing parameters
Pilling resistance
Visual inspection
Visual inspection
Tensile strength
Bursting resistance
Determined by the user
Dimensional stability
Visual inspection
Visual inspection
Tensile strength
Visual inspection (without considering the functioning test
of buttons and zippers)
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(*) Occurrence of failure in the sample analysed by Cooper and Claxton (2022)
Source: (Cooper and Claxton, 2022c)
and AITEX’s knowledge
The identification of the
characteristics of the new item
were fibre-neutral, so that textile apparel made of
any type of natural fibres, man-made fibres and their blends could meet the thresholds. This approach took
into account the multiple fibre compositions of products in the scope discussed in section 9.2.1.2. The
characteristics of the new item were identified based on AITEX’s experience in testing textile products.
The
ageing process
of a textile apparel included the effects of numerous factors: the wearing during the actual
use, the cleaning (washing or dry cleaning), the drying (line-drying or tumble drying), the potential ironing, and
the storage. For the purpose of the methodology, the simulation of ageing only focussed on the simulation of
cleaning cycles, because this is the factor that most affects the wear and tear of an item of textile apparel
(Neuß and Schlich, 2019; Cooper and Claxton, 2022c). In terms of type of cleaning, the literature reports that
dry cleaning is mostly used for formal wear, whereas the rest of textile apparel is usually cleaned using washing
machines (Laitala and Klepp, 2020a). Available standardised test methods are capable to simulate the cycles
of washing and dry cleaning (Table
69).
The effect of the ageing process is assessed comparing the performances of an aged product, which underwent
a defined number of cleaning cycles, with those of a new product. The difference in performances is expressed
as a percentage reporting the decrease of the key parameters. The better-performing products will present a
smaller property loss compared to the worse-performing products.
When simulating the aging process, the number of cleaning cycles expresses the objective physical resistance
of a textile apparel, which should not be confused with its service lifespan that includes the subjective
judgement of the last owner before disposal. The number of cleaning cycles was mainly based on AITEX’s
experience and validated by their professional network.
The products in the scope are too heterogeneous to be described with the same physical durability parameters
and performance levels. Therefore, the scope was divided into
categories
containing all products that can be
described with the same key parameters, same performance levels, and undergo the same number of cleaning
cycles, because they follow similar manufacturing processes, have similar functions, and count with similar
main failure modes. In practice, the technology of the fabric (knitted vs woven) implies specific failure modes,
whereas the function implies a defined aging simulation.
The tests for assessing the key parameters were identified taking into account the function of the product and
the manufacturing process techniques. This procedure adopted the
principle of economy
based on two
aspects:
•
•
The selection of parameters relevant to the specific product category, and
The optimization of the number of tests, using standardised methods addressing more than
one parameter.
For example, the assessment included the performance of the seams when used with woven products and
excluded them when seams were used in knitted products. This choice was made because the former are weak
parts of the textile apparel, whereas the latter are technically well integrated into the fabric and do not represent
a vulnerability of the product. An example about the optimization of the number of tests is given by the
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assessment of colour fading, discolouration and logo failure via only the standard on visual inspection instead
of adding specific colour-related tests.
9.2.1.4
Description of product technologies per category
Table 44
reports the description of eleven product categories from the perspective of the physical durability,
whereas
Table 128
reports a description of all standardised test methods proposed in the framework.
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Table 44.
Product description from the perspective of physical durability
ID
Category description
Key parameter (unit)
Dimensional change (%)
Tensile strength (N)
Pilling resistance
(5-step grading system)
Seam resistance (N)
Visual inspection for:
Colour change
Pilling
Trimmings aspect
Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
Dimensional change (%)
Tensile strength (N)
Denim trousers, shorts and
skirts
Pilling resistance
(5-step grading system)
Seam resistance (N)
Visual inspection for:
Pilling
Trimmings aspect
Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
Dimensional change (%)
Bursting resistance (kPa)
Sweaters, mid-layers and
knitted dresses
Pilling resistance
(5-step grading system)
Visual inspection for:
Colour change
Pilling
Trimmings aspect
Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
Dimensional change
Bursting resistance (kPa)
Pilling resistance
(5-step grading system)
Test method
ISO 3759:2011
ISO 13934-1: 2014
ISO 12945-2: 2020
(2000 cycles)
ISO 13935-2:2014
Characteristics of the new product
±3%
Longitudinal: ≥160 N
Transversal: ≥120 N
Grade ≥4
≥100 N
Colour change: Grade ≥4
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
±3%
Longitudinal: ≥190 N
Transversal: ≥130 N (on seam)
Grade ≥4
≥120 N
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
±5%
≥160 kPa
Grade ≥4
Colour change: Grade ≥4
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
±5%
≥160 kPa
Grade ≥4
30 washing cycles
according to ISO 6330
Washing treatment according to label (domestic washing)
20 washing cycles
following ISO 6330
Washing treatment according to label (domestic washing)
20 washing cycles
following ISO 6330
Washing treatment according to label (domestic washing).
20 washing cycles
following ISO 6330
Washing treatment according to label (domestic washing).
Simulation of the ageing process
1
Trousers, shorts and skirts,
excluding denim
ISO 15487:2018
ISO 3759:2011
ISO 13934-1: 2014
ISO 12945-2: 2020
(2000 cycles)
ISO 13935-2:2014
ISO 15487:2018
ISO 3759:2011
ISO 13938-2:2019
(50 cm
2
)
ISO 12945-1:2020
(14 400 cycles)
2
3
ISO 15487:2018
4
T-shirts and polos
ISO 3759:2011
ISO 13938-2:2019
(50 cm
2
)
ISO 12945-1:2020
(14 400 cycles)
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ID
Category description
Key parameter (unit)
Visual inspection for:
Colour change
Pilling
Trimmings aspect
Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
Dimensional change (%)
Abrasion resistance
(number of cycles)
Pilling resistance
(5-step grading system)
Seam resistance (N)
Visual inspection for:
Colour change
Pilling
Trimmings aspect
Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
Dimensional change (%)
Abrasion resistance
(number of cycles)
Pilling resistance
(5-step grading system)
Seam resistance (N)
Visual inspection for:
Colour change
Pilling
Trimmings aspect
Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
Dimensional change (%)
Abrasion resistance
(number of cycles)
Pilling resistance
(5-step grading system)
Seam resistance (N)
Visual inspection for:
Colour change
Pilling
Trimmings aspect
Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
Test method
Characteristics of the new product
Colour change: Grade ≥4
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
±3%
≥20
000
Grade ≥4
≥100 N
(on confection seam)
Colour change: Grade ≥4
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
±3%
≥15
000
Grade ≥4
≥80 N (on confection seam)
Colour change: Grade ≥4
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
±3%
≥20
000
Grade ≥4
≥100 N (only for blazers)
Colour change: Grade ≥4
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
Simulation of the ageing process
ISO 15487:2018
ISO 3759:2011
ISO 12947-2:2016
ISO 12945-2:2020
(2000 cycles)
ISO 13935-2:2014
5
Shirts
30 washing cycles
following ISO 6330
Washing treatment according to label (domestic washing)
ISO 15487:2018
ISO 3759:2011
ISO 12947-2:2016
ISO 12945-2:2020
(2000 cycles)
ISO 13935-2:2014
6
Blouses and woven dresses
20 washing cycles
following ISO 6330
Washing treatment according to label (domestic washing)
ISO 15487:2018
ISO 3759:2011
ISO 12947-2:2016
ISO 12945-1:2020
(2000 cycles)
ISO 13935-2:2014
7
Jackets and coats
3 cleaning cycles:
either following ISO 6330 (washing machine)
or following ISO 3175-2 (dry cleaning).
For domestic washing, treatment according to label.
ISO 15487:2018
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ID
Category description
Key parameter (unit)
Dimensional change (%)
Abrasion resistance
(number of cycles)
Bursting resistance (kPa)
Visual inspection for:
Colour change
Pilling
Trimmings aspect
Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
Dimensional change (%)
Visual inspection for:
(1) Colour change
(2) Pilling
(3) Trimmings aspect
(4) Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
Dimensional change (%)
Elasticity of fabric (%)
Colour fastness to
artificial light
(8-step grading system)
Colour fastness to sea
water
(5-step grading system)
Colour fastness to
chlorinated water
(5-step grading system)
Visual inspection for:
Colour change
Pilling
Trimmings aspect
Self-staining
(5-step grading system)
NA
Test method
ISO 3759:2011
ISO 13770 method 1
ISO 13938-2: 2019
(7.3 cm
2
)
Characteristics of the new product
±3%
≥20
000
≥220 kPa
Colour change: Grade ≥4
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
±3%
Colour
change: Grade ≥4
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
±3%
≤7% after 1 minute
(only for feminine items)
Grade ≥5
Grade ≥4
Grade ≥4
Colour change:
Grade ≥4
Pilling: Grade ≥4
Trimmings aspect: Grade 5
Self-staining: Grade 5
NA
Simulation of the ageing process
8
Hosiery: leggings, stockings,
tights and socks
30 washing cycles
following ISO 6330
Washing treatment according to label (domestic washing)
ISO 15487:2018
ISO 3759:2011
9
Underwear: underpants and
boxers
ISO 15487:2018
30 washing cycles
following ISO 6330
Washing treatment according to label (domestic washing)
ISO 3759:2011
ISO 20932-3:2018
ISO 105-B02:2014
ISO 105-E02:2013
ISO 105-E03:2010
10
Swimwear
15 washing cycles
following ISO 6330
Washing treatment according to label (domestic washing)
ISO 15487:2018
2940
2941
2942
2943
2944
11
Accessories
NA
NA
When measuring the characteristics of the new product, the tests addressing dimensional change and visual inspection need to be run after 1 cleaning cycle.
Washing treatments are supposed to follow information reported on the label. Although this information is usually available, it should not be given for granted because it is not mandatory by law.
All products made with denim fabric should not be tested for colour change because this type of fabric is designed to lose colour over time.
NA: Not available, because the category is too heterogeneous.
Source: AITEX’s knowledge
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2945
2946
2947
2948
2949
2950
2951
2952
2953
2954
2955
2956
2957
2958
2959
2960
2961
2962
2963
2964
2965
2966
2967
2968
2969
2970
2971
2972
2973
2974
2975
2976
2977
2978
2979
2980
2981
2982
2983
2984
2985
2986
Despite the complexity of the products in scope, two test methods were used to assess five
key parameters
for all product categories: the dimensional change and, via visual inspection, colour change, pilling, appearance
of trims and self-staining. All these parameters have to be assessed after a cleaning cycle.
The breakage of fabric took into account the two manufacturing techniques:
—
Woven fabrics were described with the tensile strength, seam strength and abrasion resistance;
—
Knitted fabrics were described via bursting resistance.
Since pilling is the most common failure mode (see
Table 43),
it was assessed via visual inspection in all
categories. Nevertheless, there are specific categories whose function makes these products more prone to
rubbing or friction, and therefore a more specific test was included.
Key parameters like elasticity and colour fastness to artificial light, sea water and chlorinated water were chosen
to describe swimwear, which have a specific function and are exposed to peculiar external agents like salty and
chlorinated water and strong sunlight.
Seam resistance was included in categories with woven textile apparel whose structure and fit design creates
stress during movement on the seams, especially in areas like shoulders, sides and armholes. As previously
mentioned, knitted products are less prone to seam failure due to the specific interaction between fabric and
seams.
The list of key parameters did not include the assessment of trims because:
—
Problems with trims are the least occurring failure mode (see
Table 43);
—
The assessment of trim appearance is included in the visual inspection;
—
Failures of buttons are the most commonly self-repaired parts of the textile apparel (see Section
6.3.3);
—
Failure of zippers occurred only 2% of the times (Cooper and Claxton, 2022c).
The potential inclusion of specific test methods for buttons
(
136
)
and zippers
(
137
)
would clash with the economy
principle and would not lead to a substantial improvement in the description of the physical durability of these
products.
The values set for the
characteristics of the new products
show that some key parameters decrease their
performances even after one cleaning cycle. This is the case of colour change and pilling analysed via visual
inspection that can score Grade 4 (slight distortion or damage, minimal and only noticeable upon close
inspection), rather than Grade 5 (no visible distortion or damage, fabric maintains its original appearance) after
a single cleaning cycle. Additionally, the dimensional change of the fabric can be between 3 and 5%.
Even without undergoing the first cleaning cycle, the new items do not necessarily score at the top of the scale
of the tests. This is the case of pilling resistance that can score Grade 4 (slight pilling with some pilling visible
but not extensive), rather than Grade 5 (no pilling with no visible pilling on the fabric surface). Additionally, the
assessment of colour fastness
(
138
)
for new swimwear could show similar performances:
•
•
To artificial light: Grade 5 (good light fastness) rather than Grade 8 (outstanding light
fastness);
To sea water and to chlorinated water: Grade 4 (good colour fastness) rather than Grade 5
(excellent colour fastness).
These minimum values assigned to new items underline that new items are sometimes placed on the market
exhibiting relatively poor performances as regards the key parameters that describe physical durability.
The reported number of cleaning cycles is aligned with version 2.0 of the PEFCR A&F (Quantis, 2024) and the
available scientific literature (Easter and Badgett (2019) and studies reported in Section 5.8).
136
137
138
Button attachment: UNE EN 17394-2:2021 focuses on children's apparel security.
Zipper attachment and functioning: UNE EN 16732:2016 includes tear tests and zipper fatigue tests.
The colour fastness tests measure how much the colour of the textile apparel fades and stains.
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2987
2988
2989
2990
2991
2992
2993
2994
2995
2996
2997
2998
2999
3000
3001
3002
3003
3004
3005
3006
3007
3008
3009
Textile apparel
accessories
were not described because they are too heterogeneous
–
they would require a
further categorization based on their:
•
•
•
Function: (1) gloves and mittens, (2) scarves, shawls, and mufflers, (3) ties and cravats, (4)
hats and headgear, (5) handkerchiefs and veils, (6) belts and suspenders;
Material composition: at least (1) silk products vs (2) non-silk products;
Fabric technologies: (1) knitted, and (2) crocheted.
This would result in
about 16 potential sub-categories,
whose products undergo none or very few cleaning
cycles. Consequently, the physical durability should be assessed with specific approaches, which require a
disproportionate effort compared to the very small market share of these products. The portion of apparent
consumption of accessories compared to the total textile apparel was rather constant from 2006 to 2022. More
precisely, the apparent consumption of accessories was about 5% and 4% of the total apparent consumption
of textile apparel in terms of mass and value, respectively (
Figure 40
). Due to this disproportionate effort
demand, these products are excluded from the description of the physical durability of textile apparel.
Based on the framework reported in
Table 44, technologies of textile apparel
can be distinguished as
follows:
—
Bad case
(poorly performing products): performance level of at least one key parameter
decreases more than 50% after aging;
—
BC:
performance level of all key parameters decreases between 30% and 50% after aging;
—
BAT:
performance level of all key parameters decreases between 20% and 30% after aging;
—
BNAT:
performance level of all key parameters decreases less than 20% after aging.
The performance decrease of the key parameters should be calculated as reported in
Table 45
and applies to
all product categories.
Table 45.
Guidance for the calculation of performance decrease in the framework of the physical durability
Result of the
test method
Key parameter
Abrasion resistance (number of cycles)
Bursting resistance (kPa)
Dimensional change (%)
Elasticity (%)
Seam resistance (N)
Tensile strength (N)
Colour fastness to chlorinated water
Colour fastness to sea water
Colour change via visual inspection
Pilling resistance
Pilling via visual inspection
Trimmings aspect via visual inspection
Self-staining via visual inspection
Colour fastness to artificial light
Decrease of performance level
Numerical
�������������������� �������������������� �������������������� − �������������������� �������� ����ℎ���� ������������ ����������������
∗ 100 (%)
�������������������� �������� ����ℎ���� ������������ ����������������
5-step grading
system
Each step represents a change of 20%
3010
3011
3012
3013
3014
3015
3016
3017
3018
3019
3020
8-step grading
scale
Each step represents a change of 12.5%
Description of all test methods is reported in Table 128
Source: own elaboration
9.2.2
Maintenance
Maintenance is the ability of a product to be kept in a condition where it is able to fulfil its intended purpose
through one or more actions. In the context of textile apparel, it comprises the set of activities that a user carries
out, fundamentally during the use phase, in order to maintain the product in a condition that satisfies their
needs. It includes activities such as cleaning, drying, ironing, storing and wearing, in specific environments and
conditions. It does not include any operations addressing the repair of the product, which is addressed under a
separate specific product aspect (see section 9.2.3).
Maintenance operations are specific to the item they refer to. In particular, the fibre composition, the fabric
construction type, the presence of non-fibre-based parts and the finishing treatments of the item are crucial
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3021
3022
3023
3024
3025
3026
3027
3028
3029
3030
3031
factors determining the suitable maintenance strategies to make the product last longer. This section mainly
focuses on the information that the manufacturer provides to the user to properly maintain textile apparel.
9.2.2.1
The ecosystem affecting maintenance
Process techniques and design choices
Maintenance instructions are commonly communicated through specific symbols on care labels. These symbols
are designed to be universally recognisable providing clear guidance on textile apparel care. However, the
meaning of some of these symbols is not clear to some users, who tend to mistake the suggested care practices.
There are ongoing efforts to standardise and improve the clarity of these symbols by using both symbols and
captions to facilitate the understanding (Yan et al., 2008; Nayak and Ratnapandian, 2018) (Section 10.6.2.7).
Figure 22 shows an example of care label that combines symbols and captions.
Figure 22.
Example of a care label combining symbols and caption
3032
3033
3034
3035
3036
3037
3038
3039
3040
3041
3042
3043
3044
3045
3046
3047
3048
3049
3050
3051
3052
3053
3054
3055
3056
Source: Nayak and Ratnapandian (2018)
Traditionally, care labels have been physically sewn during the confectioning phase onto textile apparel,
providing essential instructions on washing, drying, and ironing. However, with the rise of digital technology,
many brands now complement the physical labels with online care guides and mobile apps. These digital
platforms offer more detailed explanations and interactive features that help consumers better understand and
follow textile apparel care instructions (Nayak and Ratnapandian, 2018)
User behaviour
Consumer behaviour strongly affects textile apparel maintenance, because the choices made by the users may
adhere or not to the best practices reported on the care label. When care information is reported on the item
of textile apparel, users could disregard it, have difficulties interpreting the instructions or they could even
remove the label because it results uncomfortable when wearing the item (see section 6.3.2 and 10.6.2.7). The
removal of physical labels from textile apparel is indirectly promoted by labels displaying a cutting line.
The price of the new item could play an important role when analysing the attention that users pays to care
label information. Users are more likely to follow instructions on the care label if they handle a relative
expensive product, rather than if they handle a relatively cheap one (Wakes et al., 2020b).
Sections 6.3.1 and 10.6.2 report the most relevant best use practices in terms or textile apparel care:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Following information provided in the care label,
Running laundry with sorted items according to their colour, fabric type, and washing
temperature,
Using the suitable washing temperature,
Running short washing cycles and reduced spin speed,
Using the right quantity and type of detergents and softeners,
Preferring air-drying out of direct sunlight to tumble drying,
Minimising wash frequency and ironing,
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3057
3058
3059
3060
3061
3062
3063
3064
3065
3066
3067
3068
3069
3070
•
•
Properly folding or hanging to prevent fabric deformation
Storing in cool and dry places.
Legislative framework and industrial best practices
Care instructions are not currently mandatory under EU law but they are often provided by manufacturers to
prevent customer complaints. Many countries voluntarily follow the GINETEX Standard (
139
), which establishes
care labelling system for textiles based on symbols. The European Commission is currently considering the
introduction of harmonised and partially mandatory textile labelling rules on textile care, in the context of the
review of the Textile Labelling Regulation (EU) 1007/2001 (TLR) (
140
).Nine Member States already require
mandatory care labels (
141
) (GINETEX, 2017b).
Table 129
in section 10.9.4 reports the description of standards used in some regions of the world. They mainly
differ as regards: (a) temperature units, (b) requirement of captions alongside symbols, (c) adopted symbols,
and (4) legal requirements (mandatory vs voluntary).
Figure 23
shows legal requirements and the adoption of standards in specific regions of the world.
Figure 23.
Care labelling systems in the world
3071
3072
3073
3074
Source: UK Fashion and Textile Association. Available at
this link
. Last accessed 12 November 2024.
Previously published by GINETEX in February 2021
Table 46
reports the best practices that manufacturers and retailers try to implement.
139
140
141
Ginetex website. Available at this link. Last accessed 12 November 2024
Revision of the Textile Labelling Regulation (EU) 1007/2011. Available at this link. Last accessed on 12 November 2024.
Austria, Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Sweden, as well as, in the EEA, Norway.
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3075
Table 46.
Best practices on care labelling implemented by producers and retailers
Factor
Legibility
Action
Labels should use easily understandable symbols alongside with written instructions. Symbols and
letters on labels must remain legible throughout the textile apparel's useful life. The label should
use medium-width lettering, where no individual letter should be less than 1.5 mm high.
Parts of the product
If the product is composed of more than one part, the care instruction should take into account
the heterogeneity of the product parts.
Comprehensive coverage
Care instruction symbols should apply to the entire textile apparel, including trimmings, zippers,
linings, buttons, and sewing thread, unless otherwise specified on separate labels.
Consistent label placement Labels should be positioned in the same place across all similar items of textile apparel.
Durability of labels
Care labels should be made of materials that are resistant to the care treatments indicated on
the label, at least to the same extent as the textile apparel itself.
Material-based instructions Care instructions should be based on the product's end use and fibre composition. If fabrics
contain blended fibres, the care instructions should take into account the most sensitive fibre for
the specific treatment.
Pre-sale verification
The care instructions should be verified before being placed on the market to ensure their
correctness.
Source: Own production based on (Nayak and Ratnapandian, 2018)
3076
3077
3078
3079
3080
3081
3082
3083
3084
3085
3086
3087
3088
3089
3090
3091
3092
3093
3094
3095
3096
3097
3098
3099
3100
3101
3102
3103
Business models
As previously mentioned, in general companies are interested to provide care instructions to avoid complaints
from customers. Nevertheless, this approach could vary according to the business model the company adopts.
In general, companies that want to promote long-lasting products might pay particular attention when providing
maintenance instructions. Differently, companies that want to promote a fast turnover in the consumption of
textile apparel might tend to invest little attention on communicating care instructions.
9.2.2.2
How to assess maintenance
Based on the information gathered in sections 9.2.2.1 and 9.2.2.2, the assessment of maintenance should be
based on three main aspects:
1.
Type of information provided, addressing all steps of the use-phase:
(a) cleaning,
(b) drying,
(c) ironing,
(d) storing,
(e) wearing,
(f) additional suggestions;
2.
3.
Carrier; and
Communication strategy.
Information about
cleaning
should address all types of cleaning operations the product can/should undergo:
e.g. dry cleaning by professionals or home washing. In the case of professional cleaning, directions should be
provided on compatible products for dry cleaning. In the case of home washing, directions should be provided
on washing temperature, type and dosing of detergents and softeners
(
142
),
spin speed, type of textile products
that can be washed with it (e.g. similar colours and fibre types).
Information about
drying
should include directions on the optimal type of drying, with specific information
regarding drying temperature in the tumble dryer, and sunlight exposure when line drying (air-drying) is used.
Information about
ironing
should include ironing temperature, and best practices about humidity of the item
to be ironed.
142
In general, specific chemical formulations can weaken certain fibre types increasing the risk of damage (Cooper and Claxton, 2022c).
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3104
3105
3106
3107
3108
3109
3110
3111
3112
3113
3114
3115
3116
3117
3118
3119
3120
3121
3122
3123
3124
Information about
storing
should include directions on how to fold and hang the product, with description of
the optimal environmental conditions. If relevant, specific information should be provided distinguishing good
practices about storage after wearing from storage after cleaning operations.
Information about
wearing
should specify the function that the product is designed for: e.g. sport activities,
leisure time, resistance to humid environment and rain, etc.
Information about
additional suggestions
should include any further information that could support the
suitable maintenance of the product.
The
carrier
of information can be a physical label where information is directly reported on it and/or digital-
based, where the information can be reached on an online platform. In this case, it should be very clear and
simple for the user how to obtain the information.
Finally, regardless of the carrier used, the information should be provided with a
standardised strategy
(or
structure), so that users can easily navigate information provided by any economic actor.
This framework is suitable to describe all products included in the scope of the PS without any further grouping
or categorization.
Although user behaviour plays a crucial role in the effects generated by product maintenance, the assessment
of maintenance in the framework of the ESPR focuses only on the instructions that the manufacturer provides
to the user. The behaviour of the user will be taken into account in the environmental and economic models to
be built in the following tasks of the PS.
9.2.2.3
Description of products based on maintenance
Table 47
reports the description of product technologies in the context of maintenance of textile apparel.
Table 47.
Description of product technologies in the context of maintenance of textile apparel
Information
Cleaning
BC
Using symbols
reported in ISO
3758:2023
BAT
It reports symbols
reported in ISO
3758:2023
explained
with
captions
BNAT
It reports all types of cleaning operation the product can/should
undergo: e.g. dry cleaning by professionals or home washing. In the
case of professional cleaning, directions should be provided on
compatible products for dry cleaning. In the case of home washing,
directions should be provided on washing temperature, type and
dosing of detergents and softeners, spin speed, type of textile
products that can be washed with (e.g. similar colours and fibre
types).
It reports symbols reported in ISO 3758:2023 explained with
captions.
Drying
Using symbols
reported in ISO
3758:2023
Using symbols
reported in ISO
3758:2023
Not available.
Ironing
Storing
It reports symbols
reported in ISO
3758:2023
explained
with
captions
It reports symbols
reported in ISO
3758:2023
explained
with
captions.
Not available.
It reports symbols reported in ISO 3758:2023 explained with
captions.
Wearing
Additional
suggestions
Carrier
Not available.
Not available.
Not available.
Reduction
of
washing
frequency
and
prefer line drying.
Physical label and
a website reported
on the label.
It includes directions on how to fold and hang the product, with
description of the optimal environmental conditions. If relevant,
specific information should be provided distinguishing good
practices about storage after wearing from storage after cleaning
operations.
It specifies the function that the product is designed for: e.g. sport
activities, leisure time, resistance to humid environment and rain,
etc.
It includes any further information that could support the suitable
maintenance of the product.
Physical label is used for basic most important information or
warnings, while other information is reachable with a support of a
device (e.g. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) system)
incorporated in the product, so that it does not create discomfort
and it is difficult to remove.
Physical label.
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Information
Communication
strategy
BC
Using symbols
reported in ISO
3758:2023.
3125
3126
3127
3128
3129
3130
3131
3132
3133
3134
3135
3136
3137
3138
3139
3140
3141
3142
3143
3144
3145
3146
3147
3148
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3157
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3159
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3167
BAT
It reports symbols
reported in ISO
3758:2023
explained
with
captions.
BNAT
Users can easily navigate information provided by any economic
actor because it is provided following a standardised format.
Physical labels are usually made of polyester and satin due to their softness and resistance properties (Nayak and Padhye, 2015).
Care symbols use ISO 3758:2023
(
143
).
Source: own production
9.2.3
Repairability
According to the ESPR, the repairability is defined as the ability of a defective product or waste to return to a
condition where it fulfils its intended use (
Table 2
). In the context of textile apparel, this return to the intended
use includes the acceptance by the user, who should still be satisfied with the potential new aesthetics of the
product after repair operations. This could be the case for example in the use of patches, mending operations
on fabrics, or the use of buttons different from the original ones.
9.2.3.1
The ecosystem affecting the repairability
Design principles for repairable items - choices and process techniques
Textile apparel is often composed by many pieces of fabrics and by non-textile parts such as buttons, zippers
and many more. Fabrics could be organised on one or more layers, which could have the same or different fibre
composition and properties. Additionally, specific parts of textile apparel could have exclusively an aesthetic
function and be made of numerous materials such as leather, plastics, metal and fibre-based. All these parts
composing textile apparel are mostly joined with seams, but other ways such as heat-bonding and laser-based
techniques are also in use. Furthermore, an item of textile apparel can also be seamless and be made of only
one piece of fabric.
The products included in the scope of the PS are very heterogeneous in terms of number, properties and
functions of their parts. This heterogeneity goes beyond the intended function of the product, because the same
product could be made in numerous ways. For example, a t-shirt can be made of a knitted fabric with no seams,
or it can be made by numerous panels of fabric joined with seams, buttons and sequins, resulting in a product
made of numerous parts, each of them with a specific function.
Table 43
in section 9.2.1.3 reports that the fabric is the part which is most affected by failures, followed by
seams and trims. Fabric is usually damaged by colour fading, discoloration, breakdown, fraying and thinning,
pilling and stains.
From the general design perspective, modularity, use of standardised parts and availability of spare parts are
believed to be important for product repairability (Cordella, Sanfelix, et al., 2019).
Modular products
are easily
disassembled without damaging the product, so that the damaged part can be repaired. In the context of textile
apparel, modularity leads to trade-offs with comfort, because seams or components joining different parts of
the textile apparel create a discontinuity in the fabric in contact with the skin which is usually perceived in terms
of discomfort. Additionally, modularity leads to a trade-off with the physical durability because seams are weak
parts of textile apparel.
The
use of standard parts
in the textile industry is rather limited mainly due to its intrinsically creative nature.
The European Environment Agency identified fasteners as the main textile apparel part that could be subjected
to standardization without affecting the creative nature of this industry (EEA et al., 2022). The size, material
and attachment method of zippers, buttons, snaps, and other fasteners could be standardised as well as the
thickness of the yarns. However, it is difficult to envisage standardization involving the fabric, which is the main
part of textile apparel and which is also the part that is most prone to being damaged (Table
43
in section
9.2.1.3). The standardization of fabric would potentially limit the creative nature of the textile apparel industry.
The
availability of spare parts
in the textile apparel industry should take into account the high number of
different collections placed on the market and the real use of these spare parts. Section 5.6 indicated that
retailers place on the market up to one collection per week. Making available spare parts for all these different
143
ISO 3758:2023 Textiles
—
Care labelling code using symbols. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 13 November 2024.
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3184
3185
3186
3187
3188
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3190
3191
3192
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3200
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3205
3206
3207
3208
3209
3210
3211
items would imply the manufacture of product parts that most probably would never be used due to the fast
changing preferences and attitudes of the users. Additionally, the use of spare pieces of fabric is strictly
connected to the fashion trends and user acceptance to wear a product composed by pieces of fabric in a
different status (new and worn), which would resemble patches.
Business models
The European Environment Agency estimated that companies working in the textile repair sector decreased in
the last decade, reporting that they are small in size and a have a turnover equal to about 0.25% of the apparel
textile sales in Europe (EEA et al., 2022). A more detailed analysis of the apparel repair sector is hindered by
the way in which collection of this data is performed by Eurostat, which aggregates under the NACE code 95.29
repair of many personal and household goods, including bicycles,
books, musical instruments, apparel, etc…
(
144
).
In recent years, some fashion brands have started offering repair services to their customers and/or manuals
and directions to address some simple repairs of their products, such as replacing a zipper or sewing a button.
Fashion trends
depend on many players such as stylists, influencers and fashion brands. They could potentially
promote repaired products with for example visible mending and patches, but in reality, such products are not
socially accepted in the majority of social gatherings, such as workplaces, parties, etc (Choi et al., 2022; Hong
et al., 2024).
User behaviour and economic aspects
The decision of repairing an item of textile apparel is highly subjective and depends on individual values, fashion
trends, price, skills and time available to users.
The
emotional attachment
to the product largely influences the decision to repair an item or to replace it
with a new one. Textile apparel is more likely to be repaired when it evokes meaningful memories, it is an
expression of user identity or provides particular comfort (Page, 2014; Gwilt, 2021; Damhorst, 2019).
The
price of repair
compared to the price of the new item plays a crucial role when the user decides to repair
or replace an item of textile apparel. Expensive items tend to be repaired more often than cheap ones due to
the cost-effectiveness of the choice (Gwilt, 2021). In particular, if the price of repair exceeds about 40% of the
price of the new item, users tend to replace the product rather than repairing it (Cordella, Sanfelix, et al., 2019;
Ribeiro et al., 2023). A simple exercise reported in section 10.9.5 shows that in the EU, professional repair
operations can be much more expensive than the purchase of a new item. In this context, the user prefers to
buy a new item rather than repairing the damaged one.
When a user decides to repair an item, self-repair is the most common practice followed by unpaid repair via
associations such as repair cafes
(
145
)
and lastly via paid support using professional repairer. Besides economic
reasons reported above, it seems that this ranking among different options is largely affected by user mistrust
of the capabilities of professional repairers and the cost in terms of time that is associated to repairing
operations including logistics (Laitala et al., 2021b; EEA et al., 2022; McQueen et al., 2023).
However, self-repair is a viable option only if the user has suitable skills and available time. Usually, users do
not have the right skills for self-repair. Although in general women are more likely to repair their defective
apparel than men, younger generations, regardless of gender, tend to lack knowledge about the necessary tools,
materials and practices (EEA et al., 2022; McQueen et al., 2023; Hernandez et al., 2024). Disregarding user skills,
the value given to the time spent in self-repair plays a crucial role when a user decides what to do with their
damaged item (Jain, 2021).
Legislative framework and best practices
Currently, there is no legal framework for repair of textile apparel in EU. The promotion of reparability is left to
individual fashion brands’ voluntary initiatives. However, on 30 July 2024, Directive 2024/1799 on repair of
goods (
146
) entered into force, with the aim of promoting repair of goods both within and outside the legal
144
145
146
Eurostat: NACE Rev. 2
–
Statistical classification of economic activities in the European Community, available at
this link.
Last accessed
10 October 2024.
Repair cafes are local no-profit workshops where volunteers repair or help repairing numerous goods, including textile apparel.
Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 11 November 2024.
Directive (EU) 2024/1799 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 on common rules promoting the repair of
goods and amending Regulation (EU) 2017/2394 and Directives (EU) 2019/771 and (EU) 2020/1828 (Text with EEA relevance).
Available at
this link.
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3214
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3217
3218
3219
3220
3221
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3227
3228
3229
3230
3231
guarantee. Member States have to transpose the Directive into national legislation and apply it from 31 July
2026.
Under Directive 2024/1799, manufacturers of products that are subject to reparability requirements under EU
law will have to repair those products within a reasonable time and for a reasonable price. For such an obligation
to apply, repairability requirements would have to be set in product-specific legislation, potentially for instance
in the future Delegated Act on textile products under the ESPR.
Furthermore, manufacturers are required to make information available about their repair services to
consumers in an easily accessible manner and consumers will be able to find repairers more easily through a
new online European Repair Platform.
Directive 2024/1799 has also amended the existing Sale of goods Directive (EU) 2019/771
(
147
),
adding an
additional year to the legal guarantee if the choice is made to repair a product instead of replacing it under the
legal guarantee.
9.2.3.2
How to assess repairability
Section 9.2.3.1 reported how emotional attachment, fashion trends and repair price strongly affect the success
of reparability for textile apparel. In addition to these aspects, repairability can be assessed via more product-
related properties identifying the product parts and describing the level of four key parameters: (1) disassembly
complexity, (2) tool accessibility, (3) use of standard fasteners, and (4) repair support resources.
Table 48
provides a description of textile apparel in the context of repairability without taking into account potential
trade-offs between reparability and physical durability. These trade-offs will be assessed in Task 5 and 6 of
the PS.
147
Directive (EU) 2019/771 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 May 2019 on certain aspects concerning contracts for
the sale of goods. Available at
this link.
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Table 48.
Repairability assessment via four key factors
Key parameters
Disassembly complexity
It evaluates how easily parts of textile apparel can be
separated without damaging the product.
Relatively easy reparability
Product parts can be easily separated without damaging the
product.
This is especially the case when the product is made of only one
part.
Type of connectors:
Temporary seams: Double-stitched or easily accessible seams that
can be opened with minimal damage (e.g., simple lockstitch or
chainstitch).
Fabric Layers:
Single-layer designs or modular textile apparel (e.g., detachable
lining) are easier to access for repair.
Access Points:
Visible and accessible access points: Clear, deliberate access points
for modifying or replacing specific parts make disassembly easier.
Common household tools are sufficient for repairs.
Type of Tools Required:
Scissors, needles and thread.
Availability of Tools:
Commonly found in physical or online stores.
Easy to source compatible parts and materials.
Use and availability of standardised fasteners:
It uses standard fasteners that are easily available in physical and
online shops.
Availability of repair support.
Repair instructions:
It includes detailed repair documentation that supports the repair
process and it is easily accessible. The guide provides specific
instructions tailored to the product via guides, photos, or videos.
Repair services offered:
Accessible in the region where the product is sold.
Relatively difficult reparability
Product parts are difficult to separate without damaging the
product
Type of connectors:
Permanent seams: These are difficult to open without damaging
the fabric (e.g., overlocking or serged seams). If the seams must
be cut or torn, this lowers the repairability level.
Use of adhesives or heat-sealing require specialised tools.
Fabric Layers:
Layered textile apparel: Items with multiple bonded or fused
fabric layers are harder to disassemble without damaging the
underlying structure.
Access Points:
Concealed or no access points: Products without clear areas to
begin disassembly or where components are sealed shut.
Specialised tools are required to disassemble and repair the
product.
Type of Tools Required:
Industrial or professional tools like sewing machines and similar
tools.
Availability of Tools:
Usually expensive tools available only in professional distribution.
Difficult to source compatible parts or materials.
Use and availability of standardised fasteners:
Unique/proprietary fastener, which are difficult to source.
Absent or very general repair support.
Repair instructions:
It lacks of specific repair information.
Repair services offered:
Not accessible or not available in the region where the product is
sold.
Tool accessibility
It evaluates whether common household tools can be used
to repair the product or if specialised tools are needed. This
is strictly connected to the type of product failure.
Standard fasteners
It evaluates if standard fasteners are used.
Repair support resources
It evaluates the availability of repair instructions and
services.
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Source: own production.
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9.2.3.3
Description of products based on repairability characteristics
Following the framework reported in section 9.2.3.2,
Table 49
reports a description of product technologies in
the context of repairability. However, the necessary condition for a repairable product is that the price of the
repair should be acceptable to the user when compared to the price of a similar new item.
Table 49.
Description of product technologies from the repairability perspective
Key parameter
Disassembly complexity
Base Case (BC)
When products are made of
more than one part, their
disassembly
is
highly
complex, requiring multiple
steps to access damaged
parts.
The products use standard
fasteners, but they are
usually hard to access or
remove.
The repair operations require
basic and specialised tools.
Compatible fasteners are
available.
Repair support is very limited,
with vague instructions and
service limited to portions of
the region where the product
is sold.
Best Available Technology
(BAT)
When products are made of
more than one part, their
disassembly
has
low
complexity,
with
easily
accessible parts.
The products use standard
fasteners,
designed
for
simple removal.
The repair operations require
only basic tools.
Compatible
standard
fasteners are available.
The product has detailed,
repair guidance about the
failure of most common
damaged product parts.
Repair services are available
in the whole region where the
product is sold.
Best Not yet Available
Technology (BNAT)
When products are made of
more than one part, their
disassembly
can
be
performed without tools.
The products use fasteners
that can be detached and
reattached multiple times
without damage.
The repair operations require
no tools.
Compatible
standard
fasteners are available with
personal customization via
3D printers.
Interactive repair support is
available
real-time
via
augmented reality, artificial
intelligence
or
other
technologies.
Repair services are available
in the whole region where the
product is sold.
Tools accessibility
Standard fasteners
Repair support resources
3240
3241
3242
3243
3244
3245
3246
3247
3248
3249
3250
3251
3252
3253
3254
3255
3256
3257
Source: JRC own production.
9.2.4
Waste generation
—
Textile waste is a textile product which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard
(
148
).
—
Post-industrial textile waste is textile waste generated during the manufacturing of textile
products and their precursors (manufacturing of fibre, yarn and fabric, and during confectioning)
(Huygens et al., 2023).
—
Pre-consumer textile waste is textile waste generated as a result of discarding unsold textile
products.
—
Post-consumer textile waste is a textile product that have been discarded after consumption and
use by the citizen or end-users of commercial and industrial activities (hotel, care, automotive,
etc.). For this reason it is commonly referred to as household and commercial post-consumer
textile waste, respectively (Huygens et al., 2023).
In this PS, the following definitions were used:
Pre-consumer textile waste is generated at manufacturer and retailer stages and it includes the following
unsold products:
•
•
Finished products that the manufacturers do not send to their customers due to order change
or cancellation;
Products that were placed on the market but were not purchased by consumers;
148
The definition of textile waste is inspired by the definition of waste reported by the Waste Framework Directive (WFD). Directive
2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives (Text
with EEA relevance). Available at
this link.
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3259
3260
3261
3262
3263
3264
3265
3266
3267
3268
3269
3270
•
•
Products returned to the retailer after being purchased;
Products that the retailer decides not to place on the market.
This last type of pre-consumer textile waste includes obsolete products belonging to collections that the retailer
considers not suitable for the fast changing market, and products that do not meet the retailer’ standards,
whose remanufacturing is not economically viable (Roberts et al., 2023).
9.2.4.1
Textile waste in numbers
The consumption of textile apparel drives the generation of its waste.
Figure 24
shows that the yearly apparent
consumption of an EU-27 citizen increased from about 6 kg before 2005 up to about 10 kg between 2005 and
2022. In particular, in 2019 the EU generated about 6 Mt of textile apparel waste (Table
50).
A substantial
degree of uncertainty exists on these values because Member States and companies have different definitions
of textile waste and standards for reporting waste generation, and reporting standards to official databases
(e.g. Eurostat) (Huygens et al., 2023).
Figure 24.
Apparent consumption of textile apparel per capita in EU-27
3271
3272
3273
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
Table 50.
Amount of textile apparel waste generated due to EU consumption in 2019
Type of waste
Post-consumer
Pre-consumer
Post-industrial
Total
Mass (Mt/y)
5.2
0.16
0.64
6
Contribution to the total (%)
87
3
11
100
3274
3275
3276
3277
3278
3279
3280
3281
3282
3283
3284
3285
3286
3287
3288
3289
3290
Source: Huygens et al. (2023)
Post-industrial waste ranges from 25% to 45% of all fabric used in the production (Aus et al., 2021). The
quantity of pre-consumer waste is currently considered underestimated mainly due to lack of transparent
reporting (Aus et al., 2021; Duhoux et al., 2024).
In terms of fate of textile waste, it is estimated that about 10% of post-industrial and pre-consumer textile
waste is recycled, while the rest is incinerated, landfilled or exported to third countries with unknown final
destiny. Only about 5% of the post-consumer textile waste is recycled in the EU, about 17% is exported to third
countries and the rest is either incinerated or landfilled (Huygens et al., 2023).
Besides textile waste, the textile industry generates waste from packaging, hangers, which are usually made of
plastics, and spent chemicals used in the manufacturing stage. Wastewater is also generated, but it is not
included in this analysis because it is addressed in section 9.2.6 on environmental impacts as emissions into
water (Roth et al., 2023).
9.2.4.2
Analysis of the ecosystem
Although the types of textile waste have some peculiarities, their generation has some common drivers when
focussing on business models and user behaviours.
On one hand, the dominant
business models
of many fashion designers, fashion brands and retailers
incentivise the continuous consumption of new products:
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3292
3293
3294
3295
3296
3297
3298
3299
3300
3301
3302
3303
3304
3305
3306
3307
3308
3309
3310
3311
3312
3313
3314
3315
3316
3317
3318
3319
3320
3321
3322
3323
3324
3325
3326
3327
3328
3329
3330
3331
—
placing on the market up to 47 new collections per year (see Section 5.6),
—
offering multiple seasonal discounts over the year to incentivise the consumption of products that
are considered obsolete, and
—
generating a sense of urgency and exclusivity by placing on the market numerous limited editions
and using the dark pattern in online sales (see Section 6).
In particular, the brand-led operation model promotes new trends via numerous Fashion Weeks and trade shows
all around the world, as well as by advertising the proposals of fashion editors, stylists, celebrities and
influencers. Additionally, companies using the consumer-led operation model aim to predict the demand of
users via trend forecasting agencies or in-house forecasting models, which lead to overproduction to meet the
fast changing requests of as many people as possible in different parts of the world (Roberts et al., 2023;
McKinsey & Company, 2024; Brondino, 2022).
On the other hand,
users
choose products based on (1) what is available on the market, (2) what is economically
convenient, and (3) what makes them feel good and accepted by others. Therefore, the change of user demand
depends on the new trends, and the needs of individuals to self-represent and feel accepted when meeting
others at work, in their free time and in special occasions (see Section 6).
The following three subsections deepen into aspects of the ecosystem that are specific to each type of textile
waste.
9.2.4.2.1
Post-industrial waste
When focussing on the manufacturing stages, business models and process techniques largely affect the
generation of post-industrial textile waste.
As described in section 5.6, the
business model
of European and North American fashion companies rely on
the manufacture of companies located in third countries, which operate as:
—
Primary suppliers: main suppliers that provide the products directly to the fashion company.
—
Sub-contractors: secondary suppliers that primary suppliers might use to fulfil part of their job.
—
Licensed suppliers: companies producing goods under a licensing agreement, which allow them to
use in third countries the patents and trademarks of the fashion companies.
Within this structure, suppliers are asked to rapidly produce and adapt to the volatile requests of the market,
which could lead to changes or even cancellation of orders. Lead time from the concept of the textile apparel
to the potential customer purchase could be as short as 15-21 days. This business model challenges a careful
design, resource planning, and quality control during the manufacturing processes. As consequence, post-
industrial textile waste increases because (Aus et al., 2021; Zhao and Kim, 2021; Fernandez-Stark et al., 2022;
Duhoux et al., 2024; McKinsey & Company, 2024):
•
•
•
•
•
The supply chain is characterised by the bullwhip effect (
149
), where suppliers enlarge their
inventories to tackle demand fluctuations;
Suppliers waste part of their inventories when stock location storage becomes limited;
Suppliers overproduce to benefit from economies of scale;
Material belonging to cancelled orders is directly wasted rather than remanufactured;
Lack of manufacturing quality control leads to low-performing products rejected by fashion
brands.
Process techniques
adopted in the manufacture of textile apparel are crucial elements conditioning the
generation of post-industrial textile waste. In particular, key factors include poor planning, inefficient
149
The bullwhip effect refers to the phenomenon where order variability increases as the orders move upstream in the supply chain. The
bullwhip effect is sometimes referred
to as ‘demand amplification’, ‘variance amplification’ or the ‘Forrester effect’. This effect
becomes significant when the cost from fluctuations in production/ordering outweighs the cost of holding inventory (Wang and Disney,
2016).
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3333
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3340
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3343
3344
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3346
3347
3348
3349
3350
3351
3352
3353
3354
3355
3356
3357
3358
3359
3360
3361
3362
3363
3364
3365
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3369
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3373
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3379
3380
3381
3382
manufacturing systems and cutting methods, as well as suboptimal fabric utilisation (Aus et al., 2021; Khairul
Akter et al., 2022).
At the confectioning stage, cutting operations are the largest contributors of this type of waste, followed by
mistakes during sewing and damages to fabrics (Aus et al., 2021; El Shishtawy et al., 2022; Vilumsone-Nemes
et al., 2023). On one hand, design software like CAD (Computer-Aided Design) and the use of artificial
intelligence can optimise the use of fabric and decrease the generation of post-industrial waste by 27% when
compared to manual cutting (Krsteva and Demboski, 2011; Palacios-Mateo et al., 2021). On the other hand,
sewing operations are semi-manual activities affected by the performance of the machinery and the pressure
put on the operators to meet the tight deadlines of rapid production (Aus et al., 2021).
In general, the manufacturing process could be optimised adopting methodologies such as Lean Manufacturing,
Total Quality Management, Kaizen, Just-In-Time (JIT) and Lean Six Sigma. The adoption of these methodologies
optimise processes, improves the alignment of demand and production and reduces the incidence of defective
goods (Saleeshya et al., 2012; Harpa et al., 2024).
However, despite technological developments, there is lack of standardised industrial best practices that enable
the reduction of post-industrial textile waste. The authors are not aware of any specific
legislation
in producing
countries specifically addressing this type of textile waste.
9.2.4.2.2
Pre-consumer waste
When focussing on the retailer stage, all elements of the waste generation ecosystem play an important role.
Process techniques
related to the efficiency of the reverse logistic could decrease the number of destroyed
returned products avoiding that more items get lost, damaged or with time become obsolete. The literature
reports different improvement potential when adopting the Best Management Practices: pre-consumer waste
due to returns could be decreased from 44% to 22% or from 25% to 13%. Moreover, detailed product
descriptions, especially on size and fitting, could support informed purchase and therefore reduce the number
of returns (Ahlström et al., 2020; Duhoux et al., 2024; Roichman et al., 2024).
The
business model
concerning return policies of the retailer and the marketplace plays a relevant role. To
overcome reverse logistic issues, some fashion brands offer an integrated shopping experience that combines
e-commerce and physical stores. In this case, customers can purchase online and potentially return in physical
stores where they can get customised recommendations (McKinsey & Company, 2024).
The bullwhip effect characterising the manufacturing processes affects invest also retailers, who try to enlarge
their inventories to meet the requests of the changing market (Fernandez-Stark et al., 2022; Duhoux et al.,
2024; McKinsey & Company, 2024). As a consequence, as soon as fashion trends change, new collections
generate obsolete goods that remain unsold. Therefore, items less affected by changing trends and with high
demand are less likely to remain unsold (Duhoux et al., 2024).
Section 6.4.4 reported that
users
are not aware of the consequences of returning items of textile apparel after
their online purchase
–
most of them think that the items are always re-sold. The investigation showed that
customers find convenient purchasing online when returns are free of charge. In these cases, customers have
the opportunity to try and touch the product directly at home without going to the physical store. This
opportunity sometimes evolves to the extreme
behaviours of bracketing and ‘wardrobing’. The former describes
users purchasing multiple sizes of the same item and returning those that do not fit. The latter describes
consumers purchasing expensive items, wearing them, and then returning them (see Section 10.6.3).
From a
legislative perspective,
the destruction of pre-consumer textile waste is often preferred by companies
because there are taxation advantages related to VAT payment (Duhoux et al., 2024). With the entrance into
force of the ESPR, from 19 July 2026, the destruction of unsold textile products is prohibited unless derogations
apply in cases where destruction is necessary, for instance due to health and safety reasons. Only micro and
small enterprises will be exempted from this prohibition. However, the ESPR addresses only the unsold products
that are placed on the EU market, while it does not address pre-consumer textile waste generated at
manufacturing stage.
9.2.4.2.3
Post-consumer waste
When focussing on the end-of-life of textile apparel, the analysis of reasons for textile apparel disposal sheds
light on what mostly affects the generation of post-consumer waste. The investigation reported in Section 6.2.1
highlighted three main reasons:
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1.
2.
3.
The loss over time of product intrinsic performance,
The change in perceived value, and
The change over time of the body shape of the user resulting in unfitted textile apparel.
The first reason is strictly connected to the physical durability of the product over aging processes. The second
reason is related to the desire or need to change the textile apparel due to changing fashion trends, personal
tastes, or social life. The third reason is connected to physiological change of the human body over time.
In addition to these three factors, a study revealed that users are more prone to dispose of cheaper products
than of higher-priced items because they usually develop higher emotional attachment to the latter than to the
former (Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022).
From the
legislative perspective,
the Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) and the recently published
revision of the Waste Shipment Regulation (2024/1157) (WSR)
(
150
)
regulate the management of post-
consumer waste in EU and its potential shipment within the EU and from the EU to third countries, respectively.
In particular, the proposal to establish Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes for textiles in all EU
Member States should ensure that producers will cover the costs of textile waste management and research
and development on e.g. recycling technologies (see Section 4.1.2). Additionally, the WSR allows the shipment
of textile waste produced in EU only to non-OECD countries that have expressed their willingness to receive the
waste and demonstrate the ability to treat it in an environmentally sound manner
(
151
).
9.2.4.3
How to assess and describe product technologies in the context of waste generation
The generation of waste is not an intrinsic property of a single product technology, but rather depends on many
elements of its ecosystem, and is driven by the total consumption of textile apparel. Currently, it is not possible
to understand if a product was manufactured using specific process techniques and under particular business
models. Moreover, it is unknown how many companies use advanced technologies to minimise their post-
industrial and pre-consumer waste. Nevertheless, the study of the literature and the consultation with
stakeholders reveals that the majority of the products consumed in EU are produced with the business models
incentivising overconsumption and overproduction as described in section 9.2.4.2.
To sum up, it is difficult to distinguish BC, BAT and BNAT among the product technologies placed on the market.
In the following steps of the preparatory study, the description of waste generation will be modelled taking into
account the variability and uncertainties of all factors playing a role: the influence of the dominant business
models, user behaviours and the general performances of available process techniques.
9.2.5
Recyclability and recycled content
This section analyses the recyclability and recycled content of textile apparel starting from their definitions
reported in section 9.1:
—
Recyclability
is the ability of products after becoming waste to be reprocessed into products,
materials or substances whether for the original or other purposes. It includes the reprocessing of
organic material but does not include energy recovery and the reprocessing into materials that are
to be used as fuels or for backfilling operations.
—
According to the ISO 14021, the
recycled content
is the proportion, by mass, of recycled material,
from pre- and post-consumer waste, in a product or packaging.
These definitions will be revised in the end of this section based on the analysis of this specific product aspect.
150
151
Regulation (EU) 2024/1157 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 April 2024 on shipments of waste, amending
Regulations (EU) No 1257/2013 and (EU) 2020/1056 and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006. Available at
this link.
Decision of the Council on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Wastes Destined for Recovery Operations. Available at
this
link.
Last accessed on 18 October 2024.
The Waste Shipment Regulation (2024/1157) prohibits the exports of textile waste (Basel Convention entry B3030) destined for
recovery in countries to which the OECD Decision does not apply. Specific countries can be included via a Delegated Act (see Article
41).
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9.2.5.1
The ecosystem of recyclability and recycled content
Process techniques and design choices
Figure 25
shows the description of the recycling system of textile waste aiming to produce recycled fibres.
In the first place, textile waste is collected separately from other waste fractions and is subsequently sorted
following criteria that depend on the techniques used in the following stages of the recycling system. Then the
waste is treated to prepare the material for the following process and finally it undergoes the actual recycling
process that results in a recycled fibres output. The recycling process includes recycling techniques and potential
further treatments to obtain the recycled fibre
(
152
).
Figure 25
does not include the transportation of the waste
potentially occurring between different processes because it is not relevant to the analysis performed.
In this section, only the waste undergoing recycling will be described but the reader should keep in mind that
the waste management of textile waste includes all processed described in Section 10.2.8.
Figure 25.
Recycling system of textile waste
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Source: own elaboration using icons from
www.flaticon.com
The separate
collection
of textile waste guarantees that this waste fraction can enter the recycling system.
Since post-industrial textile waste is managed by manufacturers, the waste is already separated from other
waste fractions and it is directly delivered to other actors of the value chain. When the waste is generated at
fibre stage, the spinnable part is usually reintegrated in the manufacturing process, whereas the non-spinnable
part is usually given to other actors of the value chain for further applications, such as nonwovens filters,
insulation, and filling (Boschmeier et al., 2024). When the waste is generated during spinning, broken ends of
slivers and laps are usually reintegrated in the manufacturing process, whereas waste from blow-room
machines and carding is usually given to other actors of the value chain for further treatments or applications
(Bedez Ute et al., 2019). Differently, when the waste is generated during the manufacturing of fabric or
confectioning, manufacturers may send the waste to specialised companies for further treatments or disposal.
Similarly to the post-industrial textile waste, the pre-consumer textile waste is managed by manufacturers and
retailers. Also in this case, the waste is already separated from other waste fractions and it is directly delivered
to other actors of the value chain.
The separate collection of post-consumer textile waste includes pick-up and drop-off schemes. Pick-up schemes
involve scheduled collection routes targeting specific waste types, such as bulky or frequently disposed waste.
In pick-up schemes, consumers are usually provided with containers, especially in door-to-door or kerbside
collection. Alternatively, drop-off schemes require individuals to deliver their waste either to designated
containers or through take-back systems offered by retailers. In Europe, post-consumer textiles waste are
mainly collected via drop-off containers (Huygens et al., 2023).
In the recycling system,
sorting
is relevant mainly for post-consumer waste. Post-industrial waste and pre-
consumer waste do not need to be sorted because at the generation site, manufacturers and retailers, the
waste is already segregated according to similar characteristics, such as cut-offs of the same fabric, or the
unsold items belonging to the same collection. However, returned items could be an exception
–
according to
the retailer logistics, this waste could need to be sorted.
152
This happens because the output of recycling techniques can be an intermediate product that needs to be further treated before
becoming a recycled fibre.
Table 51
provides more details.
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At sorting facilities, items are sorted according to their reusability, composition and colour. The sorting criteria
are set by second-hand traders and recyclers looking for items with specific characteristics. There are mainly
three types of sorting techniques (EuRIC, 2021):
—
Manual sorting relies on human inspection of the waste. It is particularly accurate, especially when
sorting reusable items, but it is labour-intensive and takes a relative long time.
—
Automated sorting uses machines equipped with near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy to identify the
colour and the surface composition of the items. It is fast, but it not as accurate as human
inspection.
—
Hybrid sorting combines human inspection with automation to balance accuracy and efficiency.
The sorting process is mainly challenged by the difficulty to accurately identify the fibre composition of the
textile waste. On one hand, the reading of the fibre composition reported on labels is time consuming if done
with human inspection. Information is not necessarily accurate or it could be even not accessible due to absence
of the label or removal of the writing due to ageing processes. On the other hand, the use of near-infrared
spectroscopy has difficulties when used for multi-layered items, or on items with layered fabrics, whose outer
fibres are different from the inner ones.
After sorting, the waste undergoes
pre-treatment,
which optimises the material processing in the specific
recycling technique to be used. Usually, during pre-treatment, non-textile parts are separated from the parts
containing fibres. This is commonly done manually, with loss of some part of the fabric, while new process
techniques use mechanical separation together with shredding of the waste. Alternatively, other new process
techniques allow disassembly of waste in cases where specific stitches have been used for the confectioning.
These stiches can be loosened or dissolved under specific electromagnetic or heat treatments, respectively.
During pre-treatment, fabrics are usually shredded to improve the efficiency of recycling technology adopted
in the following step of the recycling system.
Table 51
reports the status of the
recycling techniques
in 2023. Available techniques were described via
their feedstock, the main recycling output, the possibility to deal with disruptors and their maturity. Each
technique can process feedstock with specific characteristics and can provide recycled fibres with specificities
that affect their application in textile products. Additionally, disruptors like non-textile parts, dyes, coatings, and
undesired fibres (e.g. elastane) could be an obstacle for some techniques, but not for all of them. The level of
maturity of the techniques refers to 2023, but the general picture could rapidly change given the fast technical
evolution of the sector.
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Table 51.
Status of recycling techniques for textile waste in 2023
Recycling
technique
Mechanical
recycling
Feedstock
Textile waste almost exclusively
constituted of cotton, wool, or
synthetic fibres.
Blends are usually not
processed.
Main output
Recycled fibres are shorter than virgin fibres.
Disruptors
Non-textile materials have to be
removed.
Fibre contaminants and colours of
feedstock will be transferred to recycled
fibres. This usually requires colour
sorting before recycling.
Maturity of the technique and
comments
It is the most commonly used technology at
scale.
Recycled fibres have lower mechanical
properties than virgin fibres. This usually
forces the use of recycled fibres with virgin
fibres.
The mechanical characteristics of the
recycled fibre limit its application.
A portion of recycled fibre is usually not
spinnable.
The physical and mechanical characteristics
of the recycled fibres highly depend of the
status of fibres used as feedstock.
It is at about TRL=7.
During the process the polymers/fibres are
deteriorated. Thus, recycled fibres should be
blended with virgin fibres.
Thermo-mechanical
recycling
Chemical recycling
for cellulosic fibres
Chemical recycling
for synthetic fibres
(mainly PES and
PA6)
Textile waste constituted of
fibres based on thermoplastic
polymers.
High purity is required.
Input textile waste should
consists only of one polymer
type (e.g. acrylic, nylon,
polyester) or of compatible
polymer types.
Textile waste mainly constituted
of cellulosic fibres.
Presence of impurities and non-
targeted fibres decreases the
efficiency of the process.
A specific process step removes
impurities and non-targeted
fibres.
Textile waste constituted of at
least 80-90% PES or PA6.
Polymers in the form of granulate or fibres
Non-textile materials have to be
removed.
Pigments and dyes remain in the output
material.
Regenerated cellulose as pulp.
Non-textile materials are removed
before or during the process.
A process stage removes dyes and
finishes. It has a bleaching step similar
to the traditional wood pulp production.
Most technologies have reached high
readiness (TRL=7-9). This is particularly true
for feedstock with pure cotton.
The potential degradation in length and
strength of the cellulosic fibres influences
the performance of the regenerated pulp.
Depolymerisation techniques processing PA6
are operational at scale.
Techniques processing PES have TRL=4-7
and are expected to enter the market within
less than 5 years.
PES or PE6 monomers/oligomers.
Non-textile materials are removed
before or during the process.
Contaminants like dyes can be handled
to achieve homogeneous colours of
recycled monomers/oligomers.
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Recycling
technique
Chemical recycling
for wool-rich blends
or polycotton
fabrics
Feedstock
Textile waste rich in wool, or
textile waste made of
polycotton.
A degree of contamination is
accepted by specific techniques.
Main output
Depending on the process, the output is:
- wool fibres ready for carding;
- cellulosic pulp;
- PES fibres, polymers, or monomers.
Disruptors
Non-textile materials are removed
before or during the process.
Colours can be removed also via
bleaching.
Thermo-chemical
recycling via
pyrolysis and
gasification
Textile waste with any fibre
composition.
Syngas or pyrolysis oil, which could serve as
a basis to produce methanol and then
transform the methanol in different
monomers for later polymer production.
Non-textile materials are removed
before or during the process.
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Maturity of the technique and
comments
Wool recycling using hydrochloric acid is at
operational scale.
The solvent-based dissolution and filtration
technique used for polycotton is currently at
TRL=5-6.
The hydrothermal techniques used for
polycotton are at TRL=6-7.
The enzymatic technique used for polycotton
is estimated to be at TRL=5.
Pyrolysis has already been implemented as
industrial scale (TRL 9), but applications for
textile waste treatment are unknown.
Syngas and pyrolysis oil are usually used as
fuels.
TRL: Technology Readiness Level, which is a 9-grade scale. TRL=1: Basic principles observed; TRL=2: Technology concept formulated; TRL=3: Experimental proof of concept; TRL=4: Technology validated in lab; TRL=5:
Technology validated in relevant environment (industrially relevant environment in the case of key enabling technics); TRL=6: Technology demonstrated in relevant environment (industrially relevant environment
in the case of key enabling techniques); TRL=7: System prototype demonstration in operational environment; TRL=8: System complete and qualified; TRL=9: Actual system proven in operational environment
(competitive manufacturing in the case of key enabling technologies; or in space).
PES: polyester; PA6: polyamide/nylon 6; Polycotton: blend made of cotton and polyester
Source: own elaboration based on (Duhoux et al., 2021; Lu et al., 2023; Huygens et al., 2023) and inputs from stakeholders.
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Overall, the most used recycling technique is mechanical recycling which processes mono-fibre textiles,
preferably cotton and wool. Blends are not usually processed with mechanical recycling because the output
would be a mix of fibres with different properties that have very difficult application in textile products. This
happens because the characteristics of the feedstock are directly transferred to the recycled fibres, which in
addition have lower mechanical properties than fibres in the feedstock. These characteristics of the
mechanically recycled fibres largely limit their applications and force to spin recycled fibres with virgin high-
performing fibres (Table
51).
Chemical recycling of man-made cellulosic fibres is also implemented at operational scale, especially when
feedstock is made of pure cotton, even though process capacities in the EU are still low. Also regenerated
cellulosic pulp has fibres with lower length and strength compared to the feedstock. Thus, mixing the recycled
material with virgin material helps improving the performance of the yarn containing recycled cellulosic fibres.
In chemical recycling of synthetic fibres, a different output is obtained processing polyamide-rich textiles via
chemical recycling for nylon 6 (PA6
–
polyamide), where the monomers can be further processed to build a
synthetic fibre with characteristics comparable to the virgin material (Table
51).
Table 51
shows that blends are still difficult to recycle
–
only wool recycling using hydrochloric acid and
depolymerisation techniques processing PA6 are implemented at scale. This represents a big technological
challenge that should be addressed because the majority of textile apparel placed on the EU market is made
with blends of natural and chemical fibres (48-60%). Single-fibre products account for smaller shares: 18-28%
made of cotton, and 11-17% made of polyester (Refashion, 2023; Bakowska et al., 2025).
This analysis allows to better understand information reported in
Table 21,
which shows that recycled fibres
represent a very low share of the market and that the most recycled ones are wool (7%), polyamide (PA) (2%),
cotton (1%), and MMCF (0.5%). Polyester is not included in this list because polyester fibres of recycled origin
are currently manufactured from PET derived from packaging (separately collected plastic beverage bottles).
Currently, the type of textile waste processed for the production of recycled fibres is mainly post-industrial. Also
pre-consumer waste is used, but in lesser quantity. This happens because these types of waste:
—
Are available at manufacturing or retailing sites, thus they are already segregated from other
waste fractions;
—
Do not need to be sorted, because they already are when generated;
—
Are constituted by undamaged and clean fibres;
—
Have known composition.
In particular, post-industrial waste has no non-textile parts and is often free of coatings and other disruptors
for the most used recycling techniques. This means that it can often be further processed without prior pre-
treatment.
Conversely, post-consumer waste has largely not been used as feedstock until now because its treatment is
more challenging and expensive than the other waste types. The reasons for this are that: (1) post-consumer
textile waste needs to be segregated from other waste fractions and sorted; (2) fibres are damaged, which
would result in less performing mechanically recycled fibres; (3) requires fibre and chemical composition to be
analysed
–
see sorting techniques. Although post-industrial and pre-consumer textile waste are currently the
cheapest option, the resulting recycled fibres are still more expensive than virgin fibres.
At present, textile products including recycled fibres report their recycled content either via a manufacturer
declaration, or via a third party verification system. Since there is no laboratory test capable of determining the
recycled or virgin origin of fibres, the only possible verification tool has to rely on chain of custody systems.
The study of the literature and the preliminary exchange with stakeholders revealed that designers and recyclers
have apparently opposite needs. The former uses fibre blends, dyes, coating and other current recycling
disruptors to improve the performances of the textile product and simultaneously meet the taste of the users,
who would like to buy products at low price (see section 9.2.1.1). The latter, due to the current status of recycling
techniques (see
Table 51),
would need to process textile products made with only one fibre and carrying a
minimum amount of disruptors.
Business models and user behaviour
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A recent analysis performed by the JRC reported that recycling is not adequately in place and that the lack of
a strong business case for recycling has negative effects on the business case of other economic actors in the
recycling system, such as collectors and sorters (Huygens et al., 2023).
The main barrier to the development of a market for recycled fibres results from the general low cost of
products: from the raw material to the final product placed on the market. Textile products containing recycled
fibres are more expensive than the same products made only of virgin fibres. The research conducted by the
JRC found that the insufficient internalisation of externalities in the global textile supply chain produces
economic market barriers to recycling. Therefore, the economy of scale for the establishment of a profitable
recycling system is challenged due to (Huygens et al., 2023):
—
Technical limitations in recycling techniques (see
Table 51);
—
The design of non-recyclable textile products (technological externalities);
—
Risk aversion to adopting recycled fibres by the next value chain user (consumption externalities);
—
The cost associated to the identification of feedstock characteristics suitable for the specific
recycling technology.
Despite the problem highlighted above, there are some fashion brands promoting the use of textile apparel
with recycled content. Additionally, the preliminary exchange with some stakeholders revealed that a few large
fashion brands are also promoting the collaboration between designers and operators in the recycling system
to design recyclable textile apparel.
With a growing interest in textile products containing recycled fibres, there should be also a growing demand
for certification schemes based on chain of custody systems capable of tracking the source of the recycled
fibres used.
Users contribute to increasing the demand for textile products containing recycled fibres. The analysis
performed in Section 6.2.7 revealed that it is mostly young and educated individuals usually look for these
products. The investigation performed by Pranta et al. (2024) revealed that individuals with higher income have
a higher likelihood to purchase textile products with recycled content compared to individuals having a lower-
income. This confirms the difficulty of recycled fibres to compete with virgin fibres.
Legislative framework
The legislative framework addressing the recycling system could be described focussing on the types of textile
waste.
Post-industrial textile waste is not subject to any specific legislation in the EU nor in producing third countries.
The Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) only establishes generic objectives to prevent waste generation
but contains no specific provisions addressing this type of waste.
Pre-consumer textile waste is addressed by the ESPR, which prohibits the destruction of unsold textile products
in the EU. Only micro and small enterprises will be exempted from this prohibition. However, the ESPR only
addresses unsold products in the EU, while it does not address pre-consumer textile waste generated at
manufacturing stage in third countries. The authors are not aware of any legislation in third producing countries
addressing pre-consumer textile waste.
Post-consumer textile waste is addressed by the Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) and the newly
published Waste Shipment Regulation (2024/1157) (WSR)
(
153
),
regulating the management of post-consumer
waste in EU and its potential shipment within the EU and from the EU to third countries, respectively. In
particular, the proposal to establish Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes for textiles in all EU
Member States should ensure that producers will cover the costs of textile waste management and research
and development on e.g. recycling technologies (see Section 4.1.2).
9.2.5.2
How to assess recyclability
The analysis of the ecosystem reported in the section 9.2.5.1 suggests to address recyclability with an integral
and dynamic approach assessing the evolution over time of all elements of the recycling system, from the
153
Regulation (EU) 2024/1157 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 April 2024 on shipments of waste, amending
Regulations (EU) No 1257/2013 and (EU) 2020/1056 and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006. Available at
this link.
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feedstock to all process techniques involved. To this aim, in the framework of this PS, a recyclable textile apparel
must have the following five characteristics, which apply as soon as it becomes waste:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It can be effectively collected;
It can be sorted, i.e. segregated from other textile waste and sent to the subsequent suitable recycling
pathways;
It can be pre-treated before recycling, or can be sent directly to recycling without specific pre-
treatment;
Its fibre content can be fully used as feedstock for one or more recycling techniques to produce recycled
fibres usable in textile products;
It has no elements or substances in amounts that disrupt the collection, sorting, preparation for
recycling and recycling, or that limit the use of the recycled fibre.
Therefore, textile apparel that meets all these five characteristics is considered to be recyclable, otherwise it is
not recyclable. This integrated approach was chosen to assess the recyclability of textile apparel because all
elements in the recycling system are important. This integral approach based on these five characteristics is a
similar approach used by the French Law n° 2020-105
(
154
)
to define recyclable textile products.
The approach proposed in this PS does not include any geographical limitation of the processes involved,
because it assumes that the recycling system will comply with the provisions on environmentally sound
management of waste under the WSR, where it is required that the requirements applied in the country of
destination ensure a similar level of protection of human health and the environment than the requirements
stemming from Union legislation. Moreover, it does not refer to specific characteristics of the feedstock or
particular process techniques, because it aims to promote the technological evolution from the perspectives of
the product design, sorting and recycling techniques.
Point 4 of the approach guarantees the successful application of the recycled fibre into any textile product. This
choice takes into account: (a) the objective of the Textile Strategy to close the loop of materials in textile
products, (b) the current technological limitations described in section 9.2.5.1, and (c) the fact that the
application of recycled fibres into textile apparel will be described/promoted via the recycled content (see section
9.2.5.4).
Despite its integral and dynamic nature, this approach is in line with the generic definition of recyclability
reported in section 9.1, which is inspired by the WFD. Moreover, this approach is applicable in the same way to
all products in the scope of the PS, making no necessary any categorization in the context of recyclability.
On the assumption that mandatory EPR for textiles based on the Commission proposal to amend the WFD is
adopted, upon its entry into force, it will support this integrated approach because economic operators (i.e.
fashion brands and retailers) placing products on the EU market would pay eco-modulated fees to support the
waste management of textile apparel. It is envisaged that eco-modulation of EPR fees for textiles will be based
on future ecodesign criteria, which could include recyclability requirements. In this framework, designers and
economic actors of the recycling system will be invited to work side-by-side to place on the EU market recyclable
products.
The proposed approach will need to be complemented by a standardised verification system assuring that the
textile apparel indeed complies with the five characteristics reported above.
9.2.5.3
Description of the product technologies in the context of recyclability
—
BC are not recyclable;
—
BAT are products that currently can be processed by techniques reported in
Table 51,
which are
implemented at scale, i.e. (1) single-fibre textile apparel recycled with mechanical recycling, (2)
pure cotton textile apparel recycled with chemical recycling for the production of MMCFs, (3) PE6-
In the framework of recyclability, the product technologies could be described as follows.
154
LOI n° 2020-105 du 10 février 2020 relative à la lutte contre le gaspillage et à l'économie circulaire. Available at
this link.
Last
accessed on 22 October 2024.
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rich textile apparel recycled with chemical recycling for synthetic fibres, and (4) wool-rich blends
recycled with chemical recycling based on hydrochloric acid.
—
BNAT are products that can be processed with techniques at intermediate maturity level reported
in
Table 51.
However, the definition of these BAT and BNAT establishes some biases in terms of fibre composition and
absence of specific components or substances in the product, which does not reflect the technological neutrality
pursued in this PS. The development of design options in Task 6 will address this lack of technological neutrality.
9.2.5.4
How to assess recycled content
The analysis of the ecosystem related to recyclability and recycled content suggests to connect the assessment
of the recycled content with the recyclability of the textile apparel and with the type of textile waste treated.
The assessment takes into account two main aspects:
•
•
The availability of recyclable textile apparel, which implies the production of a recycled fibre
with performances suitable for the use in textile apparel;
A verification system capable to track fibres coming from post-consumer textile waste.
The first aspect is very much connected to the definition of recyclable textile apparel reported in section 9.2.5.2.
This connection allows to close the loop for fibres used in textile apparel and guarantees the availability of
recycled fibres. Only if recyclable textile products are placed on the market, there will be availability of recycled
fibres to be used in new items. In particular, the reference to the performance of recycled fibres takes into
account the technological developments in spinning techniques, which over time will be capable to spin fibres
with lower performances.
The second aspect narrows down the type of textile waste that can be used to produce the recycled fibres.
Table 52
reports a description of the three types of textile apparel waste in the context of recyclability and
recycled content. Although post-industrial and pre-consumer textile waste have evident technical advantages
when they are used to produce recycled fibres, they are often the result of overproduction, overconsumption
and can be also attributed to inefficiencies in the production system (section 9.2.4.2). The inclusion of post-
industrial textile waste as a source of the recycled content for new textile apparel could incentivise the
generation of this type of waste. Furthermore, this textile waste type is also the only one that is not specifically
regulated (Table
52).
The second aspect excludes the use of pre-consumer waste because its generation is not fully regulated. When
it is generated at manufacturing stage outside EU, it is not addressed by any legislation. When it is generated
at manufacturing and retailer stages in EU, it is addressed by the ESPR, which forbids the destruction of unsold
textile products in the EU. However, the ESPR does not address pre-consumer waste generated by micro and
small enterprises. Also the inclusion of these types of textile waste as the source of the recycled content of a
new item would incentivise their generation especially when it occurs at manufacturing stage outside EU (Table
52
and section 9.2.4.2). Sections 5.1 and 5.2 report that the largest majority of the EU consumption is affected
by the production occurring outside EU.
Therefore, in the framework of the PS, the definition of recycled content should be narrowed down compared
to that reported by the ISO 14021 and used in section 9.1. Following the two aspects reported above,
the
recycled content is the proportion, by mass, of recycled fibres coming from recyclable textile apparel disposed
of as post-consumer waste.
The recycled content of a new textile apparel is fibre-specific, and it is also specific to the function that the item
must provide. For this reason, all products included in scope are described by the framework reported in this
section. A categorization of the products in scope based on the types of fibres and the specific function to be
provided by the item would result in a disproportionate number of categories, which would not meet the aims
of the PS.
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Table 52.
Description of the textile apparel waste in the context of the recyclability and the recycled content
Characteristic
Status of the
material
Post-industrial
Undamaged and clean fibres.
Pre-consumer
Undamaged and clean fibres.
Post-consumer
Worn material with damaged
fibres. It is often relatively
dirty, with various form of
stains and moist content,
generating
mould
and
hygienic problems.
Present
Based on the analysis of the
item’s surface via infrared
spectroscopy.
Non-textile
components
Knowledge
of
fibre composition
Absent
Known and detailed
manufacturer.
by
the
Present
Based on what is reported on the
label in accordance with the TLR.
The reading of one label allows
the identification of fibre
composition of the entire
collection.
Low
- Manufacturing stage
(available in producing countries,
which are mainly countries in Asia
- see Sections 5.1 and 5.2)
- Retail stage
(available in EU)
Not always needed.
-
Products
belonging
to
collections that not reach the
customer are already sorted;
- Returned products could need
some sorting depending on the
retailer logistic.
Needed
Degree
of
heterogeneity
Location
of
generation
Very low
–
homogeneous waste
Manufacturing stage
(available in producing countries,
which are mainly countries in Asia -
see Sections 5.1 and 5.2)
Not always needed, because it is
already sorted in the moment of
generation.
Very high
User stage
(available in EU)
Sorting
Needed
Pre-treatment
Regulating
legislation
It is ready for recycling because it
includes mainly cuts of fabrics.
Potentially, only shredding is
needed.
Most of the production occurs in
Asian countries, where the authors
did not find any legislation
addressing the generation of this
type of waste.
Very little production occurs in EU.
The generation of post-industrial
waste generated in EU are not
specifically regulated. The WFD sets
only generic objectives to prevent
waste generation.
The shipment of post-industrial
waste generated in EU is subjected
to the WSR.
The material described here as
post-industrial waste could in some
Member States be also identified as
a by-product, which would put it out
of the scope of the WSR.
Needed
Waste
generated
at
manufacturing stage:
- Not addressed by any legislation
identified by the authors if
production occurs outside EU;
- Addressed by the ESPR, which
bans destruction of unsold
products, with exemption only for
micro and small enterprises.
Waste generated at retailer stage
are addressed by the ESPR, which
bans destruction of unsold
products, with exemption only for
micro and small enterprises.
The shipment of post-industrial
waste generated in EU are
subjected to the WSR. However,
unsold products that did not
become waste are outside the
scope of the WSR.
This type of waste is fully
generated in EU and is
addressed by the WFD (EPR
and EoW), and the WSR.
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TLR: Textile Labelling Regulation (1007/2011)
ESPR: Ecodesign for sustainable Product Regulation (2024/1781)
WFD: Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC)
EPR: Expended Producer Responsibility, under the WFD
EoW: End-of-Waste criteria, under the WFD
WSR: Waste Shipment Regulation (2024/1157)
The analysis does not include transportation of the waste because it depends on the location of the treatment facilities.
Source: own production
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9.2.5.5
Description of the product technologies in the context of recycled content
In the framework of the recycled content, the base case of the product technologies would have no recycled
content (see
Table 21).
Differently, the identification of BAT and BNAT should distinguish fibres and product
functions.
In general, when constructing fabrics, knitted products are generally better suited for incorporating mechanically
recycled fibres due to their more flexible structure compared to woven fabrics (Boschmeier et al., 2024).
However, a notable exception is represented by denim trousers, which can incorporate up to 20% post-consumer
recycled material (Kuppen, 2024).
9.2.6
Environmental impacts
The product aspect on ‘environmental impacts’ is defined as any change to the environment, whether adverse
or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from a product during its life cycle.
This section analyses the elements affecting the environmental impacts generated by the consumption of textile
apparel in EU to best describe the product technologies. Therefore, the analysis reported in this section does
not aim to give a comprehensive overview of the environmental impacts caused. Task 5 of the PS will include
a comprehensive environmental assessment of the base case of products included in the scope.
9.2.6.1
The ecosystem affecting the environmental impacts
Process techniques
For each stage of the life cycle of the product, there are numerous process techniques that contribute to the
product development. Each of those techniques have different environmental performances. Therefore, the
choice of process techniques plays a key role in the environmental impacts of textile apparel.
Different levels of environmental impacts, related to specific process techniques, can be seen in production
stages such as yarn manufacturing. A range of spinning techniques is available. Ring-spinning is the most
commonly used in the textile industry due to its versatility in terms of the range of fibres that can be processed.
Its main advantage is that it produces finer and stronger yarns than other spinning techniques due to good fibre
control, orientation and alignment during spinning. However, it has high rates of power consumption, caused by
the necessity of rotating the bobbin at a rate of one turn for each twist inserted. In contrast, open-end spinning
was developed in an attempt to overcome the speed limitations of ring spinning. Another advantage is a
reduction in energy consumption (Elhawary, 2015a). In the case of wool spinning processes, significant
differences can be seen between fabric derived from carded yarn (woollen process) and fabric manufactured
using combed yarn (worsted process) in terms of the quantity of lubricants applied, with 5% in the former and
2% in the latter (Roth et al., 2023).
Knitting is a mechanical process and involves knotting yarn together with a series of needles. The main knitting
production methods are straight knitting, fully fashioned knitting, integral knitting, and complete textile apparel
knitting. Straight knitting most commonly relies on the weft technique, which consists of using one continuous
yarn which is fed to and looped in rows by one or more needles at a time. Fully fashioned knitting machines
can produce custom-shaped sheets of fabric by adding/removing the stiches, so that there is little or no need
for cutting panels, reducing the amount of discarded material. Integral knitting is an advancement of the fully
fashioned knitting technique. An integral knitting machine is able to add additional trimmings as an integrated
part of the fabric panel, reducing fabric losses from cutting, as well as sewing requirements. Finally, complete
textile apparel knitting machines are able to knit complete textile apparel, eliminating the cutting and sewing
steps altogether, decreases raw material consumption and producing higher-quality textile apparel (Roth et al.,
2023).
Another example of these differences can be seen in the dying process, in this case in terms of water
consumption. In batch dyeing, a certain amount of textile material is loaded into a dyeing machine and brought
to equilibrium with a solution containing the dye and the auxiliaries. An important parameter in dyeing is the
liquor ratio of the equipment: the weight ratio between the total dry material and the total liquor (a liquor ratio
of 1:10 means 10 litres of water for 1 kg of textile material). This parameter not only influences the amount
of water and energy consumed in the dyeing process, but also plays an important role in the level of exhaustion
of the dye and in the consumption of chemicals and auxiliaries. Dyeing machines vary greatly in their liquor
ratios, depending also on the type of substrate to be dyed and its hydrophilicity. For instance, in woven and
knitted fabrics, liquor ratios can vary from 1:2 in airflow equipment, to 1:40 in winch beck equipment (Roth et
al., 2023). These differences will significantly influence the environmental impacts of final products. Dyeing can
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also be carried out in batch or in continuous/semi-continuous mode. Batch dyeing processes generally require
higher water and energy consumption than continuous processes. Continuous and semi-continuous dyeing
processes consume less water, but this also means a higher dyestuff concentration in the dye liquor.
The term finishing covers all those treatments that serve to impart to the textile the desired end-use properties.
These can include properties relating to visual effect, handle and special characteristics such as water and fire
proofing. Finishing may involve mechanical/physical and chemical treatments. Among textile finishing
processes, chemical ones are the most significant from the point of view of the emissions generated. As in
dyeing, the emissions are relatively different between continuous and discontinuous processes. Continuous
finishing processes do not require washing operations after curing.
Finally, in terms of waste management techniques, a number of options are available, from landfilling and
incineration, to mechanical recycling. In this case, as reported in Solis et al. (2024), recycling is a preferred
pathway for most of the environmental impact categories.
In essence, the wide variability of process techniques available to manufacture textile apparel has a
fundamental relevance on the environmental impact of final products.
Business model of economic operators in the ecosystem
Companies have multiple choices in the definition of their strategies and business models. These choices imply
different levels of environmental impact of the final product.
As described in Section 5.5, two main models can be identified in the textile apparel industry (DG GROW, 2021a).
A consumer-led model, where the requests of the consumer are the centre; and a brand-led operation model,
where the brand dictates the design and the manufacture. Other classification of business models can also be
made. For instance, in terms of supply chain approach. On one hand, there is the integrated approach, where
the production is entrusted to internal
suppliers and the logistics aims to quickly react to customers’ demands.
On the other hand, there is the centralised approach, where the production is mostly outsourced and supported
by audit and quality control programmes. Hybrid versions of those business models can also be found. Each
business model has different characteristics, each of them with different implications on the environmental
impact of products. In this section, a brief description of these characteristics is made.
The trend turnover is a fundamental factor that defines a business model. Some companies opt to implement
business models characterised by continuous novelty and disposable trends in constant change (Centobelli et
al., 2022), designing their products for rapid trend turnovers through obsolescence and early disposal. Other
companies, in contrast, implement business models with less frequent trend turnovers, focusing on product
durability and reverse logistics. The number of seasons or trends that are placed on the market largely affects
the environmental impacts. Rapid trend turnovers tend to drive consumers (directly or indirectly) to replace
clothes, even when it is still not necessary from technical perspective.
Related with trend turnover is production time, which refers to the time between the design of the product and
the availability of such product for the consumer. Production time largely affects several aspects of the supply
chain, from procurement to manufacturing capacity, planning and inventory management. Shorter production
times increases the probability of manufacturing errors. This also increases the generation of waste, due to the
required destruction of products that cannot be sold (see section 9.2.4). Shorter production times also requires
the use of air transport, rather than cargo ships, increasing the environmental impact of the distribution stage.
The location of different stages of the supply chain also affects the environmental impact of products. Many
companies outsource the transformation process of raw materials into completed textile apparel to third
countries, often to allow access to low-cost labour and less stringent environmental regulations, such as water
or air emission levels which are less ambitious than in the country of origin (Centobelli et al., 2022). If the
numerous stages of the supply chain are scattered over the globe, more transport is required, increasing the
environmental impact of the distribution stage.
The location of different stages of the supply chain also affects the energy source used to produce textile
apparel. The manufacturing of textile apparel is energy intensive. Each country has a different energy mix
(
155
)
that has a significant influence on the impact of the final product.
155
A different combination of energy sources to produce electricity
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Different environmental impacts can also be expected, related with the ownership of the apparel. There are
companies that opt for renting products rather than selling them to individuals. When a product is rented, it has
the possibility to be used by more consumers. This is particularly true for products that are not used very
frequently
–such
as gala dresses- or for products that quickly become unusable
–such
as clothes for children-.
In principle, products sold under this business model (sold as a service rather than a product) produce lower
environmental impacts, due to the higher intensity of use among different users across their lifetime.
Textile apparel that is commercialized as a service (rented, shared, etc.) will need higher levels of physical
durability, which can require for example a more dense fabric with higher amount of fibres and electricity
compared to products with lower performances. This, among other process techniques imply different levels of
environmental impacts of the final product.
In essence, decisions made by companies in terms of the business model implemented to place textile apparel
on the market have a significant relevance on the environmental impact of the final product.
User behaviour
User behaviour is an important aspect that affects the environmental impact of textile apparel.
Consumers influence the environmental impact of clothing when they make purchase decisions. Apparel is often
bought spontaneously, simply because leisure and fun are associated with the act of buying clothes. Only a
minority of consumers inform themselves correctly before buying apparel (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018b).
When a consumer chooses to acquire a product that has been placed on the market under a business model
based on fast trend turnovers and short production times, they are contributing
–possibly
unknowingly- to the
environmental impacts associated with that business model. The amount of products that are purchased also
influences overall environmental impact of clothing.
Consumers also have an influence on the environmental impact of textile apparel, depending on the way they
use and maintain these products. Using clothes in the right environment contributes to increase their lifespan.
Storing and folding apparel may also have an influence on the lifespan of apparel, since it may affect their
intrinsic quality.
Related with product use are the unwritten social rules that govern specific gatherings, such as workplaces,
celebrations such as weddings or regional festivities that last several days. In these events, it is expected that
attendees will not wear the same apparel on different days. The expectation is that different apparel will be
worn on different days, even when it is not necessary from technical point of view. This contributes to an
increased consumption and production of textile apparel, and therefore to their environmental impact.
Maintenance activities can also contribute to increase lifespan of products and avoid (or delay) the acquisition
of new products, minimising the overall environmental impact. Clothes must be sorted appropriately before
washing to avoid premature deterioration. On occasions, consumers use quantities of detergent and softeners
which are merely based on their perception, rather on manufacturers’ recommendations
(A.I.S.E, 2017a),
potentially increasing the impact of the product use stage. In terms of washing, water temperature and washing
frequency are not always optimised, contributing to an excessive consumption of energy. Drying can be
performed either naturally or using dryers, a choice which is highly related with user choice, availability of space
in the household or geographic location. The choice of clothes that do not need ironing
–or
that require less
frequent ironing- can also have an influence on the environmental impact of the final product.
Consumers also have an effect on the environmental impact of textile apparel when they make decisions related
with its end of life. As pointed out in section 10.6.3.1, this is influenced by the individual characteristics of the
consumers, their habits, demographic context, product traits and perceived quality (Cluver, 2008b; Goworek,
Lynn Oxborrow, et al., 2020). Perceived quality of the product is a decisive factor to discard textile apparel
(Aakko and Niinimäki, 2021). Low perceived quality also triggers early disposal (Piippo et al., 2022b). This is
also magnified by the loss of symbolic value given by the consumer (Gwozdz et al., 2017b). Discarding products
when they are still technically functional increases their environmental impact, due to a low intensity of use.
In essence, user behaviour of textile apparel can have a significant relevance in the environmental impact of
final products.
Legislative framework and industrial best practices
The legislative framework has an influence as well on the environmental impact of final products.
In the EU, the Industrial Emissions Directive aims to reduce industrial pollution by requiring industries to adopt
preventive measures and use the best available techniques (BATq). It mandates integrated permits covering all
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environmental impacts and sets strict emission limits for key pollutants. This Directive applies to the
manufacturing of textile apparel. The BAT for the textiles industry are described in the Best Available Techniques
Reference Document (Roth et al., 2023). The end of life is addressed in the Best Available Techniques Reference
document for Waste Treatment (Pinasseau et al., 2018b).
As pointed out in Section 5.7, countries outside of the EU tend to have less stringent measures about
environmental protection, in particular on emission limits for key pollutants. The EU has the most ambitious
legislative framework worldwide, covering aspects such as emissions to air and water, energy consumption and
energy efficiency, water use, waste generation, and usage and management of chemicals. Comparing this
framework with that of China, the top global exporter of apparel, it can be seen that the latter only addresses
emissions to air and water as well as waste generation. In contrast with the EU BREF, the Chinese framework
also covers noise emissions. With regards to India (the fifth global exporter of apparel), only emissions to water
are addressed. The full comparison of aspects covered in different Best Available Techniques reference
documents around the world can be seen in
Table 31.
A comparison in terms of specific substances is made in
Table 53.
The emission levels to water of three
substances/parameters are compared: chemical oxygen demand (COD), chromium and zinc (the comparison of
values on emissions to air was not possible due to different practices and key environmental indicators used in
the different frameworks). In
Table 53
it can be seen that there are significant differences in the level of
ambition between the EU, China and India.
Table 53.
Environmental performance levels for emission into water in specific regions
Key Environmental Indicator
COD (mg/l)
Chromium (mg/l)
Zinc (mg/l)
n/a: Not Addressed
Source: own production based on Section 5.7 and 10.5.2
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EU
40-100
0.01-0.1
0.04-0.5
India
100
2
n/a
China
7-30 000
n/a
n/a
The EU BREF sets the emission limits on COD between 40-100 mg/l for all activities and processes, whereas in
India and China those limits are set at 100 mg/l in the former and between 7-30 000 mg/l in the latter. In the
case of chromium, China does not establish a limit. The EU limit is established between 0.01-0.1 mg/l, more
ambitious than the 2 mg/l set in India. In terms of zinc, only the EU establishes a limit value, between 0.04-0.5
mg/l.
These differences are particularly relevant for textile apparel, since most of the activities related with raw
material production and manufacturing occur out of the EU (in countries such as China or India). Deciding to
manufacture products outside of the EU means that the emission levels of manufacturing plants will be subject
to less stringent emission requirements. Therefore, considering the relevance of the manufacturing stage in
textile apparel, producing textile apparel outside of the EU increases the environmental impact of the final
product. Moreover, companies producing textile apparel in the EU must face higher costs than companies
producing outside of the EU, due to the prevention and reduction of emission activities that they need to
implement.
9.2.6.2
How to assess the environmental impacts and description of product technologies
The analysis of the ecosystem affecting the environmental impact of textile apparel shows the difficulty to
identify in a rigid framework the characteristics of specific product technologies. However, the information
gathered in the previous sections allow to build a reasonable picture.
The BC takes into account that China, India, and Bangladesh manufacture the largest part of textile apparel
consumed in EU. This means that the BC is described by process techniques adopted in these countries, where
the legislation allows higher emission into the environment compared to what happens in EU. The business
model that characterises the BC promotes overproduction and overconsumption, supported by users that tend
to change frequently their wardrobe. The end of life of the BC is described by landfilling and incineration of
textile waste in the EU as well as in third countries.
The BAT takes into account EU manufacture and the currently available less-impacting business models, user
behaviours and waste management options. This means that the BAT is described by process techniques
adopted in EU and described in the EU-BREF. The business model that characterises the BC promotes a
production rate similar to that before 2004, when the apparent consumption of EU was about half of the current
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one (Figure
10
in Section 5.2). The end of life of the BAT is described by energy recovery and recycling in the
EU of the textile waste.
Since the environmental impacts are affected by very numerous aspects, the description of BNAT will be simply
more ambitious than BAT and will take into account all the BNAT reported for other product aspects.
This description of the product technologies is suitable for all products in the scope of the PS.
9.2.7
Presence of substances of concern
Substances of concern are defined in Article 2(27) of the Regulation and largely encompass substances that
are of concern due to their negative effects upon the health of humans and to that of receptors in the
environment as a consequence of their adverse long-term effects. These substances are specifically identified
via being listed as (a) Substances of Very High Concern (SVHCs) in the REACH “Candidate List”, (b) by having a
harmonised classification under specific hazard classes defined in the CLP Regulation or (c) by being identified
as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) by the POPs Regulation. In addition a specific class of SoCs are defined
in ESPR, which (d) hinder reuse and recycling (of materials in the product in which SoCs are present) and which
should be identified in the product-specific delegated acts to be developed under ESPR. It is worth noting that
a single substance could potentially be identified simultaneously under several SoC classes (a, b, c and d).
9.2.7.1
Ecosystem of Substances of Concern
Manufacturing factors and process techniques
A very large variety of chemical substances are used by the textile sector in the different manufacturing stages,
from fibre production, to spinning, weaving or dyeing and finishing of fabrics, to name just a few of the many
processes involved. Chemicals are used to make fabrics more durable, softer or to provide colour and colour-
fastness or a water or stain-repellent finish, among many other uses. Some chemicals are specific to the
different fibres used to make textiles (cotton, polyester, wool, etc.).
It is not a simple task to determine the number of chemicals used by the textile sector, given the large variety
of processes in which these are used, the multitude of functions they provide and the global distribution of
chemicals supply chains and textile manufacturers. Roos et al. (2019) claim that the number of chemicals in
use in the textile industry exceeds 15 000, with over 10 000 dyes and pigments and about 5 000 auxiliary
chemicals, quoting figures from the Colour Index
(
156
)
and TEGEWA
(
157
),
respectively. A recent report
158
on the
use of PFASs in the textile sector indicates that more than 8 000 chemical substances are used by this sector.
Regardless of which the precise figure may be, the sheer numbers involved provide an indication of the
magnitude of the challenges that the sector faces in implementing supply-chain transparency and traceability
of chemicals.
Although it is acknowledged that chemicals play an essential role in achieving a competitive textile apparel
sector that satisfies the demands of consumers, reports such as that by the Swedish Chemicals Agency, that
investigated 2 450 substances used by the textile sector and found 750 classified as hazardous for human
health and 440 as hazardous for the environment, are a cause of concern (KEMI, 2014). As for other material
streams, it is also acknowledged that legacy chemicals may be reintroduced back into the economy via recycled
fibres.
Similarly, a recent report by the European Environment Agency(
159
) on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
(PFAS) highlights the specific concerns that this group of substances pose both due to their health and
environmental impacts as well as because of their consequences on circularity. According to this study, it is
estimated that textiles account for approximately 35% of the total global fluoropolymer demand and that a
third of all PFAS in the EU (41 000
–
143 000 tonnes) are used in the textile sector, which is thereby estimated
to be the biggest contributing use sector to PFAS pollution in Europe. Furthermore, in its report on textiles,
published in the year 2017, the Ellen McArthur Foundation stated:
156
157
158
159
https://colour-index.com/
Textiles Auxiliaries e-market.
https://www.thk-online.net/
A Review of PFAS as a Chemical Class in the Textile Sector. Natural Resources Defense Council, 2021.
https://saicmknowledge.org/library/review-pfas-chemical-class-textiles-sector-policy-brief
EEA
2024.
Briefing
no.
11/2024.
PFAS
in
textiles
in
Europe’s
circular
economy.
https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/pfas-in-textiles-in-europes-circular-economy
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“The
use of substances of concern in textile production has negative effects on farmers, factory workers, and
the surrounding environment. While there is little data on the volume of substances of concern used across the
industry, it is recognised that textile production discharges high volumes of water containing hazardous
chemicals into the environment. As an example, 20% of industrial water pollution globally is attributable to the
dyeing and treatment of textiles”
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017).
In this report a call for action is made in moving towards a new textiles economy, requiring, as regards
substances
of concern, to develop “a
robust evidence base on the usage of chemicals, including the amount
used, as well as identification of substances of concern and the impacts of these”.
User behaviour
Section 6 reports information available on behavioural trends among users with regards to textile apparel. It
covers aspects that include the way users choose to buy apparel, their habits during the use phase, and why
they decide to dispose of them. It also distinguishes user behaviour aspects at pre-purchase, post-purchase and
disposal stages.
In a survey spanning 27 EU Member States, 60% of 26 718 respondents perceive chemicals in apparel fabrics
as minimally risky, with most not seeing them as a threat to people whereas, looking at the country level, health
risks are deemed very important by about two-thirds of respondents in Germany and Slovakia whereas
respondent in Denmark and the UK attributed a lower importance to this aspect (European Commission, 2009).
Similar conclusions can be derived from a survey by Fashion Revolution (2020) which indicates that only about
37% of respondents in United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain considers it important to buy apparel
produced without harmful chemicals.
Despite the uneven level of concern by users regarding chemicals in apparel, especially as regards substances
that pose a risk to human health or to the environment, the establishment of information requirements under
ESPR on the presence of substances, in particular of substances of concern in apparel will contribute to the
generation of information that can further provide transparency to enable an informed public opinion. This in
turn can inform possible actions that could be addressed in specific legislation on the safe use of chemicals
such as REACH.
Business models
The high throughput business models, already mentioned in previous sections, result in very short textile apparel
manufacturing times, with the appearance of dozens of collections every year and where manufacturing occurs
largely out of the EU. This model based on production happening largely out of the EU also has consequences
related to the use of chemicals, given regulations on the use and management of chemicals differ, as do levels
of enforcement, control and monitoring. According to Niinimäki et al. (2020), the majority of the chemicals use
connected to producing textiles for the EU occurs outside the EU.
Although it is not possible to pin-point impacts of the business model on specific chemicals, it seems clear that
the large increase in production, taking place in third countries where often legislation and environmental
controls and less stringent than in the EU, results in increased emissions of chemicals, notably via waste water
during dyeing and washing processes, and can result in the use of substances that are regulated in the EU and
other constituencies, which subsequently risk entering these markets, incorporated within textile products.
Ogugbue and Sawidis (2011) state that some 0.7 million tons of synthetic dyes are produced annually
worldwide and that the textile industry releases up to 200 000 tons per year of these dyes via effluents
resulting from inefficient dyeing and finishing processes. Most of these dyes escape conventional wastewater
treatment processes and persist in the environment. Evidence of the use of regulated hazardous substances in
textiles, and of their presence in products imported into the EU can be found consulting alerts in Safety Gate(
160
),
the EU rapid alert system for dangerous non-food products, where reports of textile apparel and footwear items
can be found containing Chromium VI, nickel, different phthalates, cadmium and other regulated substances.
An analysis of the total alerts registered in Safety Gate in the period 2019
–
2023 for the product category
“Clothing_textiles” indicates that chemical risks are the third most
frequent risk reported (22.5%).
160
https://ec.europa.eu/safety-gate-alerts/screen/search?resetSearch=true
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Figure 26.
Risks associated to textile apparel
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Source: EU Safety Gate statistical tool. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 13 November 2024
Legislative frameworks and industrial practices
As indicated in Section 4.1, currently there is no specific EU legislation addressing the mandatory sustainability
of textiles, but EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products (
161
) exist, this being a voluntary scheme for companies
willing to show the good environmental performance of their products. Article 6(6) and 6(7) of the Ecolabel
Regulation (EC) No 66/2010 specify that the Ecolabel may not be awarded to products containing substances
classified under CLP as toxic, hazardous to the environment, carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic for reproduction
or containing substances meeting the SVHC criteria defined in Article 57 of REACH. Derogations from this
prohibition are possible except for substances identified as SVHCs and thereby listed in the so-called
“Candidate
List” established under REACH. The specific implementation of these general
provisions into chemical-specific
criteria applicable to textiles are developed as criteria 13 and 14 of the EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products
enacted in Commission Decision 2014/350/EU and in the restricted substance list defined in its Appendix 1 and
the list of restricted dyes specified in its Appendix 2.
More specifically as regards limitations on chemicals, the REACH regulation has the main purpose of ensuring
the safe use of chemicals in the EU. REACH regulates, amongst many other aspects, the restriction of the placing
on the market and use of certain substances listed in its Annex XVII, including in some cases, the incorporation
of substances into articles. The authorisation title of REACH applies to the placing on the market and use of
substances of very high concern (SVHC), aiming at their progressive substitution by less hazardous substances
or technologies and by subjecting their use to specific conditions.
A number of restrictions in Annex XVII to REACH specifically mention textiles in their scope. These include entries:
4 - Tris (2,3 dibromopropyl) phosphate; 7 - Tris(aziridinyl)phosphinoxide; 8 - Polybrominatedbiphenyls; 18 -
Mercury compounds; 20 - Organostannic compounds; 43 - Azocolourants and Azodyes; 46/46a - Nonylphenol
and Nonylphenol ethoxylates; 47 - Chromium VI compounds (relevant to leather articles); 68 - C9-C14 PFCAs
and 72 - CMRs in textiles and footwear.
Other restrictions, of general application to articles placed on the market for supply to the general public, or
covering all articles placed on the market, may also apply to textile articles, for instance entries 50
–
(certain)
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; 51 and 52 (certain phthalates); 61 - Dimethylfumarate; and 63
–
Lead and
its compounds.
161
EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. Commission Decision of 5 June 2014 establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the
EU Ecolabel for textile products. Commission Decision (2014/350/EU). Available at
this link.
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Article 33 of REACH sets up a supply chain communication duty requiring suppliers of articles containing SVHC
above 0.1% to communicate certain information to the recipients of those articles. Furthermore, Article 9 of the
Directive 2008/98/EC, the Waste Framework Directive, promotes the reduction of the content of hazardous
substances in materials and products by defining a reporting obligation that apply to suppliers of articles (as
defined under REACH), requiring them to provide information regarding the presence of SVHC in articles,
including textile articles, pursuant to the referred Article 33, to the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). This
information is collected in the SCIP database
(
162
),
operated by ECHA, and access is provided to waste treatment
operators and consumers.
Similarly to REACH, the POPs Regulation regulates persistent organic pollutants with the objective of protecting
human health and the environment by prohibiting, phasing out as soon as possible, or restricting the
manufacturing, placing on the market and use of substances subject to the Stockholm Convention. Some of
these restrictions are relevant to textiles, for instance those associated with certain brominated flame
retardants (e.g. certain PBDEs), surface-active substances such as PFOS or PFOA, or substances with biocidal
properties such as pentachlorophenol.
Whereas the EU and many developed countries have legislation regulating chemicals, including their use by the
textile sector, such legislation does not exist or is less stringent in other countries where textile production takes
place. A recent report by Toxics Link (
163
) highlights that “A
review of the global regulatory requirements
highlights that there are stringent regulations concerning most of these chemicals only in the developed world,
especially in the EU; whereas, regulations on some of the chemicals either do not exist or are less stringent in
the developing or emerging economies”.
9.2.7.2
Methodology to assess Substances of Concern
As explained in previous sections, retailers and brands in the textile apparel sector are facing increasing
regulatory and reputational challenges to control chemicals present in their products. The sheer number of
chemicals involved, the complexity of supply chains and the fact that the majority of processes involving the
use of chemicals takes place in third countries, make tracking of chemicals in textiles a complex endeavour.
Figure 27
provides an overview of processes using process and auxiliary chemicals.
Figure 27.
Processes using process and auxiliary chemicals
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Source: Adapted from EUCTL - European Chemistry for Textile and Leather, the European Association representing the companies that
operate in Europe, producing and putting on the market chemicals used in the textiles and leather value chains.
KEMI (2014) describes the different types of chemicals used in textile production in terms of:
162
163
SCIP database from the European Chemical Agency. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 13 November 2024.
An overview of toxic chemicals in textiles. Toxics Link 2021.
https://toxicslink.org/publications/reports/toxics-chemical-in-textile-report
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Functional chemicals, which are intended to remain in the final article and are expected to be present at certain
concentrations in order to achieve the desirable function. Some examples include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dyestuffs and pigments
Crease resistant agents
Anti-shrinking agents
Oil, soil and water repellents
Plasticisers
Flame retardants
Biocides for defined functionalities in articles, e.g. antibacterial agents
Stabilisers
Stiffening agents
Reactive resins for various finishing treatments
Auxiliary (Process) chemicals, which are involved in some step of textile processing but are not intended to
remain in the product. These include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Organic solvents
Surfactants
Softeners
Salts
Acids and bases
Biocides as preservatives in the process or during storage and transport
Unintended chemical substances - contaminants and degradation products
These are chemicals not intended to remain in the finished article, such as contaminants and degradation
products, have no function in neither the textile production process nor in the finished textiles.
o
o
o
o
Formaldehyde released from certain reactive resins
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) impurities in pyrolysed products e.g Carbon Black
Arylamines derived from certain azo dyestuffs and pigments
Toxic metals (e.g heavy metals) due to impurities from the raw material
Retailers and other operators placing textile apparel on the market have implemented chemical management
strategies to enable compliance and to meet their due-diligence obligations as regards chemicals in their
products. Effectively there are two types of approaches to obtain information about substances of concern in
products.
The
first
relies on
supply chain information
and the implementation of different
supply chain
transparency measures.
In this sense retailers and other operators in the supply chain rely on declarations
by suppliers, binding contractual terms and third party certification to provide information about substances in
products, in particular about those which should not be present in them (positive lists). International and
European sectorial initiatives have created relevant Restricted Substance Lists (RSLs) and Restricted
Manufacturing Substance Lists (RMSLs) to capture and harmonise reporting of compliance regarding process
and auxiliary substances regulated under different legislations and in different countries. Examples of these
are the AFIRM Restricted Substances List
(
164
)
and the ZDHC Manufacturing Restricted Substances List
(
165
)
used
by the textiles and footwear sectors. Other restricted substance-based approaches rely on certification of
164
165
https://afirm-group.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/2024_AFIRM_RSL_2024_0404_EN.pdf
https://mrsl.roadmaptozero.com/
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compliance with the requirements in different ecolabels. The EU Ecolabel for textiles, which has a strong focus
on chemicals, as well as the privately managed Oekotex 100 standard for the textile sector
(
166
)
are examples
of this approach.
Broader disclosure approaches for chemicals along textile supply chains, which require a high level of take-up
and implementation and the necessary IT infrastructure, in a way not dissimilar to the digital product passport
concept introduced under ESPR, have been the subject of numerous studies, pilots and initiatives. In this sense,
UN/CFACT has recently provided a recommendation providing industry actors with a set of internationally agreed
practices for the harmonized collection and transmission of data for tracking and tracing materials, products,
and processes across an entire value chain (UNECE, 2022). Further detailed information on related blockchain
based pilot projects, on the developed business requirements specification for traceability and transparency
and on the associated data model can be download from the dedicated website
(
167
).
A number of privately
developed traceability information platforms
(
168
)
focusing on the textile sector are already on the market. The
EU funded Interreg project ECHT
(
169
),
which has the purpose to Enable Digital Product Passports with Chemicals
Traceability for a Circular Economy is also relevant.
The
second approach
is
analytical
and relies on direct testing of textile apparel articles to verify the presence
and concentration of specific substances of concern. This approach requires the existence of suitable analytical
methods for the target chemicals, involves representative sampling of products and is costly. Consequently only
targeted analyses have to date been applied to check compliance as regards regulated substances, usually
following a risk based approach. AFIRM, ZDHC or the Oekotex standard provide information on available
analytical methods for specific substances. Other sources of test method information, for instance as regards
substances restricted under REACH, can be found in the Compendium of Analytical Methods recommended by
the ECHA Forum to check compliance of REACH Annex XVII restrictions
(
170
).
Such targeted assessments,
checking for compliance of textile products have been carried out under the REACH4Textiles
(
171
)
project and,
more recently, by IKEA and H&M in a project
(
172
)
focusing on collected textile apparel targeted for fibre-to-fibre
recycling.
In general it can be stated that a combination of the two approaches is necessary. Both still have limitations in
terms in accessibility of data, costs and capacity, especially for small and medium sized enterprises.
9.2.7.3
Description of product technologies
The use of chemicals in textile apparel manufacture is often related to the specific fibre type as well as to
specific finishings (e.g. water-proofing) which are generally not product category specific. Consequently, at this
point in the development of the project it is difficult to envisage the possibility of potential information or
performance requirements that would be category specific.
Building a base case (BC) and the definition of products representing the best available technology (BAT) is
particularly challenging for chemicals, given the large number of substances used by the sector and the lack of
quantitative information on the distribution of substances. For certain specific substances and substance
families, BAT and BNAT products could potentially be defined in terms of products having switched to non-toxic
or less toxic (or in general more sustainable) alternatives
–
e.g. alternatives to the use of PFAS. Given the current
paucity of detailed information on SoCs in textile apparel, the setting of information requirements, as prescribed
under ESPR, with justified exemptions and thresholds for declaration of substances, seems clearly warranted.
9.3 Mutual influence of product aspects and product categorization
The analysis reported in section 9.2 described the product technologies as result of the complex interaction
among process techniques, business models, user behaviour and legislative frameworks in the perspective of
each relevant product aspects. It was crucial to analyse product technologies in silos to better understand the
complexity of the ecosystem belonging to each relevant ecodesign aspect. However, these product aspects are
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
https://www.oeko-tex.com/importedmedia/downloadfiles/OEKO-TEX_STANDARD_100_Standard_EN_DE.pdf
https://unece.org/trade/traceability-sustainable-textile apparel-and-footwear
Such as: TextileGenesis
https://textilegenesis.com/
; Global Textile Scheme
https://www.globaltextilescheme.org/
and
https://echt.nweurope.eu/
ECHA 2021.
https://www.echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13577/compendium_of_analytical_methods_en.pdf/4c730fb9-1b48-
2e14-6ee3-7a36391b7322
https://www.centexbel.be/en/toxic-substances-textiles
https://hmgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Press-release-HM-Group-and-IKEA-study.pdf
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strictly connected to each other and influence each other. The analysis of product technologies already showed
that:
—
Waste generation is strictly connected to recyclability and recycled content;
—
The recycled content depends on the recyclability and directly affects the physical durability
whenever the recycled fibres have lower performances and are fed into the recycling process;
—
Physical durability is affected by maintenance and affects the repairability;
—
The use of specific chemicals and substances affects the physical durability, recycling and recycled
content;
—
The environmental impacts are influenced by all the other relevant product aspects.
The analysis of technologies must now find a synthesis in Task 5 and Task 6, when the environmental and
economic model will describe the BC and the Design Options for each product category. In this way, the
interactions among the relevant product aspects will be quantified to best find potential trade-offs to be
expressed in the Design Options.
The first step of this synthesis is the adoption of product categories valid for all relevant product aspects. In
the case of textile apparel, this exercise is very simple because the only product aspect described via categories
was the physical durability. This allows the adoption of the categories reported in
Table 44
of section 9.2.1.4
as the product categorization to be used in the following steps of the development of the PS.
Therefore, Task 5 will analyse 11 representative products, one for each product category: (1) Trousers, shorts
and skirts excluding denim, (2) Denim trousers, shorts and skirts, (3) Sweaters, mid-layers and knitted dresses,
(4) T-shirts and polo, (5) Shirts, (6) Blouses and woven dresses, (7) Jackets and coats, (8) Hosiery: leggings,
stockings, tights and socks, (9) Underwear: underpants and boxers, (10) Swimwear, (11) Accessories.
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Yates L, Evans D. 2016. Dirtying Linen: Re-evaluating the sustainability of domestic laundry: Dirtying Linen: Re-
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YouGov.
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guardaroba?redirect_from=%2Fnews%2F2019%2F05%2F27%2Ffast-fashion-il-rinnovo-del-
guardaroba%2F.
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YouGov. 2021. European Fashion Report. Available at https://business.yougov.com/content/39089-european-
fashion-report-2021-1.
Yuille P. 2015. Exploring the Relationship between the Presumed Quality and Durability of Fast-Fashion
Garments by the Generation-Y Consumer. 2015. PLATE Conference, Nottingham, UK, 17–19 June 2015;
Nottingham, UK,. Available at https://www.plateconference.org/pdf/plate_2015_proceedings.pdf.
Yun C, Patwary S, LeHew MLA, Kim J. 2017. Sustainable care of textile products and its environmental impact:
Tumble-drying and ironing processes.
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590–596. doi: 10.1007/s12221-017-6957-
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Zambrano MC, Pawlak JJ, Daystar J, Ankeny M, Venditti RA. 2021. Impact of dyes and finishes on the microfibers
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Zhang L, Hale J. 2022. Extending the Lifetime of Clothing through Repair and Repurpose: An Investigation of
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Zimmermann T, Hauschke F, Memelink R, Reitz A, Pelke N, John R, Eberle U, Ninnemann J. 2021. Die
Ökologisierung des Onlinehandels. Neue Herausforderungen für die umweltpolitische Förderung eines
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List of abbreviations
DPP
EC
ESPR
EU
GPP
MEErP
PS
REACH
SVHC
TLR
Digital Product Passport
European Commission
Ecodesign for Sustainable Product Regulation
European Union
Green Public Procurement
Methodology for Ecodesign of Energy-related Products
Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules for Apparel and Footwear
Preparatory Study on textile products
Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals
Substance(s) of Very High Concern
Textile Labelling Regulation (Regulation (EU) No 1007/2011)
PEFCR A&F
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List of figures
Figure 1.
Main textile life-cycle stages............................................................................................................................................................ 24
Figure 3.
Geographical breakdown of global apparel production and consumption
–
representation A............... 45
Figure 4.
Geographical breakdown of global apparel production and consumption
–
representation B............... 45
Figure 5.
Top ten exporting countries of second-hand apparel by mass (million tonnes) .............................................. 46
Figure 6.
Top ten importing countries of second-hand apparel by mass (million tonnes) ............................................. 47
Figure 7.
EU-27 exports of used textiles ........................................................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 8.
The EU’s main suppliers of textiles and apparel in 2021
.............................................................................................. 49
Figure 9.
The EU’s main customers
of textiles and apparel in 2021 ........................................................................................... 49
Figure 10.
Market indicators for textile apparel in the EU-27.......................................................................................................... 51
Figure 11.
Member States producing textile apparel in 2019 ......................................................................................................... 52
Figure 12.
Member States exporting textile apparel in 2019 ........................................................................................................... 53
Figure 15.
Current number of textile recycling plants classified by input fibre .................................................................... 58
Figure 16.
Scale of current textile recycling plants ................................................................................................................................. 58
Figure 17.
Composition of textile products .................................................................................................................................................. 59
Figure 20.
Electricity generation by source .................................................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 21.
Overview of the main factors influencing the physical durability of textile apparel ............................. 105
Figure 22.
Example of a care label combining symbols and caption ....................................................................................... 114
Figure 23.
Care labelling systems in the world ...................................................................................................................................... 115
Figure 24.
Apparent consumption of textile apparel per capita in EU-27 ............................................................................. 123
Figure 25.
Recycling system of textile waste .......................................................................................................................................... 127
Figure 26.
Risks associated to textile apparel ......................................................................................................................................... 142
Figure 27.
Processes using process and auxiliary chemicals ......................................................................................................... 143
Figure 28.
Statistical classifications .............................................................................................................................................................. 177
Figure 29.
Market indicators per capita for textile apparel in EU-27 ....................................................................................... 201
Figure 30.
Market indicators for T-shirts in EU-27 ............................................................................................................................... 202
Figure 31.
Market indicators for shirts and blouses in EU-27....................................................................................................... 203
Figure 32.
Market indicators for sweaters and mid-layers in EU-27........................................................................................ 204
Figure 33.
Market indicators for jackets and coats in EU-27 ........................................................................................................ 205
Figure 34.
Market indicators for pants and shorts in EU-27 .......................................................................................................... 206
Figure 35.
Market indicators for dresses, skirts and jumps in EU-27 ...................................................................................... 207
Figure 36.
Market indicators for leggings, stockings and tights in EU-27 ............................................................................. 208
Figure 37.
Market indicators for underwear in EU-27 ........................................................................................................................ 209
Figure 38.
Market indicators for swimwear in EU-27 ......................................................................................................................... 210
Figure 39.
Market indicators for accessories in EU-27 ...................................................................................................................... 211
Figure 41.
Production of textile apparel categories in EU-27 ....................................................................................................... 214
Figure 42.
Import of textile apparel categories in EU-27................................................................................................................. 216
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Figure 43.
Export of textile apparel categories in EU-27 ................................................................................................................. 218
Figure 44.
Raw material for fibre production and fibre preparation ........................................................................................ 219
Figure 45.
Yarn manufacturing (spinning process) .............................................................................................................................. 221
Figure 47.
Fabric/yarn finishing processes ................................................................................................................................................ 223
Figure 53.
Laundry sorting methods ............................................................................................................................................................. 263
Figure 54.
Distribution of washing temperatures for different textile products ............................................................... 264
Figure 56.
Number of successful and failed repairs done by different actors (total 625 repairs) ....................... 275
Figure 57.
Main reasons for disposal of apparel ................................................................................................................................... 280
Figure 58.
Evolution of licences and products awarded with EU Ecolabel for textile products ............................... 287
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List of tables
Table 1.
Development of the preparatory study ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Table 2.
Definition of product aspects ............................................................................................................................................................. 13
Table 3.
Function and intended use of subgroups in the textiles and footwear product group .................................. 16
Table 4.
Economic indicators of textiles and footwear in the EU-27 in 2019........................................................................ 19
Table 5.
Literature studies investigating environmental impacts of textile products........................................................ 20
Table 6.
Environmental impacts related to the supply chain of textile products ................................................................. 20
Table 7.
Product categories of textile apparel included in the scope of the preparatory study ................................. 21
Table 8.
Life-cycle stages of textile apparel
–
processes, techniques and resources ....................................................... 24
Table 10.
Top topics addressed by environmental labels for textiles globally in 2021 .................................................. 40
Table 14.
Change of apparent consumption between the time intervals 1995-2004 and 2005-2019............... 52
Table 15.
Estimates of global production of textile fibres and group of fibres .................................................................... 54
Table 17.
Production of cotton lint in the season 2021-22............................................................................................................... 55
Table 18.
Import of cotton lint in the season 2021-22 ........................................................................................................................ 55
Table 19.
Export of cotton lint in the season 2021-22 ........................................................................................................................ 55
Table 20.
Consumption of cotton lint in the season 2021-22 ......................................................................................................... 55
Table 22.
Material composition of EU post-consumer textile waste ............................................................................................ 59
Table 25
Water consumption of fibres ........................................................................................................................................................... 62
Table 30.
Distribution and retail models of apparel companies ..................................................................................................... 65
Table 34.
Duration in use of textile apparel expressed in days of wear ................................................................................... 71
Table 35.
Potential application of user behaviour aspects in the next steps of the preparatory study ................ 73
Table 36.
Main reasons for apparel disposal .............................................................................................................................................. 84
Table 38.
Scope of the textile Ecolabels used the most in the EU ................................................................................................ 90
Table 39.
Number of Contract Awards procuring apparel in the EU............................................................................................. 92
Table 40.
Relevance of product aspects for textile apparel .............................................................................................................. 98
Table 41.
Product aspects and required characteristics of products ........................................................................................... 99
Table 42.
Interaction between product aspects and product parameters reported in Annex I to ESPR ............. 100
Table 43.
Most common textile apparel failure modes and associated testing parameters .................................... 107
Table 44.
Product description from the perspective of physical durability ........................................................................... 109
Table 45.
Guidance for the calculation of performance decrease in the framework of the physical durability
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 113
Table 46.
Best practices on care labelling implemented by producers and retailers ..................................................... 116
Table 47.
Description of product technologies in the context of maintenance of textile apparel .......................... 117
Table 48.
Repairability assessment via four key factors .................................................................................................................. 121
Table 49.
Description of product technologies from the repairability perspective .......................................................... 122
Table 50.
Amount of textile apparel waste generated due to EU consumption in 2019 ............................................. 123
Table 51.
Status of recycling techniques for textile waste in 2023 .......................................................................................... 129
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Table 52.
Description of the textile apparel waste in the context of the recyclability and the recycled content
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 135
Table 53.
Environmental performance levels for emission into water in specific regions .......................................... 139
Table 54.
NACE codes describing the product group of textiles and footwear................................................................... 179
Table 55.
PRODCOM codes describing the subgroup of textile apparel in 2019 ............................................................... 180
Table 56.
PRODCOM codes describing the subgroup of home/interior textiles in 2019 ............................................... 184
Table 57.
PRODCOM codes describing the subgroup of footwear in 2019 ........................................................................... 185
Table 58.
PRODCOM codes describing the subgroup of technical textiles in 2019 ......................................................... 187
Table 59.
List and description of PRODCOM codes included in the scope ............................................................................. 188
Table 61.
Change of apparent consumption after the removal of EU import quota in 2005 ................................... 213
Table 62.
Change of production after the removal of EU import quota in 2005 .............................................................. 215
Table 65.
Affinity relationship between dyes and fibres .................................................................................................................. 224
Table 66.
Working Groups with the involvement of several scientific committees in CEN/ TC 248. .................... 229
Table 67.
Working Groups and subcommittees involved in ISO/TC 38. ................................................................................... 229
Table 68.
Standards directly related to intrinsic durability ............................................................................................................. 231
Table 69.
Standards used by several frameworks to test parameters related to durability of textile products
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 237
Table 70.
Standards related to the functionality of the textile product.................................................................................. 239
Table 72.
Standards for the determination of specific substances ........................................................................................... 242
Table 73.
Standards related to loss of fibre fragments from textiles ..................................................................................... 244
Table 74
Standards and Technical Specifications potentially related to circularity and environmental aspects
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 245
Table 75.
Standards related to topics not covered by
Table 68
to
Table 74
.................................................................. 245
Table 76.
Environmental labels used in 2021 in Europe: ISO type and addressed topics ........................................... 248
Table 77.
Number of textile recycling plants classified per location ........................................................................................ 251
Table 78.
Number of textile recycling plants classified per input fibres ................................................................................ 251
Table 80.
Environmental performance levels for emission to water by the Chinese BREF ........................................ 253
Table 85.
Aspects that influence the perception of quality in apparel .................................................................................... 259
Table 87.
Average number of uses of apparel categories prior to washing ........................................................................ 266
Table 88.
Summary of surveys on laundering habits related to apparel ............................................................................... 270
Table 89.
Summary of surveys related to drying of apparel ......................................................................................................... 271
Table 90.
Summary of surveys on user behaviour interaction with apparel care labels ............................................. 273
Table 91.
Summary of surveys indicating the extent to which users associate a care label symbol to its
corresponding care instruction. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 274
Table 92.
Summary of surveys that provide the percentage of respondents who have made repairs to their
apparel in the past year. .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 276
Table 93.
Summary of surveys that showcase how confident users are to mending their apparel depending
on the type of repair needed. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 276
Table 94.
Summary of surveys that showcase overall declared frequency of apparel repairs. ............................. 277
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Table 96.
Summary of apparel disposal reasons in recent consumer studies with high number of participants.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 281
Table 97.
Surveys responses on main types of alternative apparel disposal ..................................................................... 282
Table 100.
Figures of EU Ecolabel for textile products in September 2023 ........................................................................ 287
Table 101.
Type of respondents that contributed to the section on EU Ecolabel during the initial questionnaire
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 288
Table 102.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU ecolabel criteria 1-9, which
focus on fibres ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 288
Table 103.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU Ecolabel criteria 10-12,
which focus on components and accessories ............................................................................................................................................ 289
Table 104.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU ecolabel criteria 13-16
and appendixes, which focus on chemicals ................................................................................................................................................. 289
Table 105.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU Ecolabel criteria 17-25,
which focus on fitness for use ............................................................................................................................................................................ 290
Table 106.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU ecolabel criteria 26-28,
which focus on Corporate Social Responsibility and supporting information ........................................................................ 291
Table 107.
Textile fibres - comparison among Ecolabels ................................................................................................................ 292
Table 108.
Components and accessories
–
comparison among Ecolabels ........................................................................... 310
Table 109.
Fitness for use - comparison among Ecolabels ............................................................................................................ 313
Table 110.
Chemicals and processes - comparison among Ecolabels .................................................................................... 319
Table 93.
Corporate social responsibility - comparison among Ecolabels............................................................................. 324
Table 112.
Miscellaneous criteria - comparison among Ecolabels ............................................................................................ 325
Table 113.
Dyes restriction - comparison among Ecolabels .......................................................................................................... 328
Table 114.
The Common Procurement Vocabulary (CPV) codes for products in the scope ....................................... 329
Table 115.
Number of Contracts Award procuring apparel in EU Member States in 2015 ....................................... 331
Table 120.
Type of respondents that contributed to the section on EU GPP during the initial questionnaire 334
Table 121.
Description of the main fibre characteristics ................................................................................................................. 352
Table 122.
Definitions of yarn and fabric characteristics ................................................................................................................ 354
Table 123.
Definitions of main process parameters ........................................................................................................................... 355
Table 124
Influence of the fibre characteristics on yarn and fabric characteristics and parameters of
manufacturing processes ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 356
Table 125.
Influence of spinning parameters on yarn characteristics ..................................................................................... 359
Table 126.
Influence of weaving parameters on fabric characteristics .................................................................................. 360
Table 127.
Influence of finishing processes on fabric characteristics ..................................................................................... 361
Table 128.
Description of standardised test methods to assess key parameters of physical durability .......... 362
Table 129.
Comparison of international labelling systems ............................................................................................................ 365
Table 130.
Comparison between price of professional repair operations and price of new items of textile
apparel ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 367
Table 131.
Repair shops and dry cleaners consulted for the analysis reported in
Table 130
............................... 368
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10 Annexes
10.1 PRODCOM and market analysis
10.1.1 General description
PRODCOM is the classification of goods used for statistics in value and quantity on industrial production in the
EU. It is abbreviated from the French Production Communautaire and it is regulated by the Commission
Implementing Regulation (EU) 2020/1197
(
173
).
Figure 28
shows the classification of activities, products and
goods at level of world, EU and Member States.
Figure 28
describes how PRODCOM classification relates to
the other classifications.
PRODCOM was developed in a close relationship with Combined (tariff and statistical) Nomenclature (CN) for
external trades, which is strictly related to Harmonised System used in the World Custom Organization. The
basic building blocks of PRODCOM are the European Classification of Economic Activities (NACE)
(
174
)
and the
European Classification of Products by Activity (CPA)
(
175
).
Products are identified in PRODCOM via their eight-
digit code, the PRODCOM List
(
176
).
The first four digits of a PRODCOM code refer to the NACE classification, the
first six digits refer to the CPA classification, and the last two digits are created specifically for PRODCOM.
Figure 28.
Statistical classifications
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Source: (Eurostat, 2023)
173
174
175
176
European business statistics. COMMISSION IMPLEMENTING REGULATION (EU) 2020/1197 of 30 July 2020 laying down technical
specifications and arrangements pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2019/2152 of the European Parliament and of the Council on European
business statistics repealing 10 legal acts in the field of business statistics. Available at
this link.
The statistical classification of economic activities NACE Revision 2. Regulation (EC) No 1893/2006. Available at
this link.
Statistical Classification of Products by Activity. COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 1209/2014 of 29 October 2014 amending
Regulation (EC) No 451/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a new statistical classification of products
by activity (CPA) and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 3696/93. Available at
this link.
PRODCOM list 2022. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 1 December 2023.
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NACE is based on the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), which is a
standard classification of economic activities used by the United Nations
(
177
).
Both NACE and ISIC are four-digit
codes, which define four levels of description from the first to the last digit: sections, divisions, groups and
classes. At the level of division (the first two digits), NACE and ISIC are identical and refer to the same activity.
At level of group and classes (the third and the fourth digits), NACE and ISIC refer to different
products/activities
(
178
).
The NACE codes were established in 1970. Along with the evolution of the industrial scenery, the NACE codes
were subjected to several revisions resulting in changes over time. From 1995 to 2007, the PRODCOM data
were based on NACE Rev. 1.1, whereas from 2008 onwards the PRODCOM data were based on NACE Rev. 2.
The NACE Rev. 1.1 classification has 21 sections and 88 divisions, whereas the NACE Rev. 2 counts with 17
sections and 62 divisions. The changes between different versions of NACE are supported by conversion tables,
which can show sometimes (1) lack of direct correspondence between the old and new codes, and (2) merging
of two or more codes into one
(
178
).
Approximately every 2 or 3 years, the PRODCOM Working Group updates the PRODCOM list to reflect changes
in the production of goods in the European Union. These changes occur with a frequency set by the technological
developments in the industries and as driven by the related nomenclatures (Eurostat, 2023).
10.1.2 Features of PRODCOM data influencing market analysis
PRODCOM dataset DS-056120 includes several indicators
(
28
).
In the PS, the following indicators were used:
—
PRODVAL: value of sold production
—
PRODQNT: quantity of sold production
—
EXPVAL: value of export
—
EXPQNT: quantity of export
—
IMPVAL: value of import
—
IMPQNT: quantity of import
—
QNTUNIT: unit used to report quantities
The PRODCOM user’s manual reports the following features
(Eurostat, 2023).
PRODQNT
When a PRODCOM code does not report the unit in QNTUNIT, the figure of PRODQNT is not required to be
reported. Additionally, figures could be missing due to confidentiality.
EXPQNT and IMPQNT
Comext
(
179
)
is the dataset disseminating the international trades in goods statistics. PRODCOM extracts
information from Comext. Most of PRODCOM codes have a complete reference to CN, meaning that there is full
comparability between data from PRODCOM and data from CN. However, data could be missing from PRODCOM
when:
•
the corresponding trade data on quantity cannot be provided for PRODCOM codes for which
unit of measure is not consistent with unit of measure given in CN, even if a PRODCOM code
has a complete CN reference and/or;
If there is no clear link between PRODCOM and CN.
•
Apparent consumption
The apparent consumption is obtained summing the production to the import and then subtracting the export.
The use of this economic indicator should consider the following aspects:
177
178
179
The UNSTATS webpage is available at
this link.
Last accessed on 26 September 2023.
The introductory guidelines to NACE Rev. 2. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 29 September 2023.
Comext dataset. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 2 December 2023.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
The integration of production and trade data is challenged by the possible heterogeneity between the
PRODCOM codes and the trade data reported by Comext.
The thresholds above which businesses are represented in PRODCOM and Comext could differ.
Data reported in PRODCOM refer to a specific year, but there are temporal delays in production, import
and exports. However, the delays are reduced when data are considered over several years.
The value of exports cannot always be compared directly with that of sold production.
(a) Sold production is based on the ex-work selling price
(
180
),
whereas exports are evaluated at
the time the goods cross the border.
(b) Imported goods can be exported again with a different value, either without being modified
or after industrial processing.
5.
Some figures of quantity of sold production could be missing because of confidentiality or because
Member States are exempted to report them when quantity units are not specified for the specific
PRODCOM code.
10.1.3 Market analysis for the selection of the scope
The market analysis reported in Section 3.1.2 used the PRODCOM codes reporting about the NACE activities
specified in
Table 54.
Table 54.
NACE codes describing the product group of textiles and footwear
Subgroup
Textile apparel
NACE codes
C1412 - Manufacture of workwear
C1413 - Manufacture of other outerwear
C1414 - Manufacture of underwear
C1419 - Manufacture of other wearing apparel and accessories
C1431 - Manufacture of knitted and crocheted hosiery
C1439 - Manufacture of other knitted and crocheted apparel
C1392 - Manufacture of made-up textile articles, except apparel
C1393 - Manufacture of carpets and rugs
C1520 - Manufacture of footwear
C1394 - Manufacture of cordage, rope, twine and netting
C1395 - Manufacture of non-wovens and articles made from non-wovens, except apparel
C1396 - Manufacture of other technical and industrial textiles
C1399 - Manufacture of other textiles n.e.c.
Home/interior textiles
Footwear
Technical textiles
5396
5397
5398
5399
5400
5401
5402
Table 55, Table 56, Table 57,
and
Table 58
report all the PRODCOM codes used for the analysis of amount
of sales and trades in EU. They also report the conversion factors used for the quantification of quantities
expressed in mass.
180
Ex-work selling price does not include any transportation cost, which are addressed by the buyer.
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5403
Table 55.
PRODCOM codes describing the subgroup of textile apparel in 2019
PRODCOM
code
14121120
14121130
14121240
14121250
14122120
14122130
14122240
14122250
14123013
14123023
14131110
14131120
14131230
14131260
14131270
14131310
14131320
14131430
14131460
14131470
14131480
14131490
14132110
14132115
14132116
14132120
14132130
14132200
14132210
14132220
14132300
14132442
Description of the PRODCOM code
Men’s or boys’ ensembles, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial and occupational wear
Men’s or boys’ jackets and blazers, of cotton or
man-made fibres, for industrial and occupational wear
Men’s or boys’ trousers and breeches, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational wear
Men’s or boys’ bib and brace overalls, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational wear
Women’s or girls’ ensembles, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational wear
Women’s or girls’ jackets and blazers, of cotton or
man-made fibres, for industrial or occupational wear
Women’s or girls’ trousers and breeches, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational wear
Women’s or girls’ bib and brace overalls, of
cotton or man-made fibres, for industrial or occupational wear
Men’s or boys’ other garments, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational wear
Women’s or girls’ other garments, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational wear
Men’s or boys’ overcoats, car-coats,
capes, cloaks and similar articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles (excluding jackets and blazers,
anoraks, wind-cheaters and wind-jackets)
Men’s or boys’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-cheaters, wind-jackets and similar articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
(excluding jackets and blazers)
Men’s or boys’ jackets and
blazers, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ suits and ensembles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ trousers, breeches, shorts, bib and brace overalls, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ overcoats, car-coats,
capes, cloaks and similar articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles (excluding jackets and blazers)
Women’s or girls’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-cheaters, wind-jackets and similar articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
(excluding jackets and blazers)
Women’s or girls’ jackets and blazers, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’
suits and ensembles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ dresses, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ skirts and divided skirts, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ trousers, breeches, shorts, bib and brace overalls, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men's or boys' raincoats
Men’s or boys’ raincoats, overcoats, car-coats,
capes, etc.
Men's or boys' overcoats, car coats, capes, cloaks, anoraks (including ski-jackets), wind cheaters, wind-jackets and similar articles
(excluding suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts)
Men's or boys' overcoats, car-coats, capes, etc.
Men’s or boys’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-jackets and similar articles (excluding jackets and blazers, knitted or crocheted,
impregnated, coated, covered, laminated or rubberised)
Men’s or boys’ suits & ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men's or boys' suits (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men's or boys' ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ jackets and blazers (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ trousers and breeches, of denim (excluding for industrial or occupational wear)
QNT UNIT
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
NA
p/st
NA
NA
p/st
p/st
NA
NA
p/st
p/st
Type
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
NA
NA
S
NA
NA
S
NA
NA
S
S
Conversio
n factor
to kg
0.5
0.95
0.45
0.45
0.5
0.95
0.45
0.45
0.5
0.5
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.5
0.45
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.5
0.3
0.25
0.45
0.5
0.5
NA
0.95
0.95
0.5
1.4
1
0.95
0.45
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PRODCOM
code
14132444
14132445
14132448
14132449
14132455
14132460
14133110
14133115
14133116
14133120
14133130
14133200
14133210
14133220
14133330
14133470
14133480
14133542
14133548
14133549
14133551
14133561
14133563
14133565
14133569
14141100
14141220
14141230
14141240
14141310
14141420
14141430
14141440
14141450
Description of the PRODCOM code
Men’s or boys’ trousers,
breeches and shorts, of wool or fine animal hair (excluding knitted or crocheted, for industrial or occupational
wear)
Men’s or boys’ trousers and breeches, of man-made
fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted, for industrial or occupational wear)
Men’s or boys’ trousers and breeches, of cotton (excluding denim, knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ trousers, breeches, shorts and bib and brace overalls (excluding of wool, cotton and man-made
fibres, knitted or
crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ bib and brace overalls (excluding knitted or crocheted, for industrial or occupational wear)
Men’s or boys’ shorts, of cotton or man-made
fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Woman's or girls' raincoats
Woman’s or girls’ raincoats and overcoats, etc.
Women's or girls' overcoats, car-coats, capes, cloaks, anoraks (including ski jackets), wind-cheaters, wind-jackets and similar articles
(excluding suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts)
Woman's or girls' overcoats, etc.
Women’s or girls’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-jackets and similar articles (excluding jackets and blazers, knitted or crocheted,
impregnated, coated, covered, laminated or rubberised)
Women’s or girls’ suits &
ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' suits (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ jackets and
blazers (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ dresses (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ skirts and divided skirts (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ trousers and breeches, of denim (excluding for industrial or occupational wear)
Women’s or girls’ trousers and breeches, of cotton (excluding denim, for industrial or occupational wear)
Women’s or girls’ trousers and breeches, of wool or fine animal hair or man-made
fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted and for
industrial and occupational wear)
Women’s or girls’ bib and brace overalls, of cotton (excluding knitted or crocheted,
for industrial or occupational wear)
Women’s or girls’ shorts, of cotton (excluding knitted and crocheted)
Women's or girls' bib and brace overalls, of wool or fine animal hair and man-made fibres (excluding cotton, knitted or crocheted, for
industrial or occupational wear) and women's or girls' shorts, of wool or fine animal hair (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ shorts, of man-made
fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ trousers, breeches, bib and brace overalls, of textiles (excluding cotton, wool or fine animal hair, man-made
fibres,
knitted or crocheted)
Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or crocheted
Men’s or boys’ underpants and briefs, of knitted or crocheted textiles (including boxer shorts)
Men’s or boys’ nightshirts and pyjamas, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ dressing gowns, bathrobes and similar articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ blouses, shirts and shirt-blouses,
of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ briefs and panties,
of knitted or crocheted textiles (including boxer shorts)
Women’s or girls’ nighties and pyjamas, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ negligees, bathrobes, dressing gowns and similar
articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ slips and petticoats, of knitted or crocheted textiles
QNT UNIT
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
NA
p/st
NA
NA
p/st
p/st
NA
NA
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
Type
S
S
S
S
S
S
NA
NA
S
Conversio
n factor
to kg
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.5
0.5
NA
0.95
0.95
0.5
1.4
1
0.95
0.3
0.25
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.25
0.08
0.15
0.3
0.25
0.08
0.15
0.3
0.5
NA
S
NA
NA
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
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PRODCOM
code
14142100
14142220
14142230
14142240
14142300
14142430
14142450
14142460
14142480
14142489
14142530
14142550
14142570
14143000
14191100
14191210
14191230
14191240
14191250
14191290
14191300
14191930
14191960
14192100
14192150
14192210
14192220
14192230
14192240
14192250
14192310
14192333
14192338
Description of the PRODCOM code
Men’s or boys’ shirts (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’
underpants and briefs (including boxer shorts) (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ nightshirts and pyjamas (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ singlets, vests, bathrobes, dressing
gowns and similar articles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ blouses, shirts and shirt-blouses
(excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ nightdresses and pyjamas (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ slips and petticoats (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ singlets and other vests, briefs, panties, negligees, bathrobes, dressing gowns, housecoats and similar
articles of
cotton (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' negligees, bathrobes, dressing gowns, singlets, vests, briefs and panties (including boxer shorts), of man-made fibres
(excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ singlets, vests, briefs, panties, negligees, bathrobes, dressing gowns and similar articles, of textiles (excluding
cotton,
man-made fibres, knitted or crocheted)
Brassieres
Girdles, panty-girdles and corselettes (including bodies with adjustable straps)
Braces, suspenders, garters and similar articles and parts thereof
T-shirts, singlets and vests, knitted or crocheted
Babies’ garments and clothing accessories, knitted or crocheted including vests, rompers, underpants, stretch-suits,
gloves or mittens or
mitts, outerwear (for children of height <= 86 cm)
Track-suits, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Ski-suits, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ swimwear, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ swimwear, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Other garments, knitted or crocheted (including bodies with a proper sleeve)
Gloves, mittens and mitts, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Shawls, scarves, mufflers, mantillas, veils and the like, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Clothing accessories and parts thereof, of knitted or crocheted textiles (excluding gloves, mittens, shawls, scarves, mufflers, mantillas
and veils)
Babies' clothing and accessories, of textiles, not knitted or crocheted (for children of height <= 86 cm) including vests, rompers,
underpants, stretch-suits, napkins, gloves, mittens and outerwear
Babies clothing and accessories, of textiles, not knitted or crocheted (for children of height <= 86 cm) including vests, rompers,
underpants, stretch-suits, gloves, mittens and outerwear (excluding sanitary towels and napkins and similar articles)
Other men’s or boys’ apparel n.e.c., including tracksuits
and jogging suits (excluding waistcoats, ski-suits, knitted or crocheted)
Other women’s or girls’ apparel n.e.c., including tracksuits and jogging suits (excluding waistcoats, ski-suits,
knitted or crocheted)
Ski-suits (excluding of knitted or crocheted textiles)
Men’s or boys’ swimwear (excluding of knitted or crocheted textiles)
Women’s or girls’ swimwear (excluding of knitted or crocheted textiles)
Handkerchiefs
Shawls, scarves, mufflers, mantillas, veils and the like (excluding articles of silk or silk waste, knitted or crocheted)
Shawls, scarves, mufflers, mantillas, veils and the like, of silk or silk waste (excluding knitted or crocheted)
QNT UNIT
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
NA
p/st
NA
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
kg
pa
p/st
NA
NA
NA
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
Type
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
NA
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Conversio
n factor
to kg
0.25
0.08
0.15
0.3
0.25
0.3
0.5
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.05
0.5
NA
0.17
NA
0.5
0.5
0.12
0.12
1
0.1
0.1
NA
NA
NA
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.12
0.12
0.5
0.15
0.15
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PRODCOM
code
14192353
14192358
14192370
14192393
14192395
14192396
14193200
14194130
14194150
14194230
14194250
14194270
14194300
14311033
14311035
14311037
14311050
14311090
14391031
14391032
14391033
14391053
14391055
14391061
14391062
14391071
Description of the PRODCOM code
Ties, bow ties and cravats (excluding articles of silk or silk waste, knitted or crocheted)
Ties, bow ties and cravats, of silk or silk waste (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Gloves, mittens and mitts (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Clothing accessories of textiles (excluding shawls, scarves and mufflers, mantillas and veils, ties, bow-ties and cravats, gloves, mittens
and mitts, knitted or crocheted)
Parts of garments or of clothing accessories, of textiles (excluding bras, girdles and corsets, braces, suspenders and garters, knitted or
crocheted)
Clothing accessories, parts of garments or of clothing accessories, of textiles, n.e.c. and parts thereof, (excluding shawls, scarves and
mufflers, mantillas and veils, ties, bow-ties and cravats, gloves, mittens and mitts and parts thereof; bras, girdles and corsets, braces,
suspenders and garters, knitted or crocheted)
Garments made up of felt or non-wovens, textile fabrics impregnated or coated
Hat-forms, hat bodies and hoods, plateaux and manchons of felt (including slit manchons) (excluding those blocked to shape, those with
made brims)
Hat-shapes, plaited or made by assembling strips of any material (excluding those blocked to shape, those with made brims, those lined
or trimmed)
Felt hats and other felt headgear, made from hat bodies or hoods and plateaux
Hats and other headgear, plaited or made by assembling strips of any material
Hats and other headgear, knitted or crocheted or made-up from lace, felt or other textile fabric in the piece (but not in strips); hair-nets
of any material
Other headgear (except headgear of rubber or of plastics, safety headgear and asbestos headgear); headbands, linings, covers, hat
foundations, hat frames, peaks and chinstraps, for headgear
Panty hose and tights, of knitted or crocheted synthetic fibres, measuring per single yarn < 67 decitex
Panty hose and tights, of knitted or crocheted synthetic fibres, measuring per single yarn >= 67 decitex
Pantyhose and tights of textile materials, knitted or crocheted (excl. graduated compression hosiery, those of synthetic fibres and
hosiery for babies)
Women’s full-length
or knee-length knitted or crocheted hosiery, measuring per single yarn < 67 decitex
Knitted or crocheted hosiery and footwear (including socks; excluding women’s full-length/knee-length
hosiery, measuring <67decitex,
panty-hose and tights, footwear with applied soles)
Men’s or boys’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of wool or fine animal hair (excluding jerseys and
pullovers
containing >= 50 % of wool and weighing >= 600 g)
Women’s or girls’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of wool or fine animal hair (excluding jerseys and
pullovers
containing >= 50 % of wool and weighing >= 600 g)
Jerseys and pullovers, containing >= 50 % by weight of wool and weighing >= 600 g per article
Lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers, of cotton
Lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers, of man-made fibres
Men’s or boys’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of cotton (excluding lightweight fine knit roll, polo
or turtle neck
jumpers and pullovers)
Women’s or girls’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of cotton (excluding lightweight fine knit roll,
polo or turtle
neck jumpers and pullovers)
Men’s or boys’
jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of man-made fibres (excluding lightweight fine knit roll, polo or
turtle neck jumpers and pullovers)
QNT UNIT
p/st
p/st
pa
NA
NA
NA
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
NA
p/st
p/st
p/st
pa
pa
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
Type
S
S
S
NA
NA
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Conversio
n factor
to kg
0.15
0.15
0.1
NA
NA
NA
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
NA
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.01
0.07
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
183
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PRODCOM
code
14391072
14391090
Description of the PRODCOM code
Women’s or girls’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans,
of man-made fibres (excluding lightweight fine knit roll, polo
or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers)
Jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of textile materials (excluding those of wool or fine animal hair, cotton, man-
made fibres)
QNT UNIT
p/st
p/st
Type
S
S
Conversio
n factor
to kg
0.5
0.5
5404
5405
5406
5407
5408
QNTUNIT: PRODCOM indicator about unit used to report quantities.
kg = kilogram; p/st = number of items; pa = number of pairs; NA = data not available
Source: own elaboration based on Eurostat data set DS-056120 (data extracted on 15 November 2023). Conversion factors used to convert the unit reported in EUROSTAT to kg based on (Huygens et al., 2023)
Table 56.
PRODCOM codes describing the subgroup of home/interior textiles in 2019
PRODCOM
code
13921130
13921150
13921190
13921230
13921253
13921255
13921259
13921270
13921330
13921353
13921355
13921359
13921370
13921430
13921450
13921470
13921530
13921550
13921570
13921620
13921640
13921660
13921680
13922130
Description of the PRODCOM code
Blankets and travelling rugs of wool or fine animal hair (excluding electric blankets)
Blankets and travelling rugs of synthetic fibres (excluding electric blankets)
Blankets (excluding electric blankets) and travelling rugs of textile materials (excluding of wool or fine animal hair, of synthetic fibres)
Bed linen of knitted or crocheted textiles
Bed linen of cotton (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Bed linen of flax or ramie (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Bed linen of woven textiles (excluding of cotton, of flax or ramie)
Bed linen of non-woven man-made fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Table linen of knitted or crocheted textiles
Table linen of cotton (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Table linen of flax (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Table linen of woven man-made fibres and of other woven or non-woven textiles (excluding of cotton, of flax)
Table linen of non-woven man-made fibres
Toilet linen and kitchen linen, of terry towelling or similar terry fabrics of cotton
Woven toilet linen and kitchen linen, of textiles (excluding terry towelling or similar terry fabrics of cotton)
Toilet linen and kitchen linen, of non-woven man-made fibres
Curtains and interior blinds, curtain or bed valances, of knitted or crocheted materials
Curtains and interior blinds, curtain or bed valances, of woven materials
Curtains and interior blinds, curtain or bed valances, of non-woven materials
Hand-woven tapestries of the type Gobelins, Flanders, Aubusson, Beauvais, and needle-worked tapestries (including petit point, cross-
stitch) whether or not made up
Bedspreads (excluding eiderdowns)
Furnishing articles including furniture and cushion covers as well as cushion covers, etc. for car seats (excluding blankets, travelling rugs,
bed linen, table linen, toilet linen, kitchen linen, curtains, blinds, valances and bedspreads)
Sets of woven fabrics and yarns for making up into rugs, tapestries, embroidered table cloths, serviettes, or similar textile articles, p.r.s.
Sacks and bags, of cotton, used for packing goods
QNTUNIT
p/st
p/st
p/st
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
m
2
m
2
m
2
NA
p/st
NA
NA
kg
TYPE
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Conversion Factor
to kg
0.5
0.5
0.5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.25
0.25
0.25
NA
0.5
NA
NA
1
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PRODCOM
code
13922150
13922170
13922173
13922175
13922190
13922210
13922230
13922250
13922270
13922300
13922430
13922493
13922499
13922953
13922957
13922990
13922993
13922997
13922998
13922999
13931100
13931200
13931300
13931930
13931990
Description of the PRODCOM code
Sacks and bags, of knitted or crocheted polyethylene or polypropylene strip, used for packing goods
Sacks and bags, of polyethylene or polypropylene strip, used for packing goods (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Sacks and bags, of polyethylene or polypropylene strip, weighing <= 120 g/m2, used for packing goods (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Sacks and bags, of polyethylene or polypropylene strip, weighing > 120 g/m2, used for packing goods (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Sacks and bags, used for packing goods (excluding of cotton, polyethylene or polypropylene strip)
Tarpaulins, awnings and sunblinds (excluding caravan awnings)
Tents (including caravan awnings)
Sails
Pneumatic mattresses and other camping goods (excluding caravan awnings, tents, sleeping bags)
Parachutes and rotochutes, parts and accessories (including dirigible parachutes)
Sleeping bags
Articles of bedding of feathers or down (including quilts and eiderdowns, cushions, pouffes, pillows) (excluding mattresses, sleeping bags)
Articles of bedding filled other than with feathers or down (including quilts and eiderdowns, cushions, pouffes, pillows) (excluding
mattresses, sleeping bags)
Floor-cloths, dish-cloths, dusters and similar cleaning cloths, of non-woven textiles
Floor-cloths, dish-cloths, dusters and similar cleaning cloths (excluding knitted or crocheted, articles of non-woven textiles)
Floor-cloths, dish-cloths, dusters and similar cleaning cloths, knitted or crocheted; life-jackets, life-belts and other made up articles
Sanitary towels, tampons and similar article of textile materials (excluding wadding)
Napkins and napkin liners for babies and similar article of textile materials (excluding wadding)
Floor-cloths, dish-cloths, dusters and similar cleaning cloths, knitted or crocheted; life-jackets, life-belts and other made up articles
(excluding protective face masks, sanitary towels and napkins and similar articles)
Floor-cloths, dish-cloths, dusters and similar cleaning cloths, knitted or crocheted; life-jackets, life-belts and other made up articles
(excluding sanitary towels and napkins and similar articles)
Knotted carpets and other knotted textile floor coverings
Woven carpets and other woven textile coverings (excluding tufted or flocked)
Tufted carpets and other tufted textile floor coverings
Needlefelt carpets and other needlefelt textile floor coverings (excluding tufted or flocked)
Carpets and other textile floor coverings (excluding knotted, woven, tufted, needlefelt)
QNTUNIT
kg
kg
NA
NA
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
p/st
p/st
p/st
kg
kg
NA
NA
NA
NA
kg
m
2
m
2
m
2
m
2
m
2
TYPE
S
S
NA
NA
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
NA
NA
NA
S
NA
S
S
S
S
S
Conversion Factor
to kg
1
1
NA
NA
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
1
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
1.6
1.6
1.38
1.6
1.6
5409
5410
5411
5412
5413
QNTUNIT: PRODCOM indicator about unit used to report quantities.
kg = kilogram; p/st = number of items; NA = data not available, m
2
=square metres
Source: own elaboration based on Eurostat data set DS-056120 (data extracted on 15 November 2023). Conversion factors used to convert the unit reported in EUROSTAT to kg based on (Huygens et al., 2023)
Table 57.
PRODCOM codes describing the subgroup of footwear in 2019
PRODCOM code
15201100
15201210
15201231
Description of the PRODCOM code
Waterproof footwear, with uppers in rubber or plastics (excluding incorporating a protective metal toecap)
Sandals with rubber or plastic outer soles and uppers (including thong-type sandals, flip flops)
Town footwear with rubber or plastic uppers
QNTUNIT
pa
pa
pa
TYPE
S
S
S
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.9
0.5
0.9
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PRODCOM code
15201237
15201330
15201351
15201352
15201353
15201361
15201362
15201363
15201370
15201380
15201444
15201445
15201446
15202100
15202900
15203120
15203150
15203200
15204020
15204050
15204080
Description of the PRODCOM code
Slippers and other indoor footwear with rubber or plastic outer soles and plastic uppers (including bedroom and
dancing slippers, mules)
Footwear with a wooden base and leather uppers (including clogs) (excluding with an inner sole or a protective
metal toe-cap)
Men’s town
footwear with leather uppers (including boots and shoes; excluding waterproof footwear, footwear with
a protective metal toe-cap)
Women’s town footwear with leather uppers (including boots and shoes; excluding waterproof
footwear, footwear
with a protective metal toe-cap)
Children’s town footwear with leather uppers (including boots and shoes; excluding waterproof footwear, footwear
with a protective metal toe-cap)
Men’s sandals
with leather uppers (including thong type sandals, flip flops)
Women’s sandals with leather uppers (including thong type sandals, flip flops)
Children’s sandals with leather uppers (including thong type sandals, flip flops)
Slippers and other indoor footwear with rubber, plastic or leather outer soles and leather uppers (including dancing
and bedroom slippers, mules)
Footwear with wood, cork or other outer soles and leather uppers (excluding outer soles of rubber, plastics or
leather)
Slippers and other indoor footwear (including dancing and bedroom slippers, mules) with uppers of textile
materials
Footwear with rubber, plastic or leather outer soles and textile uppers (excluding slippers and other indoor
footwear, sports footwear)
Footwear with textile uppers (excluding slippers and other indoor footwear as well as footwear with outer soles of
rubber, plastics, leather or composition leather)
Sports footwear with rubber or plastic outer soles and textile uppers (including tennis shoes, basketball shoes, gym
shoes, training shoes and the like)
Other sports footwear, except snow-ski footwear and skating boots
Footwear (including waterproof footwear), incorporating a protective metal toecap, with outer soles and uppers of
rubber or of plastics
Footwear with rubber, plastic or leather outer soles and leather uppers, and with a protective metal toe-cap
Wooden footwear, miscellaneous special footwear and other footwear n.e.c.
Leather uppers and parts thereof of footwear (excluding stiffeners)
Uppers and parts thereof of footwear (excluding stiffeners, of leather)
Parts of footwear (excluding uppers) other materials
QNTUNIT
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
pa
NA
NA
NA
TYPE
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.35
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.35
0.9
0.35
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
NA
NA
NA
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
5414
5415
5416
5417
QNTUNIT: PRODCOM indicator about unit used to report quantities.
pa = number of pairs; NA = data not available
Source: own elaboration based on Eurostat data set DS-056120 (data extracted on 15 November 2023). Conversion factors used to convert the unit reported in EUROSTAT to kg based on
(Huygens et al., 2023).
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5418
Table 58.
PRODCOM codes describing the subgroup of technical textiles in 2019
PRODCOM code
13941130
13941133
13941135
13941153
13941155
13941160
13941170
13941190
13941233
13941235
13941253
13941255
13941259
13941280
13951010
13951020
13951030
13951050
13951070
13961100
13961200
13961300
13961400
13961500
13961620
13961650
13961680
13961730
13961750
Description of the PRODCOM code
Twine, cordage, rope or cables, of sisal or other textile fibres of ‘agave’, of jute or other textile bast fibres and hard leaf
fibres
(excluding binder or baler twine)
Twine, cordage, rope or cables, of sisal or other textile fibres of 'agave' measuring >100,000 decitex, of jute or other textile bast
fibres and hard leaf fibres (excluding binder or baler twine)
Twines of sisal measuring <= 100,000 decitex (10 g/m) (excluding binder or baler twine)
Sisal binder or baler (agricultural) twines
Polyethylene or polypropylene binder or baler (agricultural) twines
Cordage, ropes or cables of polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon or other polyamides or of polyesters measuring > 50 000 decitex, of
other synthetic fibres (excluding binder or baler twine)
Twines of polyethylene or polypropylene, of nylon or other polyamides or polyesters measuring <= 50 000 decitex (5 g/m) (excluding
binder or baler twine)
Twines, cordage, rope and cables of textile materials (excluding jute and other textile bast fibres, sisal, abaca or other hard leaf
fibres, synthetic fibres)
Made-up fishing nets from twine, cordage or rope of man-made fibres (excluding fish landing nets)
Made-up fishing nets from yarn of man-made fibres (excluding fish landing nets)
Made-up nets from twine, cable or rope of nylon or other polyamides (excluding netting in the piece produced by crochet, hairnets,
sports and fishing nets)
Made-up nets of nylon or other polyamides (excluding netting in the piece produced by crochet, hairnets, sports and fishing nets,
those made from twine, cable or rope)
Knotted netting of textile materials (excluding made-up fishing nets of man-made textiles, other made-up nets of nylon or other
polyamides)
Articles of twine, cordage, rope or cables
Non-wovens of a weight <= 25 g/m² (including articles made from non-wovens) (excluding articles of apparel, coated or covered)
Non-wovens of a weight of > 25 g/m² but <= 70 g/m² (including articles made from non-wovens) (excluding articles of apparel,
coated or covered)
Non-wovens of a weight of > 70 g/m² but <= 150 g/m² (including articles made from non-wovens) (excluding articles of apparel,
coated or covered)
Non-wovens of a weight of > 150 g/m² (including articles made from non-wovens) (excluding articles of apparel, coated or covered)
Non-wovens, coated or covered (including articles made from non-wovens) (excluding articles of apparel)
Metallised yarn or metallised gimped yarn
Woven fabrics of metal thread and woven fabrics of metallised yarn, used in apparel, as furnishing fabrics or similar purposes
Rubber thread and cord, textile covered; textile yarn and strip impregnated, coated, covered or sheathed with rubber or plastics
Textile fabrics, impregnated, coated or covered n.e.c.
Tyre cord fabrics of high tenacity yarn, of nylon, other polyamides, polyesters or viscose rayon
Textile hosepiping and similar textile tubing, whether or not impregnated or coated, with or without lining, armour or accessories of
other materials
Textile wicks, conveyor belts or belting (including reinforced with metal or other material)
Textile fabrics and felts, for paper-making machines or similar machines (including for pulp or asbestos-cement)
Narrow woven fabrics other than labels, badges and other similar articles
Labels, badges and similar articles in textile materials (excluding embroidered)
QNTUNIT
kg
NA
NA
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
m
2
m
2
kg
kg
kg
NA
NA
TYPE
S
NA
NA
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Conversion
Factor to kg
1
NA
NA
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.25
0.25
1
1
1
NA
NA
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PRODCOM code
13961770
13991130
13991150
13991170
13991230
13991250
13991270
13991300
13991400
13991500
13991600
13991900
Description of the PRODCOM code
Braids in the piece; tassels and pompons, ornamental trimmings (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Tulles and other net fabrics (excluding woven, knitted or crocheted)
Machine-made lace in the piece, in strips or in motifs
Hand-made lace in the piece, in strips or in motifs
Embroidery (without visible ground) in the piece, in strips or in motifs
Cotton embroidery in the piece, in strips or in motifs (excluding embroidery without visible ground)
Embroidery of textiles in the piece, in strips or in motifs (excluding without visible ground, cotton)
Felt, whether or not impregnated, coated, covered or laminated, n.e.c.
Textile flock and dust and mill neps
Gimped yarn and gimped strip and the like, of man-made textile materials of an apparent width <= 5 mm; chenille yarn; loop wale-
yarn
Quilted textile products in the piece (excluding embroidery)
Powder-puffs and pads for the application of cosmetics or toilet preparations
QNTUNIT
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
kg
kg
kg
m
2
p/st
TYPE
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Conversion
Factor to kg
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
1
1
0.25
0.5
5419
5420
5421
5422
5423
QNTUNIT: PRODCOM indicator about unit used to report quantities.
kg = kilogram; p/st = number of items; NA = data not available, m
2
=square metres
Source: own elaboration based on Eurostat data set DS-056120 (data extracted on 15 November 2023). Conversion factors used to convert the unit reported in EUROSTAT to kg based on
(Huygens et al., 2023).
10.1.4 PRODCOM codes included in the scope
Table 59.
List and description of PRODCOM codes included in the scope
Category
PRODCOM
code
14143000
14142240
14142460
14142480
1. T-shirts
14142489
14123013
14123023
14391053
14142430
14142230
14141430
Description of the PRODCOM code
T-shirts, singlets and vests, knitted or crocheted
Men’s or boys’ singlets, vests, bathrobes, dressing gowns and similar articles (excluding
knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ singlets and other
vests, briefs, panties, negligees, bathrobes, dressing
gowns, housecoats and similar articles of cotton (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' negligees, bathrobes, dressing gowns, singlets, vests, briefs and panties
(including boxer shorts), of man-made fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ singlets, vests, briefs, panties, negligees, bathrobes, dressing gowns and
similar articles, of textiles (excluding cotton, man-made fibres, knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ other garments, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational
wear
Women’s or girls’ other garments, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or
occupational wear
Lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers, of cotton
Women’s or girls’ nightdresses and pyjamas (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ nightshirts and pyjamas (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ nighties and pyjamas, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Allocation of the
code in the product
category (%)
100
75
40
40
40
25
25
20
25
25
25
Reported
measure unit in
PRODCOM
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.17
0.3
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.15
0.15
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Category
PRODCOM
code
14391055
14141230
14191290
14141100
14141310
14142100
14142300
14123013
Description of the PRODCOM code
Lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers, of man-made fibres
Men’s or boys’ nightshirts and pyjamas, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Other garments, knitted or crocheted (including bodies with a proper sleeve)
Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or crocheted
Women’s or girls’ blouses, shirts and shirt-blouses,
of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ shirts
(excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ blouses, shirts and shirt-blouses
(excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ other garments, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational
wear
Women’s or girls’ other garments, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or
occupational wear
Men’s or boys’ nightshirts and pyjamas, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ nightdresses and pyjamas (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ nightshirts and pyjamas (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ nighties and pyjamas, of
knitted or crocheted textiles
Lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers, of cotton
Lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers, of man-made fibres
Men’s or boys’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of wool or fine
animal hair (excluding jerseys and pullovers containing >= 50 % of wool and weighing
>= 600 g)
Women’s or girls’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of wool or fine
animal hair (excluding jerseys and pullovers containing >= 50 % of wool and weighing
>= 600 g)
Jerseys and pullovers, containing >= 50 % by weight of wool and weighing >= 600 g per
article
Lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers, of cotton
Lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers, of man-made fibres
Men’s or boys’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of cotton (excluding
lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers)
Women’s or girls’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of cotton
(excluding lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers)
Men’s or boys’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-jackets and similar articles (excluding
jackets and blazers, knitted or crocheted, impregnated, coated, covered, laminated or
rubberised)
Women’s or girls’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-jackets and similar articles
(excluding jackets and blazers, knitted or crocheted, impregnated, coated, covered,
laminated or rubberised)
Men’s or boys’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of man-made
fibres (excluding lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers)
Women’s or girls’ jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of man-made
fibres (excluding lightweight fine knit roll, polo or turtle neck jumpers and pullovers)
Allocation of the
code in the product
category (%)
20
25
100
100
100
100
100
25
25
25
25
25
25
40
40
100
100
100
40
40
100
100
20
20
100
100
Reported
measure unit in
PRODCOM
p/st
p/st
kg
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.5
0.15
1
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.15
0.3
0.15
0.15
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.95
0.95
0.5
0.5
2. Shirts and
blouses
14123023
14141230
14142430
14142230
14141430
14391053
14391055
14391031
14391032
14391033
14391053
14391055
3. Sweaters and
mid-layers
14391061
14391062
14132130
14133130
14391071
14391072
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Category
PRODCOM
code
14391090
14131120
14131320
14121130
14122130
14131110
14131120
14131230
14131310
14131320
14131430
14132115
Description of the PRODCOM code
Jerseys, pullovers, sweatshirts, waistcoats and cardigans, of textile materials (excluding
those of wool or fine animal hair, cotton, man-made fibres)
Men’s or boys’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-cheaters, wind-jackets and similar
articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles (excluding jackets and blazers)
Women’s or girls’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-cheaters, wind-jackets and similar
articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles (excluding jackets and blazers)
Men’s or boys’ jackets and blazers, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial and
occupational wear
Women’s or girls’ jackets and
blazers, of cotton or man-made fibres, for industrial or
occupational wear
Men’s or boys’ overcoats, car-coats,
capes, cloaks and similar articles, of knitted or
crocheted textiles (excluding jackets and blazers, anoraks, wind-cheaters and wind-jackets)
Men’s or boys’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-cheaters, wind-jackets and similar
articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles (excluding jackets and blazers)
Men’s or boys’ jackets and blazers, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ overcoats, car-coats,
capes, cloaks and similar articles, of knitted or
crocheted textiles (excluding jackets and blazers)
Women’s or girls’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-cheaters, wind-jackets and similar
articles, of knitted or crocheted textiles (excluding jackets and blazers)
Women’s or girls’ jackets and blazers, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ raincoats, overcoats, car-coats,
capes, etc.
Men’s or boys’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-jackets and similar articles (excluding
jackets and blazers, knitted or crocheted, impregnated, coated, covered, laminated or
rubberised)
Men’s or boys’ jackets and blazers (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Woman's or girls' raincoats
Woman’s or girls’ raincoats and overcoats, etc.
Woman's or girls' overcoats, etc.
Women’s or girls’ waistcoats, anoraks, ski-jackets,
wind-jackets and similar articles
(excluding jackets and blazers, knitted or crocheted, impregnated, coated, covered,
laminated or rubberised)
Women’s or girls’ jackets and blazers (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Ski-suits (excluding of knitted or crocheted textiles)
Ski-suits, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Babies’ garments and clothing accessories, knitted or crocheted including vests, rompers,
underpants, stretch-suits, gloves or mittens or mitts, outerwear (for children of height <= 86
cm)
Babies clothing and accessories, of textiles, not knitted or crocheted (for children of height
<= 86 cm) including vests, rompers, underpants, stretch-suits, gloves, mittens and
outerwear (excluding sanitary towels and napkins and similar articles)
Men’s or boys’ suits and ensembles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Allocation of the
code in the product
category (%)
100
20
20
100
100
100
80
100
100
80
100
100
80
100
100
100
100
80
100
50
50
20
20
40
Reported
measure unit in
PRODCOM
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
kg
kg
p/st
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.5
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.5
0.95
0.95
0.5
0.5
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.5
0.5
1
1
0.5
4. Jackets and
coats
14132130
14132300
14133110
14133115
14133120
14133130
14133330
14192230
14191230
14191100
14192150
14131260
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Category
PRODCOM
code
14131460
14132200
14133200
14132110
14132120
14132210
14132220
14133210
14133220
14192100
14131270
14131490
14132442
14132444
14132445
14132448
14132449
Description of the PRODCOM code
Women’s or girls’ suits and ensembles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’
suits & ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ suits & ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men's or boys' raincoats
Men's or boys' overcoats, car-coats, capes, etc.
Men's or boys' suits (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men's or boys' ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' suits (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Babies' clothing and accessories, of textiles, not knitted or crocheted (for children of height
<= 86 cm) including vests, rompers, underpants, stretch-suits, napkins, gloves, mittens and
outerwear
Men’s or boys’ trousers, breeches, shorts, bib and brace overalls, of knitted or crocheted
textiles
Women’s or girls’
trousers, breeches, shorts, bib and brace overalls, of knitted or crocheted
textiles
Men’s or boys’ trousers and breeches, of denim (excluding for industrial or occupational
wear)
Men’s or boys’
trousers, breeches and shorts, of wool or fine animal hair (excluding knitted
or crocheted, for industrial or occupational wear)
Men’s or boys’ trousers and breeches, of man-made
fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted,
for industrial or occupational wear)
Men’s or boys’ trousers and breeches, of cotton (excluding denim, knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ trousers, breeches, shorts and bib and brace overalls (excluding of wool,
cotton and man-made fibres, knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ nightshirts and pyjamas, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ bib and brace overalls (excluding knitted or crocheted, for industrial
or
occupational wear)
Men’s or boys’ shorts, of cotton or man-made
fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ trousers and breeches, of denim (excluding for industrial or
occupational
wear)
Women’s or girls’ trousers and breeches, of cotton (excluding denim, for industrial or
occupational wear)
Women’s or girls’ trousers and breeches, of wool or fine animal hair or
man-made fibres
(excluding knitted or crocheted and for industrial and occupational wear)
Women’s or girls’ bib and brace overalls, of cotton (excluding knitted or crocheted, for
industrial or occupational wear)
Women’s or girls’ nightdresses and pyjamas (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ shorts, of cotton (excluding knitted and crocheted)
Allocation of the
code in the product
category (%)
40
40
40
100
100
50
50
50
50
20
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
30
100
Reported
measure unit in
PRODCOM
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
kg
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.95
1.4
1
1.4
1
1
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.15
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.3
0.45
5. Pants and
shorts
14141230
14132455
14132460
14133542
14133548
14133549
14133551
14142430
14133561
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Category
PRODCOM
code
14133563
14133565
14133569
14121240
14121250
14122240
14141430
14142230
14122250
14192230
14191230
14131260
14131460
14132200
14133200
14123013
14123023
14132210
14132220
14133210
14133220
14131470
14131480
14133470
14133480
14131260
14121120
14191210
14141430
14132200
Description of the PRODCOM code
Women's or girls' bib and brace overalls, of wool or fine animal hair and man-made fibres
(excluding cotton, knitted or crocheted, for industrial or occupational wear) and women's or
girls' shorts, of wool or fine animal hair (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’
shorts, of man-made fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ trousers, breeches, bib and brace overalls, of textiles (excluding cotton,
wool or fine animal hair, man-made fibres, knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ trousers and breeches, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or
occupational wear
Men’s or boys’ bib and brace overalls, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or
occupational wear
Women’s or girls’ trousers and breeches, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or
occupational wear
Women’s or girls’ nighties and pyjamas, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ nightshirts and pyjamas (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ bib and brace overalls, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or
occupational wear
Ski-suits (excluding of knitted or crocheted textiles)
Ski-suits, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ suits and ensembles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ suits and
ensembles, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ suits & ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ suits & ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ other garments, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational
wear
Women’s or girls’ other garments, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or
occupational wear
Men's or boys' suits (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men's or boys' ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' suits (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ dresses, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ skirts and divided skirts, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ dresses (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ skirts and divided skirts (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ suits and ensembles, of
knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ ensembles, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial and occupational
wear
Track-suits, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ nighties and pyjamas, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ suits & ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Allocation of the
code in the product
category (%)
100
100
100
100
100
100
30
50
100
50
50
40
40
40
40
50
50
50
50
25
25
100
100
100
100
20
100
100
20
20
Reported
measure unit in
PRODCOM
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.15
0.15
0.45
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1
1
1
1
0.3
0.25
0.3
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.15
0.5
6. Dresses, Skirts
and jumpsuits
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Category
PRODCOM
code
14142489
14142450
14142480
14142430
14142240
14141440
14141450
14141240
14192210
14192220
14122120
14131460
14133200
14142460
14133210
14133220
14311033
14311035
Description of the PRODCOM code
Women’s or girls’ singlets, vests, briefs, panties, negligees,
bathrobes, dressing gowns and
similar articles, of textiles (excluding cotton, man-made fibres, knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ slips and petticoats (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' negligees, bathrobes, dressing gowns, singlets, vests, briefs and panties
(including boxer shorts), of man-made fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ nightdresses and pyjamas (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ singlets, vests, bathrobes, dressing gowns and similar articles (excluding
knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ negligees, bathrobes, dressing gowns and similar articles, of knitted or
crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ slips and petticoats, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ dressing gowns, bathrobes and similar articles, of knitted or crocheted
textiles
Other men’s or boys’ apparel n.e.c., including tracksuits and jogging suits (excluding
waistcoats, ski-suits, knitted or crocheted)
Other women’s or girls’ apparel n.e.c., including tracksuits and jogging suits (excluding
waistcoats, ski-suits, knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ ensembles, of cotton or man-made
fibres, for industrial or occupational
wear
Women’s or girls’ suits and ensembles, of knitted or
crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ suits & ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ singlets and other vests, briefs, panties, negligees, bathrobes, dressing
gowns, housecoats and similar articles of cotton (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' suits (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' ensembles (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Panty hose and tights, of knitted or crocheted synthetic fibres, measuring per single yarn
< 67 decitex
Panty hose and tights, of knitted or crocheted synthetic fibres, measuring per single yarn
>= 67 decitex
Pantyhose and tights of textile materials, knitted or crocheted (excl. graduated compression
hosiery, those of synthetic fibres and hosiery for babies)
Women’s full-length
or knee-length knitted or crocheted hosiery, measuring per single yarn
< 67 decitex
Knitted or crocheted hosiery and footwear (including socks; excluding women’s full-
length/knee-length hosiery, measuring <67decitex, panty-hose and tights, footwear with
applied soles)
Men’s or boys’ underpants and briefs, of knitted or crocheted textiles (including boxer
shorts)
Women’s or girls’ briefs and panties, of knitted or
crocheted textiles (including boxer shorts)
Men’s or boys’ underpants and briefs (including boxer shorts) (excluding knitted or
crocheted)
Allocation of the
code in the product
category (%)
30
100
30
20
25
100
100
100
100
100
100
20
20
30
25
25
100
100
100
100
95
100
100
100
Reported
measure unit in
PRODCOM
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
pa
pa
p/st
p/st
p/st
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.08
0.5
0.08
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.08
1
1
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.01
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.08
7. Leggings,
Stockings, Tights
and socks
14311037
14311050
14311090
14141220
8. Underwear
14141420
14142220
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Category
PRODCOM
code
14142530
14142550
14191100
14192150
14142460
14142480
14142489
14192100
14191240
14191250
14192240
14192250
14191300
14191930
14191960
14192310
14192333
14192338
Description of the PRODCOM code
Brassieres
Girdles, panty-girdles and corselettes (including bodies with adjustable straps)
Babies’ garments and clothing accessories, knitted or crocheted including vests, rompers,
underpants, stretch-suits, gloves or mittens or mitts, outerwear (for children of height <= 86
cm)
Babies clothing and accessories, of textiles, not knitted or crocheted (for children of height
<= 86 cm) including vests, rompers, underpants, stretch-suits, gloves, mittens and
outerwear (excluding sanitary towels and napkins and similar articles)
Women’s or girls’ singlets and other vests, briefs, panties, negligees, bathrobes, dressing
gowns, housecoats and similar articles of cotton (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women's or girls' negligees, bathrobes, dressing gowns, singlets, vests, briefs and panties
(including boxer shorts), of man-made fibres (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ singlets, vests, briefs, panties, negligees,
bathrobes, dressing gowns and
similar articles, of textiles (excluding cotton, man-made fibres, knitted or crocheted)
Babies' clothing and accessories, of textiles, not knitted or crocheted (for children of height
<= 86 cm) including vests, rompers, underpants, stretch-suits, napkins, gloves, mittens and
outerwear
Men’s or boys’ swimwear, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Women’s or girls’ swimwear, of knitted or
crocheted textiles
Men’s or boys’ swimwear (excluding of knitted or crocheted textiles)
Women’s or girls’ swimwear (excluding of knitted or crocheted textiles)
Gloves, mittens and mitts, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Shawls, scarves, mufflers, mantillas, veils and the like, of knitted or crocheted textiles
Clothing accessories and parts thereof, of knitted or crocheted textiles (excluding gloves,
mittens, shawls, scarves, mufflers, mantillas and veils)
Handkerchiefs
Shawls, scarves, mufflers, mantillas, veils and the like (excluding articles of silk or silk
waste, knitted or crocheted)
Shawls, scarves, mufflers, mantillas, veils and the like, of silk or silk waste (excluding
knitted or crocheted)
Ties, bow ties and cravats (excluding articles of silk or silk waste, knitted or crocheted)
Ties, bow ties and cravats, of silk or silk waste (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Gloves, mittens and mitts (excluding knitted or crocheted)
Clothing accessories of textiles (excluding shawls, scarves and mufflers, mantillas and veils,
ties, bow-ties and cravats, gloves, mittens and mitts, knitted or crocheted)
Parts of garments or of clothing accessories, of textiles (excluding bras, girdles and corsets,
braces, suspenders and garters, knitted or crocheted)
Clothing accessories, parts of garments or of clothing accessories, of textiles, n.e.c. and
parts thereof, (excluding shawls, scarves and mufflers, mantillas and veils, ties, bow-ties
and cravats, gloves, mittens and mitts and parts thereof; bras, girdles and corsets, braces,
suspenders and garters, knitted or crocheted)
Allocation of the
code in the product
category (%)
100
100
50
50
30
30
30
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Reported
measure unit in
PRODCOM
p/st
p/st
kg
kg
p/st
p/st
p/st
kg
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
pa
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
pa
NA
NA
NA
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.05
0.5
1
1
0.08
0.08
0.08
1
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.1
0.1
1
0.5
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.1
1
1
1
9. Swimwear
10. Accessories
14192353
14192358
14192370
14192393
14192395
14192396
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Category
PRODCOM
code
14194130
14194150
14194230
14194250
14194270
Description of the PRODCOM code
Hat-forms, hat bodies and hoods, plateaux and manchons of felt (including slit manchons)
(excluding those blocked to shape, those with made brims)
Hat-shapes, plaited or made by assembling strips of any material (excluding those blocked
to shape, those with made brims, those lined or trimmed)
Felt hats and other felt headgear, made from hat bodies or hoods and plateaux
Hats and other headgear, plaited or made by assembling strips of any material
Hats and other headgear, knitted or crocheted or made-up from lace, felt or other textile
fabric in the piece (but not in strips); hair-nets of any material
Allocation of the
code in the product
category (%)
100
100
100
100
100
Reported
measure unit in
PRODCOM
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
p/st
Conversion
Factor to kg
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
5424
5425
5426
5427
kg=kilogram, p/st= Number of items, pa=Number of pairs, NA= Not available
Some codes were assigned to more than one product category with different allocation percentage. This allocation was an estimation of the authors based on the description of the PRODCOM code.
Source: own elaboration based on Eurostat data set DS-056120 (data extracted on 15 November 2023). Conversion factors used to convert the unit reported in EUROSTAT to kg based on (Huygens, Dries et al., 2023).
Table 60.
Characteristics of data used for the market analysis
PRODCOM
codes
affected
by
changes
14123013
Subgroup
Product category ID
and name (share of
the code allocated to
the category)
1.T-shirts (25%)
2.Shirts and blouses
(25%)
5.Pants and shorts
(50%)
1.T-shirts (25%)
2.Shirts and blouses
(25%)
5.Pants and shorts
(25%)
4.Jackets and coats
(40%)
5.Pants and shorts
(40%)
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (20%)
5.Pants and shorts
(100%)
Codes description
Implications of the affected
codes (rationale) over the
existing codes (merging, newly
introduced, complementing,
etc.)
The 2 affected codes were added in
2001 to complement the codes
about industrial and occupational
wear:
14121120
14121130
14121240
14121250
14122120
14122130
14122240
14122250
The 4 affected codes were added in
2001 to complement the codes
about knitted and crocketed textiles
groups:
14131110
14131120
14131230
14131310
14131320
Affected indicator
Missing data
Apparel
Men’s or boys’ other garments, of
cotton or man-made fibres, for
industrial or occupational wear
Women’s or girls’ other garments,
of cotton or man-made fibres, for
industrial or occupational wear
14123023
Apparel
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
NA
NA
14131260
Apparel
Men’s or boys’ suits and
ensembles, of knitted or crocheted
textiles
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
NA
14131270
Apparel
Men’s or boys’ trousers, breeches,
shorts, bib and brace overalls, of
knitted or crocheted textiles
NA
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PRODCOM
codes
affected
by
changes
14131460
Subgroup
Product category ID
and name (share of
the code allocated to
the category)
4.Jackets and coats
(40%)
5.Pants and shorts
(40%)
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (20%)
5.Pants and shorts
(100%)
4.Jackets and coats
(100%)
Codes description
Apparel
Women’s or girls’ suits and
ensembles, of knitted or crocheted
textiles
Implications of the affected
codes (rationale) over the
existing codes (merging, newly
introduced, complementing,
etc.)
14131430
14131470
14131480)
Affected indicator
Missing data
NA
14131490
Apparel
14132115
Apparel
Women’s or girls’ trousers,
breeches, shorts, bib and brace
overalls, of knitted or crocheted
textiles
Men’s or boys’ raincoats, overcoats,
car-coats, capes, etc.
NA
The affected code was added in
2013, merging the following 2
codes:
14132110
14132120
The affected code was added in
2013, merging the following 2
codes:
14132210
14132220
The 3 affected codes start in 2001
as to complement the Men’s or
boys’ trousers, breeches, shorts, bib
and brace overalls groups divided
into specific fibres excluding knitted
and crocheted which are complete
codes):
14132442
14132444
14132448
14132449
14132460
14132200
Apparel
14132445
Apparel
4.Jackets and coats
(40%)
5.Pants and shorts
(40%)
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (20%)
5.Pants and shorts
(100%)
Men’s or boys’ suits & ensembles
(excluding knitted or crocheted)
Men’s or boys’ trousers and
breeches, of man-made fibres
(excluding knitted or crocheted, for
industrial or occupational wear)
Men’s or boys’ bib and brace
overalls (excluding knitted or
crocheted, for industrial or
occupational wear)
Men’s or boys’ trousers, breeches,
shorts, bib and brace overalls, of
knitted or crocheted textiles
14132455
Apparel
5.Pants and shorts
(100%)
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
Data missing for
2022 due to
updates of the
PRODCOM list.
Data missing for
2022.
14131270
Apparel
5.Pants and shorts
(100%)
Data missing for
time interval 1995-
2001 most probably
due to introduction
of new codes.
Data missing for
time interval 1995-
2001 most probably
due to introduction
of new codes.
Data missing for
time interval 1995-
2001 most probably
due to introduction
of new codes.
196
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2999881_0199.png
PRODCOM
codes
affected
by
changes
14133115
Subgroup
Product category ID
and name (share of
the code allocated to
the category)
4.Jackets and coats
(100%)
Codes description
Apparel
Woman’s or girls’ raincoats and
overcoats, etc.
Implications of the affected
codes (rationale) over the
existing codes (merging, newly
introduced, complementing,
etc.)
The affected code was added in
2012, merging the 2 following
codes:
14133110
14133120
NA
Affected indicator
Missing data
14133130
Apparel
3.Sweaters and mid-
layers (20%)
4.Jackets and coats
(80%)
4.Jackets and coats
(40%)
5.Pants and shorts
(40%)
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (20%)
5.Pants and shorts
(100%)
14133200
Apparel
Women’s or girls’ waistcoats,
anoraks, ski-jackets, wind-jackets
and similar articles (excluding
jackets and blazers, knitted or
crocheted, impregnated, coated,
covered, laminated or rubberised)
Women’s or girls’ suits &
ensembles (excluding knitted or
crocheted)
The affected code was added in
2012, merging the following 2
codes:
14133210
14133220
The affected code was added in
2001 as to complement the
Women’s or girls’ shorts groups
divided into specific fibres
(excluding knitted and crocheted
which are complete codes):
14133551
14133561
14133563
The affected code was added in
2012 to complement Babies
clothing and accessories:
14192100
14133565
Apparel
Women’s or girls’ shorts, of man-
made fibres (excluding knitted or
crocheted)
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
Data missing for
2022 due to
updates of the
PRODCOM list
Data missing for
2022 due to
updates of the
PRODCOM list
NA
Data missing for
time interval 1995-
2001 most probably
due to introduction
of new codes.
14192150
Apparel
4.Jackets and coats
(20%)
8.Underwear (50%)
Babies clothing and accessories, of
textiles, not knitted or crocheted
(for children of height <= 86 cm)
including vests, rompers,
underpants, stretch-suits, gloves,
mittens and outerwear (excluding
sanitary towels and napkins and
similar articles)
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
NA
197
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2999881_0200.png
PRODCOM
codes
affected
by
changes
14192100
Subgroup
Product category ID
and name (share of
the code allocated to
the category)
4.Jackets and coats
(20%)
8.Underwear (50%)
Codes description
Apparel
14191100
Apparel
4.Jackets and coats
(20%)
8.Underwear (50%)
14142240
Apparel
1.T-shirts (75%)
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (25%)
1.T-shirts (40%)
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (30%)
8.Underwear (30%)
1.T-shirts (40%)
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (30%)
8.Underwear (30%)
1.T-shirts (40%)
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (30%)
8.Underwear (30%)
4.Jackets and coats
(50%)
5.Pants and shorts
(50%)
14142460
Apparel
14142480
Apparel
14142489
Apparel
14191230
Apparel
Babies' clothing and accessories, of
textiles, not knitted or crocheted
(for children of height <= 86 cm)
including vests, rompers,
underpants, stretch-suits, napkins,
gloves, mittens and outerwear
Babies’ garments and clothing
accessories, knitted or crocheted
including vests, rompers,
underpants, stretch-suits, gloves or
mittens or mitts, outerwear (for
children of height <= 86 cm)
Men’s or boys’ singlets, vests,
bathrobes, dressing gowns and
similar articles (excluding knitted
or crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ singlets and
other vests, briefs, panties,
negligees, bathrobes, dressing
gowns, housecoats and similar
articles of cotton (excluding knitted
or crocheted)
Women's or girls' negligees,
bathrobes, dressing gowns,
singlets, vests, briefs and panties
(including boxer shorts), of man-
made fibres (excluding knitted or
crocheted)
Women’s or girls’ singlets, vests,
briefs, panties, negligees,
bathrobes, dressing gowns and
similar articles, of textiles
(excluding cotton, man-made
fibres, knitted or crocheted)
Ski-suits, of knitted or crocheted
textiles
Implications of the affected
codes (rationale) over the
existing codes (merging, newly
introduced, complementing,
etc.)
NA
Affected indicator
Missing data
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
Data missing for
2022
NA
NA
PRODQNT
EXPQNT
NA
NA
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
NA
NA
NA
NA
EXPQNT
NA
NA
IMPQNT
NA
NA
EXPQNT
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2999881_0201.png
PRODCOM
codes
affected
by
changes
14192150
Subgroup
Product category ID
and name (share of
the code allocated to
the category)
4.Jackets and coats
(50%)
5.Pants and shorts
(50%)
Codes description
Apparel
14192210
Apparel
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (100%)
6.Dresses, Skirts and
jumpsuits (100%)
7.Leggings, Stockings,
Tights and socks (100%)
14192220
Apparel
14311037
Apparel
14192396
Apparel
10. Accessories
14192393
Apparel
10. Accessories
Babies clothing and accessories, of
textiles, not knitted or crocheted
(for children of height <= 86 cm)
including vests, rompers,
underpants, stretch-suits, gloves,
mittens and outerwear (excluding
sanitary towels and napkins and
similar articles)
Other men’s or boys’ apparel n.e.c.,
including tracksuits and jogging
suits (excluding waistcoats, ski-
suits, knitted or crocheted)
Other women’s or girls’
apparel
n.e.c., including tracksuits and
jogging suits (excluding waistcoats,
ski-suits, knitted or crocheted)
Pantyhose and tights of textile
materials, knitted or crocheted
(excl. graduated compression
hosiery, those of synthetic fibres
and hosiery for babies)
Clothing accessories, parts of
garments or of clothing
accessories, of textiles, n.e.c. and
parts thereof, (excluding shawls,
scarves and mufflers, mantillas
and veils, ties, bow-ties and
cravats, gloves, mittens and mitts
and parts thereof; bras, girdles and
corsets, braces, suspenders and
garters, knitted or crocheted)
Clothing accessories of textiles
(excluding shawls, scarves and
mufflers, mantillas and veils, ties,
bow-ties and cravats, gloves,
mittens and mitts, knitted or
crocheted)
Implications of the affected
codes (rationale) over the
existing codes (merging, newly
introduced, complementing,
etc.)
NA
Affected indicator
Missing data
NA
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
PRODQNT
NA
NA
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
EXPQNT
NA
NA
Code included in 2013 complement
Hosiery:
14311090
Code included in 2015 to
complement accessories:
14192393
14192395
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
PRODVAL
EXPVAL
IMPVAL
NA
PRODQNT
IMPQNT
EXPQNT
NA
NA
PRODQNT
IMPQNT
EXPQNT
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2999881_0202.png
PRODCOM
codes
affected
by
changes
14192395
Subgroup
Product category ID
and name (share of
the code allocated to
the category)
10. Accessories
Codes description
Apparel
14194270
Apparel
10. Accessories
14191930
14191960
Apparel
Apparel
10. Accessories
10. Accessories
5428
5429
5430
Parts of garments or of clothing
accessories, of textiles (excluding
bras, girdles and corsets, braces,
suspenders and garters, knitted or
crocheted)
Hats and other headgear, knitted
or crocheted or made-up from
lace, felt or other textile fabric in
the piece (but not in strips); hair-
nets of any material
Shawls, scarves, mufflers,
mantillas, veils and the like, of
knitted or crocheted textiles
Clothing accessories and parts
thereof, of knitted or crocheted
textiles (excluding gloves, mittens,
shawls, scarves, mufflers,
mantillas and veils)
Implications of the affected
codes (rationale) over the
existing codes (merging, newly
introduced, complementing,
etc.)
NA
Affected indicator
Missing data
NA
PRODQNT
IMPQNT
EXPQNT
IMPQNT
EXPQNT
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
EXPQNT
EXPQNT
NA: not applicable
The changes of the affected PRODCOM codes should be understood as merged, changed or newly introduced due to NACE list revision and they are considered complete in the analysis and used.
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2999881_0203.png
5431
5432
10.1.5 Supplementary information about the EU market
Figure 29.
Market indicators per capita for textile apparel in EU-27
5433
5434
5435
5436
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
201
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2999881_0204.png
5437
Figure 30.
Market indicators for T-shirts in EU-27
5438
5439
5440
5441
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
202
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2999881_0205.png
5442
Figure 31.
Market indicators for shirts and blouses in EU-27
5443
5444
5445
5446
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
203
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2999881_0206.png
5447
Figure 32.
Market indicators for sweaters and mid-layers in EU-27
5448
5449
5450
5451
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
204
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2999881_0207.png
5452
Figure 33.
Market indicators for jackets and coats in EU-27
5453
5454
5455
5456
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
205
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2999881_0208.png
5457
Figure 34.
Market indicators for pants and shorts in EU-27
5458
5459
5460
5461
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
206
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2999881_0209.png
5462
Figure 35.
Market indicators for dresses, skirts and jumps in EU-27
5463
5464
5465
5466
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
207
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2999881_0210.png
5467
Figure 36.
Market indicators for leggings, stockings and tights in EU-27
5468
5469
5470
5471
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
208
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2999881_0211.png
5472
Figure 37.
Market indicators for underwear in EU-27
5473
5474
5475
5476
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
209
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2999881_0212.png
5477
Figure 38.
Market indicators for swimwear in EU-27
5478
5479
5480
5481
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
210
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2999881_0213.png
5482
Figure 39.
Market indicators for accessories in EU-27
5483
5484
5485
5486
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
211
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2999881_0214.png
5487
5488
Figure 40.
Apparent consumption of textile apparel categories in EU-27
5489
5490
5491
5492
5493
(A) Total mass; (B) Total value
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
212
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2999881_0215.png
5494
Table 61.
Change of apparent consumption after the removal of EU import quota in 2005
Textile apparel
category
1.T-shirts
2. Shirts and
blouses
3. Sweaters and
mid-layers
4. Jackets and
coats
5. Pants and shorts
6. Dresses, Skirts
and jumpsuits
7. Leggings,
Stockings, Tights
and socks
8. Underwear
9. Swimwear
10. Accessories
Mass (bn kg)
Average
value in
1995-2004
0.17
0.19
0.43
0.26
0.38
0.22
0.36
0.18
0.01
0.20
Average
value in
2005-2019
0.58
0.39
0.80
0.60
1.12
0.29
0.24
0.21
0.03
0.22
Change in
mass (%)
236
110
86
129
194
33
-33
15
100
11
Value (bn EUR)
Average
value in
1995-2004
3.15
5.71
8.81
8.07
8.90
4.85
4.13
5.48
0.79
2.08
Average
value in
2005-2019
7.36
7.88
9.83
9.21
14.03
5.83
3.59
4.77
0.89
2.49
Change in
value (%)
133
38
12
14
58
20
-13
-13
13
20
5495
5496
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
213
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2999881_0216.png
5497
Figure 41.
Production of textile apparel categories in EU-27
5498
5499
5500
5501
5502
(A) Total mass; (B) Total value
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
214
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2999881_0217.png
5503
5504
Table 62.
Change of production after the removal of EU import quota in 2005
Textile apparel
category
1.T-shirts
2. Shirts and
blouses
3. Sweaters and
mid-layers
4. Jackets and
coats
5. Pants and shorts
6. Dresses, Skirts
and jumpsuits
7. Leggings,
Stockings, Tights
and socks
8. Underwear
9. Swimwear
10. Accessories
Mass (bn kg)
Average
value in
1995-2004
0.12
0.11
0.35
0.19
0.25
0.15
0.31
0.09
0.01
0.12
Average
value in
2005-2019
0.09
0.09
0.12
0.13
0.16
0.09
0.17
0.05
0.01
0.03
Change in
mass (%)
-29
-18
-65
-32
-35
-38
-45
-48
-41
-77
Value (bn EUR)
Average
value in
1995-2004
2.53
4.27
7.50
6.92
6.92
4.26
3.77
3.50
0.68
2.40
Average
value in
2005-2019
2.05
3.32
3.63
5.23
4.74
4.20
2.86
1.65
0.45
1.46
Change in
value (%)
-19
-22
-52
-25
-32
-1
-24
-53
-33
-39
5505
5506
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
215
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2999881_0218.png
5507
Figure 42.
Import of textile apparel categories in EU-27
5508
5509
5510
5511
5512
(A) Total mass; (B) Total value
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
216
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2999881_0219.png
5513
5514
Table 63.
Change of import after the removal of EU import quota in 2005
Textile apparel
category
1.T-shirts
2. Shirts and
blouses
3. Sweaters and
mid-layers
4. Jackets and
coats
5. Pants and shorts
6. Dresses, Skirts
and jumpsuits
7. Leggings,
Stockings, Tights
and socks
8. Underwear
9. Swimwear
10. Accessories
Mass (bn kg)
Average
value in
1995-2004
0.07
0.13
0.10
0.10
0.16
0.11
0.17
0.16
0.01
0.13
Average
value in
2005-2019
0.56
0.35
0.75
0.54
1.07
0.24
0.10
0.18
0.02
0.21
Change in
mass (%)
650
168
656
413
552
121
-41
12
274
63
Value (bn EUR)
Average
value in
1995-2004
1.55
2.85
1.60
2.01
2.60
2.84
1.80
4.08
0.20
1.74
Average
value in
2005-2019
8.03
6.84
8.76
7.87
13.48
5.53
1.41
4.04
0.65
2.60
Change in
value (%)
419
140
446
291
419
95
-22
-1
225
49
5515
5516
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
217
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2999881_0220.png
5517
Figure 43.
Export of textile apparel categories in EU-27
5518
5519
5520
5521
5522
(A) Total mass; (B) Total value
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
218
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2999881_0221.png
5523
Table 64.
Change of export after the removal of EU import quota in 2005
Textile apparel
category
1.T-shirts
2. Shirts and
blouses
3. Sweaters and
mid-layers
4. Jackets and
coats
5. Pants and shorts
6. Dresses, Skirts
and jumpsuits
7. Leggings,
Stockings, Tights
and socks
8. Underwear
9. Swimwear
10. Accessories
Mass (bn kg)
Average
value in
1995-2004
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.12
0.07
0.00
0.05
Average
value in
2005-2019
0.07
0.04
0.07
0.07
0.11
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.00
0.01
Change in
mass (%)
186
-12
246
91
226
4
-76
-74
26
-68
Value (bn EUR)
Average
value in
1995-2004
1.01
1.51
0.61
0.99
0.88
2.33
1.56
2.24
0.12
2.19
Average
value in
2005-2019
2.71
2.28
2.56
3.89
4.19
3.90
0.67
0.92
0.21
1.56
Change in
value (%)
168
51
318
291
375
67
-57
-59
70
-28
5524
5525
5526
5527
Source: own production based on PRODCOM database (Sold production, exports and imports
–
DS-056120)
10.2 Life-cycle stages of textile apparel
10.2.1 Raw material and fibre manufacturing
Figure 44.
Raw material for fibre production and fibre preparation
5528
5529
5530
5531
5532
5533
5534
5535
5536
5537
5538
Source: production adapted from (McKinsey & Company, 2022), icons from
www.flaticon.com
Raw material for fibre production
Natural fibres
The primary raw material for vegetable-based fibres is cellulose, which is the most prevalent natural polymer
in nature. Cellulose is sourced from agricultural crops, which often require significant land and water use. The
production process typically involves a high use of chemicals, like pesticides (Jana et al., 2023) (Roth et al.,
2023). After the production process, the result is staple fibres. Following a pre-treatment or preparation phase,
these fibres then serve as the input for the yarn production stage.
Animal-based fibres, also known as protein fibres, are sourced from animals through methods such as shearing
or collecting silkworm cocoons. This requires farming animals like sheep or silkworms, either on pastures or
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5539
5540
5541
5542
5543
5544
5545
5546
5547
5548
5549
5550
5551
5552
5553
5554
5555
5556
5557
5558
5559
5560
5561
5562
5563
5564
5565
5566
5567
5568
5569
5570
5571
5572
5573
through sericulture (Roth et al., 2023) (Jana et al., 2023). The production yields staple fibres, which, after a pre-
treatment phase, are used in yarn production.
Chemical fibres
Man-made chemical fibres derived from natural polymers use cellulose, often from sources like wood pulp, as
their primary raw material. This cellulose is then dissolved to produce a solution suitable for the next stage of
fibre production. The key components in this process are the wood feedstock, which come from various sources,
and the chemicals used in the dissolution process (Jana et al., 2023).
Man-made chemical fibres made from synthetic polymers use petroleum as raw material. This is processed
using energy-intensive chemical reactions, which vary depending on the specific synthetic fibre, to produce
synthetic polymers. These polymers are then turned into granules (Roth et al., 2023). These granules are then
prepared for the subsequent fibre production process (Jaffe and Menczel, 2020).
Fibre manufacturing/preparation
Manufacturing of natural and chemical fibres
Staple fibres of natural origin, man-made chemical staple fibres derived from natural polymers, and synthetic
granules produced in the raw material stage all undergo the manufacturing process. The specific production
steps they undergo vary based on the source of the raw material.
Preparation of natural fibres
Natural staple fibres go through similar preparation stages before yarn manufacturing. This typically involves
a scouring or cleaning process before carding. The exact procedures vary based on the fibre type, whether
cellulosic (like cotton) or protein-based (like wool). The primary distinction arises from the type and amount of
impurities present in the natural fibres.
Wool, a protein fibre, undergoes scouring, which is typically a wet cleaning process using detergents to remove
dirt, oils, and other contaminants. After scouring, the wool is usually bleached with hydrogen peroxide, to remove
its natural colour and any remaining impurities, preparing it for subsequent treatments or dyeing. This is then
followed by drying. Overall, this process is intensive in terms of water, energy, and chemicals.
The cotton cleaning process involves dry procedures carried out in a blowing room. This room houses
technologies that move the raw materials through various airflow cleaning systems, integrated within a
mechanical cleaning process.
Furthermore, because natural fibres have inconsistent properties, they may undergo wet chemical processes,
such as bleaching, and other treatments to enhance and modify them.
Preparation of chemical fibres
Chemical fibres skip the preparation stage, as the staple fibres and granules are used directly for the yarn
production (spinning).
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5574
5575
10.2.2 Yarn manufacturing
Figure 45.
Yarn manufacturing (spinning process)
5576
5577
5578
5579
5580
5581
5582
5583
5584
5585
5586
5587
5588
5589
5590
5591
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5593
5594
5595
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Source: own production and adapted from (McKinsey & Company, 2022), icons from
www.flaticon.com
Carded natural fibres, cellulose
–
based material, and polymer granulates serve as inputs for the spinning
process, which produces yarns.
In the textile industry, the definition of spinning varies based on the type of fibre being processed:
—
Natural origin fibres: Spinning for these fibres involves passing the staple fibres through a series
of rollers to straighten and align them, then twisting them to create a continuous yarn (Britannica,
2019). Each type of natural fibre goes through a unique set of steps for yarn production. For all,
the initial step is carding, a mechanical process that further cleans and disentangles the fibres,
aligning them. This is followed by other processes such as combing, drawing, and more. Typical
spinning machines for natural fibres include ring spinning and open-end spinning (Roth et al.,
2023).
—
Chemical (man-made) fibres: Spinning refers to the extrusion of a solution, like viscose/cellulose-
based materials or dissolved granules, to produce a fibre or yarn. Standard industrial spinning
machines for these fibres are:
●
●
melt spinning: polymer melted in a melt extruder, and is suitable for thermoplastic fibres such as
polyester, polyamide, polyolefins, glass fibre and many more;
wet spinning: polymer dissolved in a solvent, being suitable for viscose and acrylic fibres dry
spinning: polymer dissolved in a solution, applicable for acetate, triacetate and polyacrylonitrile.
▪
Man-made cellulosic fibres: Spinning filaments into yarns involves processes where
cellulose from wood pulp is dissolved using specific chemical solvents (e.g., sodium
hydroxide for viscose, ammonia-copper solution for cupro, NMMO for lyocell, or acetic
acid for acetate), and the resulting solution is typically extruded and coagulated using
wet spinning techniques. Nevertheless, for staple fibres, ring or open-end spinning is used.
Drawing or air texturizing is performed to give to the chemical yarns a texture similar to natural yarns. Such
treatments are carried out with energy demanding equipment (Roth et al., 2023).
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5603
5604
10.2.3 Fabric manufacturing
Figure 46.
Fabric manufacturing process
5605
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5607
5608
5609
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5616
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5619
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5622
5623
5624
Source: own production adopted from (McKinsey & Company, 2022), icons from
www.flaticon.com
The central phase of textile production is fabric manufacturing. This involves creating a two-dimensional
structure by interlacing yarns. Common methods include weaving, knitting, and producing non-woven fabrics,
suitable for all yarn types.
Weaving
is the predominant fabric manufacturing technique. It involves interlacing two sets of yarns at right
angles on a loom. Most looms are power-driven, termed 'power looms', and are energy intensive. There are also
manual looms, which are labour-intensive. Key resources in weaving include chemicals for sizing and desizing
textiles and oils for lubricating the loom. Sizing protects the yarn from the loom's abrasive action, while desizing
removes these chemicals from the woven fabric after weaving (Roth et al., 2023).
Knitting
is the second most used fabric manufacturing method. In this case, yarns are interlooped using
needles to form fabric on knitting machines. These machines are broadly categorised as weft
181
(either flat or
circular) and warp
182
, based on the fabric's formation direction (horizontal or vertical). They're further classified
by machine shape and knitting technology. This method is energy intensive. To prevent yarn damage, substances
like sizing chemicals and lubricants are used for yarn strengthening and reducing friction (Roth et al., 2023).
Non-woven
technology produces textile structures by bonding fibres or filaments together, either mechanically,
thermally, or chemically. According to the Association of the Non-woven Fabrics Industry (INDA), they are "flat,
porous sheets made directly from separate fibres or molten plastic. They are neither woven nor knitted and
don't convert fibres to yarn" (INDA, 2023). Various non-woven processes exist, categorised by web-forming
technologies and product consolidation. Common technologies include drylaid
(
183
),
wetlaid
(
184
),
spunmelt
(
185
),
181
The fabric is formed based on loops made on horizontal way from a single yarn, which is fed and looped in rows by one or more needles
at a time (Roth et al., 2023).
182
The yarn is fed into the knitting forming vertical loops, and moves diagonally to knit the next course (yarns generate a zigzag from side
to side along the length of the fabric) (Ray, 2012).
183
The process of fabric web forming with a stream of air, applied on dry fibres by using carding equipment (INDA, 2023).
184
The process of fabric web forming filtering an aqueous suspension of fibre onto a screen conveyor belt or perforated drum. The fibres
are retained on the screen, while the water passes through (INDA, 2023).
185
The process of non-woven manufacturing through the extrusion of molten polymer spinneret to form fibres, drawing the fibres, and
then laying them on a moving screen to form a web. Thee term "spunlaid" is often used interchangeably with "spunbond¨(INDA, 2023).
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5625
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5628
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5630
5631
5632
and needle-punched
(
186
).
However, many other processes are available
(
187
)
(Batra and Pourdeyhimi, 2012)
(Mao, 2016). Overall, non-woven technology is energy intensive.
In the knitting or weaving process, the type of yarn used, and its count (indicating fabric thickness) influence
the durability and strength of the final product, such as its seam or tear resistance (Yassen, 2017) (Jankoska
and Demboski, 2017). Non-woven fabrics present recycling challenges due to the fibre composition and the
consolidation components used in their production.
10.2.4 Finishing processes
Figure 47.
Fabric/yarn finishing processes
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Source: own production adapted from (McKinsey & Company, 2022), icons from
www.flaticon.com
Finishing processes are an intermediate stage in treating yarn and/or fabrics with colorants and chemicals. This
includes various wet treatments aimed at different objectives, such as sizing, desizing, pre-treatment, dyeing,
printing, finishing, and more. These treatments are applied based on the specific requirements of the final
products, rather than in a sequential manner. Each treatment utilises distinct technologies and chemicals,
making this one of the most water and chemically intensive stages
Pre-treatment
Pre-treatment is typically applied to natural fibre fabrics. It encompasses processes like bleaching, scouring,
mercerising
188
, and others, preparing the fabrics for final treatments before dyeing, printing, and finishing. These
186
The mechanical process that uses barbed needles to pull tufts of fibres from the web and insert them vertically into the web, which
bonds the fibres together (INDA, 2023).
187
Definitions of the technologies can be found in the Glossary of the Association of the Non-woven Fabrics Industry. Available
here.
188
Mercerising is the process of treatment of cotton fabrics to increase dyeability (generally involving the use of sodium hydroxide) (Roth
et al., 2023).
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5653
processes heavily rely on chemicals, using inputs like oxidising agents (e.g., chlorine, sodium hypochlorite,
calcium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide), scouring alkali (e.g., caustic soda), sodium hydroxide, and also
consume significant amounts of energy and water.
Dyeing
Dyeing is the process where dye particles diffuse into the textile material. This involves forming chemical bonds
between the dye molecules and the textile. This is achieved based on the dye-fibre chemical affinity and the
specific dyeing process. Dyes can be natural or man-made (synthetic) and are molecules containing
chromophores that interact with light to produce colour (Singh and Bharati, 2014). Textile dyeing uses specific
dyes that have an affinity or ‘chemical attraction’ to particular fibres.
Table 65
reports the fibres and their
corresponding dyes, ensuring shades meet performance and fastness standards (Roth et al., 2023).
Table 65.
Affinity relationship between dyes and fibres
Fibre type
Fibre name
Cotton
Linen
Hemp
Jute
Modal
Lyocell
Viscose
Wool
Silk
Other fibres of animal hair
Polyamide
Man-made
Acrylic
Polyester
Dye type
Direct dyes
Reactive dyes
Vat dyes
Sulphur dyes
Cellulosic
Proteic
Acid dyes
Premetallised dyes
Reactive dyes
Acid dyes
Premetallised dyes
Reactive dyes
Disperse dyes
Cationic dyes
Disperse dyes
Disperse dyes
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5656
5657
5658
5659
5660
5661
5662
5663
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5665
5666
5667
5668
5669
5670
5671
5672
5673
5674
5675
5676
5677
Source: own elaboration based on
(Clark,
2011)
The affinity between the dye and fibre affects the final performance indicators for durability, such as washing
and colour fastness. Moreover, various chemicals and auxiliary products are needed to enhance the efficiency
and quality of the colouration process.
Dyeing can be conducted in batch, continuous, or semi-continuous modes and is suitable for both yarns and
fabrics. The process requires specific temperatures and pressures for set durations. Discontinuous dyeing
machines include autoclaves, hank dyeing machines, winches, becks, overflows, jets, jigs, paddles, and drum
dyeing machines. Examples of continuous dyeing machines are pad-batch, pad-roll, pad-jig, pad-dry, and
thermosol machines.
Overall, the dyeing process consumes significant amounts of water, chemicals, and energy.
Printing
Printing is the colouration process that involves applying dye or pigment to the substrate surface with the aid
of specific auxiliaries. This allows for colouring different areas and creating patterns.
Pigments, whether natural or man-made, are insoluble molecules containing chromophores and typically lack
affinity to fibres (Singh and Bharati, 2014). The colouring process involves applying a colour paste to the textile
using various techniques, followed by fixation. An after-treatment may also be applied, though it can be optional.
—
Pigment printing is the most commonly used technique. It does not rely on fibre affinity, allowing
for the colouring of all fabric types. The colour's fixing to the fabric surface is determined by the
auxiliaries used, such as binders, thickening agents, and others.
—
Dye printing requires a more intricate composition for the printing paste. This complexity is
influenced by the printing technique, substrate type, application method, and fixation procedures.
For both types of printing, the technology determines how the printing paste is applied. The most common
methods include flat-screen printing, rotary-screen printing, roller printing, jet printing, and transfer printing
(Roth et al., 2023).
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5679
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5682
5683
5684
5685
5686
5687
5688
5689
5690
5691
5692
5693
5694
5695
The performance indicators for durability, such as washing and colour fastness, are affected by the composition
of the printing pastes and the fixation methods. Since pigments do not bond with fibres, their colour fastness
is less efficient as when dyes are used in the colouration process.
Overall, the process requires significant amounts of chemicals and energy.
Finishing
Finishing includes treatments designed to give textile substrates specific end-use properties, like unique visual
effects, feel, or functional features such as waterproofing or flame resistance. A variety of chemical and
mechanical/physical treatments are associated with this manufacturing stage, and they are typically applied
after the colouration process. This stage consumes significant amounts of chemicals and energy (Roth et al.,
2023).
Coating and laminating
Coating and laminating involve applying a thin, flexible polymeric film directly to the fabric's surface. The
primary technologies employed are roller, spray, and slot die coating. Adding a polymer coating introduces new
features to the fabric, such as resistance to dust, liquids, and gases. It can also enhance inherent physical
properties, like the fabric's ability to resist abrasion. This stage, too, is chemically and energy-intensive (Roth et
al., 2023).
10.2.5 Confectioning
Figure 48.
Confectioning process
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5708
Source: own production and adapted from (McKinsey & Company, 2022), icons from
www.flaticon.com
Confectioning is the production stage encompassing product design, fabric cutting, and final product assembly.
It i's the most manual phase in the production process (Nayak and Padhye, 2018). The fabric spreading and
cutting stage is particularly energy-intensive and can be carried out using either mechanised (operator-assisted)
or digitalised (automated) machines. The assembly phase is predominantly manual and labour-intensive,
involving processes like sewing and culminating in ironing, which is also energy intensive.
In the final product manufacturing phase, the quality of the sewing process, combined with the sewing stitch
and yarn count, significantly affects a product's seam strength, a key durability parameter. The type and count
of the yarn play a crucial role in determining a textile product's longevity (Yassen, 2017) (Jankoska and
Demboski, 2017).
This is the stage that produces post-industrial waste. By automating and digitalising the design and cutting
stages, waste quantities can be reduced (de Mattos et al., 2022).
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5710
10.2.6 Retailing
Figure 49.
Textile products retailing
5711
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5713
5714
5715
5716
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5718
5719
5720
5721
5722
5723
Source: own production adapted from (McKinsey & Company, 2022), icons from
www.flaticon.com
Retail, defined by the Oxford dictionary as ‘the activity of selling goods to the public in shops, on the internet,
etc.’
(Oxford dictionary, 2023), encompasses the transportation of final products and their sale through various
channels (European Commission, 2023). The journey typically involves:
—
Moving goods from the production network (manufacturers) to the export network (trade firms),
and finally to the marketing networks (retailers) (de Mattos et al., 2022).
—
Using various means of transport, including road, sea, rail, air, or a combination of these
(multimodal transportation).
The primary resources used in this stage include fuel for transport, which leads to emissions, as well as labour
and energy for sales operations. This stage produces pre-consumer waste. To reduce such waste, strategies like
production on demand and integrated management systems for efficient inventory management can be
employed (Aslan et al., 2015) (de Mattos et al., 2022) (Alyssa Hardy, 2020).
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5724
5725
10.2.7 Use
Figure 50.
Use phase of a textile product
5726
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5732
5733
Source: own production and adapted from (McKinsey & Company, 2022), icons from
www.flaticon.com
The ‘use’ phase of a textile product encompasses activities such as washing, cleaning, drying, ironing, and
steaming (Quantis, 2022). The specific requirements for these activities depend on the product and are detailed
in its care label.
This stage primarily consumes water and chemicals, with energy-intensive processes like ironing and steaming
following closely. The physical durability of a textile product hinges on both the user's adherence to the care
label instructions and the product's inherent characteristics.
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5734
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10.2.8 Waste management
Figure 51.Textile
products waste management
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5747
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5753
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Source: own production and adapted from (McKinsey & Company, 2022), icons from
www.flaticon.com
Most disposed textile apparel, at the end of their life, are either incinerated or sent to landfills. This process not
only generates waste and emissions into the environment, but it is also energy intensive. Such discarded textiles,
primarily consisting of clothing and home textiles, account for about 85% of total textile waste (McKinsey &
Company, 2022). Currently, this follows a linear model. However, the energy recovered from incineration can
be repurposed for other applications. The calorific value of textile waste is estimated to be between 3 599 and
5 200 MJ/Kg (Vargas and Yuleimy Ramírez, 2014) (Mustia et al., 2021).
Transitioning from this linear model to a circular one involves collecting, sorting, and pre-processing discarded
textiles for fibre-to-fibre recycling. Textile waste management avenues include preparation for reuse, fabric
recycling, fibre recycling (mechanical recycling), and raw material recycling (chemical recycling). Currently, only
30-35% of textiles are collected, with a significant portion of unsorted waste exported outside Europe (McKinsey
& Company, 2022).
Textile recycling technologies fall into three main categories (Jørgensen et al., 2022):
Fibre or Mechanical Recycling:
This method uses physical processes and can be applied to all textile waste
types. It can also precede other recycling methods like thermo-mechanical, chemical, or biochemical (DG
GROW, 2021b).
Raw Material or Chemical Recycling:
This involves chemical processes to recycle monomers or polymers,
suitable for materials like cotton, PA6, or PET (DG GROW, 2021b).
Thermal Recycling:
This method uses heat. Thermo-mechanical recycling melts polymers, mainly for
thermoplastic textiles like polyester, while thermo-chemical recycling breaks down polymers into base
components, which can then be repurposed (DG GROW, 2021b; McKinsey & Company, 2022).
Additionally,
fabric recycling
involves refurbishing or remanufacturing discarded textiles, resulting in recycled
products.
The primary solution to the current textile waste issue is recycling, coupled with waste reduction efforts (DG
GROW, 2021b; McKinsey & Company, 2022).
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5762
5763
10.3 Supporting information about tests and standards in the textile industry
Table 66.
Working Groups with the involvement of several scientific committees in CEN/ TC 248.
Working Group
CEN/TC248/SC1
CEN/TC248/SC2
CEN/TC248/SC3
CEN/TC248/WG 10
CEN/TC248/WG 11
CEN/TC248/WG 12
CEN/TC248/WG 13
CEN/TC248/WG 14
CEN/TC248/WG 15
CEN/TC248/WG 16
CEN/TC248/WG 17
CEN/TC248/WG 18
CEN/TC248/WG 19
CEN/TC248/WG 20
CEN/TC248/WG 21
CEN/TC248/WG 22
CEN/TC248/WG 23
CEN/TC248/WG 24
CEN/TC248/WG 25
CEN/TC248/WG 26
CEN/TC248/WG 27
CEN/TC248/WG 28
CEN/TC248/WG 29
CEN/TC248/WG 3
CEN/TC248/WG 30
CEN/TC248/WG 31
CEN/TC248/WG 32
CEN/TC248/WG 33
CEN/TC248/WG 34
CEN/TC248/WG 35
CEN/TC248/WG 36
CEN/TC248/WG 37
CEN/TC248/WG 38
CEN/TC248 WG 39
CEN/TC248/WG 4
CEN/TC248/WG 5
CEN/TC248/WG 6
CEN/TC248/WG 7
CEN/TC248/WG 8
CEN/TC248/WG 9
CEN/TC38/WG 35
ISO/TC173/SC/WG2
Topic
Burning behaviour of textiles, textile products and textile containing products
Physical properties
Chemical properties
Size system of clothing
Monofilaments
Physical testing of knitted fabrics and garments
Determination of resistance of textiles to microbiological attack
UV protective properties
Multifilament yarns
Textiles in the healthcare system
Hygienic quality of textiles proposed in industrial laundries and used in sectors it is necessary to control
biocontamination
AZO dyestuffs- Detection of certain aromatic amines
Characterization of fibres
Safety
of children’s clothing
Terry towels
Elasticity of fabrics
Burning behaviour of nightwear
Test methods for the flammability of textiles
Cosmeto-textiles
Methods of test for phthalates
Determination of fibre proof properties of fabrics
Thermoregulation
Specifications and test methods for silk articles
Ropes and agricultural twines and fishing nets
Quantitative analysis of fibre mixtures
Smart Textiles
Organic, green and ecotextiles
Labelling of superfine wool
Joint Working Group between CEN/TC248 and CEN/TC 252 Risks in the sleeping environment
Slide (zip) Fasteners
Classification of textiles and textile products based on burning behaviour
Microplastics from textile sources
Circular Textiles Chain- Requirements and categories
Circular Economy for textile products and textile chain. This group is under development
Coated fabrics
Touch and close fasteners
Sewing threads
Cabinet roller towels
Upholstery fabrics
Prioritization of research topics
Environmental aspects
Urinary absorbing aids
5764
5765
5766
Source: CEN official website (
189
)
Table 67.
Working Groups and subcommittees involved in ISO/TC 38.
Working Group
ISO ISO/TC 38/SC 1
ISO/TC 38/SC 2
ISO/TC 38/SC 20
ISO/TC 38/SC 23
ISO/TC 38/SC 24
ISO/TC 38/CAG
ISO/TC 38/WG 9
Topic
Tests for coloured textiles and colorants
Cleansing, finishing and water resistance tests
Fabric descriptions
Fibres and yarns
Conditioning atmospheres and physical tests for textile fabrics
Chair's Advisory Group
Nonwovens
189
CEN Technical Committee Working Groups available at
this link
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Working Group
ISO/TC 38/WG 17
ISO/TC 38/WG 21
ISO/TC 38/WG 22
ISO/TC 38/WG 23
ISO/TC 38/WG 27
ISO/TC 38/WG 30
ISO/TC 38/WG 31
ISO/TC 38/WG 32
ISO/TC 38/WG 33
ISO/TC 38/WG 34
ISO/TC 38/WG 35
ISO/TC 38/WG 36
Topic
Physiological properties of textiles
Ropes, cordage, slings and netting
Composition and chemical testing
Biological properties of textiles
Fabric properties relating to moisture
Tests for Biodegradability
Non-fibrous bio-based material for textiles
Smart textiles
Animal welfare in the textile supply chain
Microplastics from textile sources
Environmental aspects
Activated carbon fibre
5767
5768
5769
All standards reported in this section include tests on a specific sample of the final product.
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5770
Table 68.
Standards directly related to intrinsic durability
Specific topic
Abrasion
Abrasion
Pilling and abrasion
Pilling and abrasion
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
ID code
ISO 12945-1:2020
ISO 12945-2:2020
ISO 12945-3:2020
ISO 12945-4:2020
EN ISO 105-A06:1995
EN ISO 105-B01:2014
EN ISO 105-B02:2014
EN ISO 105-B03:2014
ISO 105-C06:2010
EN ISO 105-C12:2010
EN ISO 105-D01:2010
EN ISO 105-E01:2013
EN ISO 105-E02:2013
EN ISO 105-E03:2010
EN ISO 105-E04:2013
EN ISO 105-E07:2010
EN ISO 105-N01:1993
EN ISO 105-N02:1995
EN ISO 105-N03:1995
EN ISO 105-N04:1995
EN ISO 105-X11:1994
Title
Determination of fabric propensity to surface pilling, fuzzing or matting
—
Part 1: Pilling box method
Determination of fabric propensity to surface pilling, fuzzing or matting
—
Part 2: Modified Martindale method
Determination of fabric propensity to surface pilling, fuzzing or matting
—
Part 3: Random tumble pilling method
Determination of fabric propensity to surface pilling, fuzzing or matting
—
Part 4: Assessment of pilling, fuzzing and matting by visual analysis
Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness
—
Part A06: Instrumental determination
of 1/1 standard depth of colour
Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness
—
Part B01: Colour fastness to light:
Daylight
Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness
—
Part B02: Colour fastness to artificial
light: Xenon arc fading lamp test
Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness
—
Part B03: Colour fastness to
weathering: Outdoor exposure
Tests for colour fastness
—
Part C06: Colour fastness to domestic and
commercial laundering
Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness
—
Part C12: Colour fastness to industrial
laundering
Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness
—
Part D01: Colour fastness to
drycleaning using perchloroethylene solvent
Textiles
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part E01: colour fastness to water
Textiles
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part E02: colour fastness to sea water
Textiles
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part E03: colour fastness to chlorinated
water (swimming-pool water)
Textiles
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part E04: colour fastness to
perspiration
Textiles
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part E07: colour fastness to spotting:
water
Textiles
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part N01: colour fastness to bleaching:
hypochlorite
Textiles
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part N02: colour fastness to bleaching:
peroxide
Texti4484les
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part N03: colour fastness to
bleaching: sodium chlorite (mild)
Textiles
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part N04: colour fastness to bleaching:
sodium chlorite (severe)
Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness
—
Part X11: Colour fastness to hot
pressing
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
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Specific topic
Colour fastness
Abrasion resistance on coated fabric
Abrasion resistance on coated fabric
Abrasion resistance on fabric
Abrasion resistance on fabric
Abrasion resistance on fabric
Abrasion resistance on fabric
Abrasion resistance on fabric
Abrasion resistance on fabric
Abrasion resistance on fabric
Abrasion resistance on fabric
Antifungal activity (Functional durability)
Antifungal activity (Functional durability)
Antiviral activity (Functional durability)
Appearance
Bursting strength
Bursting strength
Bursting strength
ID code
EN ISO 105-X12:2016
ISO 5470-1:2016
ISO 5470-2:2016
ISO 12947-2:2016
ISO 12947-3:2016
ISO 12947-4:2016
ASTM D3884-22
ASTM D3885 -07A-19
ASTM D3886-22
ASTM D4966-22
ASTM D4158-08-20
ISO 13629-1:2012
ISO 13629-2:2014
ISO 18184:2019
ISO/TR 16323:2003
EN ISO 13938-1:2019
ISO 13938-2:2019
ISO 9073-3:2023
Bursting strength
Bursting strength
Bursting strength
Bursting strength
ISO 9073-4:2021
ISO 9073-5:2008
ASTM
D3786/D3786M-18
ASTM D3787-16
Title
Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness
—
Part X12: Colour fastness to rubbing
Rubber- or plastics-coated fabrics
—
Determination of abrasion resistance
—
Part 1: Taber abrader
Rubber- or plastics-coated fabrics
—
Determination of abrasion resistance
—
Part 2: Martindale abrader
Textiles
—
Determination of the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the
Martindale method
—
Part 2: Determination of specimen breakdown
Textiles
—
Determination of the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the
Martindale method
—
Part 3: Determination of mass loss
Textiles
—
Determination of the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the
Martindale method
—
Part 4: Assessment of appearance change
Standard Guide for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Rotary Platform
Abrader Method)
Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Flexing and
Abrasion Method) (woven or nonwoven fabric)
Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Inflated
Diaphragm Apparatus) (both wet and dry/conditioned samples)
Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Martindale
Abrasion Tester Method
Standard Guide for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Uniform Abrasion)
Textiles
—
Determination of antifungal activity of textile products
—
Part 1:
Luminescence method
Textiles
—
Determination of antifungal activity of textile products
—
Part 2:
Plate count method
Textiles
—
Determination of antiviral activity of textile products
Textiles
—
Three-dimensional measuring apparatus for fabric appearance
Textiles: Bursting properties of fabrics. Part 1: Hydraulic method for
determination of bursting strength and bursting distension
Textiles: Bursting properties of fabrics. Part 2: Pneumatic method for
determination of bursting strength and bursting distension
Nonwovens
—
Test methods
Part 3: Determination of tensile strength and elongation at break using the
strip method
Nonwovens
—
Test methods
Part 4: Determination of tear resistance by the trapezoid procedure
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 5: Determination of
resistance to mechanical penetration (ball burst procedure)
Standard test method for bursting strength of textile fabrics. Diaphragm
bursting strength tester method. Hydraulic or pneumatic diaphragm bursting
tester
Standard test method for bursting strength of textile fabrics. The constant
rate of traverse (CRT) Ball burst test
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Published
Published
Published
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Specific topic
Bursting strength
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Colour fastness
Crease retention
Crease retention
Crease retention
Crease retention
Crease retention
Dimensional stability
Dimensional stability
Dimensional stability
Dimensional stability
Dimensional stability
Dimensional stability
Dimensional stability
Dimensional stability
ID code
ASTM D6797-15
BVL B 82.10-1:2011-
12
DIN 53160-1:2010-
10
DIN 53160-2:2010-
10
ISO/TR 12116:2008
Oeko-Tex Standard
100. Class 1
AATCC8
–
2016e
AATCC15 -2021e
AATCC16
–
2004e
ISO 7769:2009
ISO 2313-1:2021
ISO 2313-2:2021
AATCC test method
128-2017e
AATCC test method 66
–
2017e
ISO 5077:2007
ISO 3005:1978
ISO 7771:1985
ISO 16322-2:2021
ISO 675:2014
ISO 9866-1:1991
ISO 9866-2:1991
ISO 21765:2020
Title
Standard test method for bursting strength of textiles. The constant rate of
extension (CRT) Ball burst test
Analysis of commodity goods - Testing of coloured children's toys with
respect to their resistance to saliva and perspiration
Determination of the colourfastness of articles for common use. Part 1 Test
with artificial saliva
Determination of the colourfastness of articles for common use.
Part 2 Test with artificial sweat
Textiles
—
Methods of simulating colour change during actual wear by
means of laboratory colour-fastness tests
Colour fastness to saliva and perspiration for children 3 years to younger
Test method for colour fastness to crocking
Test method for colour fastness to perspiration
Test method for colour fastness to light
Textiles
—
Test method for assessing the appearance of creases in fabrics
after cleansing
Textiles
—
Determination of the recovery from creasing of a folded
specimen of fabric by measuring the angle of recovery
—
Part 1: Method of
the horizontally folded specimen
Textiles
—
Determination of the recovery from creasing of a folded
specimen of fabric by measuring the angle of recovery
—
Part 2: Method of
the vertically folded specimen
Test Method for wrinkle recovery of fabrics: appearance
Test Method for wrinkle recovery of woven fabrics: recovery angle
Textiles
—
Determination of dimensional change in washing and drying
Textiles
—
Determination of dimensional change of fabrics induced by free-
steam
Textiles
—
Determination of dimensional changes of fabrics induced by cold-
water immersion
Determination of spirality after laundering- Part 2 Woven and knitted fabrics
Textiles
—
Woven fabrics
—
Determination of dimensional change on
commercial laundering near the boiling point
Textiles
—
Effect of dry heat on fabrics under low pressure
—
Part 1:
Procedure for dry-heat treatment of fabrics
Textiles
—
Effect of dry heat on fabrics under low pressure
—
Part 2:
Determination of dimensional change in fabrics exposed to dry heat
Textiles
—
Determination of fabric deformability by forced mechanical
distension
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Ecolabel
Test
method
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published. Not
approved by ANSI
Published. Not
approved by ANSI
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
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Specific topic
Dimensional stability
Dimensional stability (connected standard)
Dimensional stability (connected standard)
Dimensional stability (connected standard)
Dimensional stability (connected standard)
Dimensional stability (connected standard)
Dimensional stability (connected standard)
Easy-Care treatments (functional durability)
Flame retardancy (Functional durability)
Flame retardancy (Functional durability)
Loss of fibre fragments from textiles
Loss of fibre fragments from textiles
Loss of fibre fragments from textiles
Loss of fibre fragments from textiles
Loss of fibre fragments from textiles
Matting appearance after cleansing
Antibacterial activity
Oil stain repellency (Functional durability)
Performance requirements
Performance requirements
Performance requirements
ID code
ISO 23231:2008
EN ISO 3759:2011
EN ISO 6330:2012
EN ISO 15797:2018
ISO 3175-2:2017
ISO 3175-3:2017
ISO 3175-4:2017
ISO 7768:2009
ISO 12138:2017
BS5651:1978
AATCC TM212
–
2021e
ISO 4484
ISO 4484-1:2023
ISO 4484-2:2023
ISO 4484-3
ISO 16847:2016
ISO 20743:2021
ISO 14419:2010
ASTM D5432-12- 19
ASTM D411-12
–
19
ASTM D5433-12
–
19
Title
Textiles
—
Determination of dimensional change of fabrics
—
Accelerated
machine method
Textiles - Preparation, marking and measuring of fabric specimens and
garments in tests for determination of dimensional change
Domestic washing and drying procedures for textile testing
Industrial washing and finishing procedures for testing of workwear
Professional care, drycleaning and wet cleaning of fabrics and garments -
Part 2: Procedure for testing performance when cleaning and finishing using
tetrachloroethene
Professional care, drycleaning and wet cleaning of fabrics and garments -
Part 3: Procedure for testing performance when cleaning and finishing using
hydrocarbon solvents
Professional care, drycleaning and wet cleaning of fabrics and garments -
Part 4: Procedure for testing performance when cleaning and finishing using
simulated wet cleaning
Textiles
—
Test method for assessing the smoothness appearance of fabrics
after cleansing
Textiles
—
Domestic laundering procedures for textile fabrics prior to
flammability testing
Method for cleansing procedure for use in the assessment of the effect of
cleansing and wetting on the flammability of textile fabrics and fabric
assemblies
Fibre fragment release during home laundering
Textile and textile products- Microplastics from textile sources. Part1:
Determination of material loss from fabrics during washing
Textile and textile products- Microplastics from textile sources. Part1:
Determination of material loss from fabrics during washing
Textile and textile products- Microplastics from textile sources. Part 2:
Qualitative and quantitative analysis of microplastics
Textile and textile products- Microplastics from textile sources. Part 3:
Measurement of collected material mass released from textile end products
by domestic washing method
Textiles
—
Test method for assessing the matting appearance of napped
fabrics after cleansing
Textiles
—
Determination of antibacterial activity of textile products.
Textiles - Oil repellency - Hydrocarbon resistance test
Standard Performance specification for blanket products for institutional and
household use
Standard Performance specification for woven napery and tablecloth fabrics:
household and institutional
Standard Performance specification for towel products for institutional and
household use
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
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Specific topic
Performance requirements
Performance requirements
Physiological comfort
(Thermal resistance and Breathability (post-
laundering) in PEFCR)
Physiological comfort
(Thermal resistance and Breathability (post-
laundering) in PEFCR) (Functional property claims)
Quality of buttons and press fasteners
Quality of buttons and press fasteners
Quality of buttons and press fasteners
Quality of buttons and press fasteners
Quality of zippers
Quality of zippers
Quality of zippers
Resistance to chlorinated water
Resistance to insect
Resistance to surface wetting (Functional Durability)
Resistance to surface wetting (Thermal resistance and
breathability (post-laundering) in PEFCR) (Functional
property claims)
Seam slippage (wovens only)
Seam slippage (wovens only)
Seam slippage (wovens only)
Seam slippage (wovens-only)
Seam smoothness
Seam strength
ID code
EN 13569:2001
EN 14697:2005
JIS L 1099
–
2021e
ISO 11092:2015
CEN/TS 17394
CEN/TS 17394-1:2021
CEN/TS 17394-2:2021
CEN/TS 17394-3:2021
ASTM D2061-07
(2021)
JIS S3015
–
2019e
EN 16732:2016
ISO 17608:2015
ISO 3998:1977
ISO 9865:1991
ISO 15496:2018
ISO 13936-1:2004
ISO 13936-2:2004
ISO 13936-3:2004
ASTM D4035/4034M-
19
ISO 7770:2009
EN-ISO 13935
Title
Cabinet roller towels- Performance requirements and processing
Textiles. Terry towels and terry towel fabrics. Specifications and methods for
tests sets out requirements based on general applicated test methods
Textiles
—
Physiological effects
—
Measurement of thermal and water-
vapour resistance under steady-state conditions (sweating guarded-hotplate
test)
Textiles
—
Physiological effects
—
Measurement of thermal and water-
vapour resistance under steady-state conditions (sweating guarded-hotplate
test)
Textiles and textile products.
Textiles and textile products
–
Part 1: Safety of children's clothing
–
Security
of attachment of attached components to infants' clothing
–
Specification.
Textiles and textile products. Part 2: Safety of Children's clothing security of
attachment of buttons. Test method
Textiles and textile products. Part 3: Safety of Children's clothing security of
attachment of metal mechanically applied press fasteners. Test method
Standard test methods for strength test for zippers
Methods for measuring zipper dimensions standard test methods for
strength
Slide fasteners (zips) Specifications
Textiles
—
Bare elastane yarns
—
Determination of resistance to chlorinated
water (swimming-pool water)
Textiles
—
Determination of resistance to certain insect pests
Textiles - Determination of water repellency of fabrics by the Bundesmann
rain-shower test
Textiles
—
Measurement of water vapour permeability of textiles for the
purpose of quality control
Textiles
—
Determination of the slippage resistance of yarns at a seam in
woven fabrics
—
Part 1: Fixed seam opening method
Textiles
—
Determination of the slippage resistance of yarns at a seam in
woven fabrics
—
Part 2: Fixed load method
Textiles
—
Determination of the slippage resistance of yarns at a seam in
woven fabrics
—
Part 3: Needle clamp method
Standard test method for resistance to yarn slippage at the sewn seam in
woven upholstery fabrics
Textiles
—
Test method for assessing the smoothness appearance of seams
in fabrics after cleansing
Textiles
—
Seam tensile properties of fabrics and made-up textile articles
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
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Specific topic
Seam strength
Seam strength
Seam strength
Seam strength
Spirality
Spirality
Stain Repellency (Functional durability)
Stretch and recovery
Stretch and recovery
Stretch and recovery
Tear Strength
Tear Strength
ID code
EN-ISO 13935-1:2014
EN-ISO 13935-2:2014
ASTM D1683-22
ASTM D751-19
ISO 16322-1:2005
ISO 16322-3:2021
ISO 22958:2021
ISO 20932-1:2018
ISO 20932-2:2018
ISO 20932-3:2018
EN ISO 4674-1:2017
EN-ISO 13937-1:2000
Title
Textiles
—
Seam tensile properties of fabrics and made-up textile articles
—
Part 1: Determination of maximum force to seam rupture using the strip
method
Textiles
—
Seam tensile properties of fabrics and made-up textile articles
—
Part 2: Determination of maximum force to seam rupture using the grab
method
Standard test method for failure in sewn seams of woven fabrics
Standard test method for coated fabrics
Textiles
—
Determination of spirality after laundering
—
Part 1: Percentage
of wale spirality change in knitted garments
Textiles
—
Determination of spirality after laundering
—
Part 3: Woven and
knitted garments
Textiles
—
Water resistance
—
Rain tests: exposure to a horizontal water
spray
Textiles
—
Determination of the elasticity of fabrics
—
Part 1: Strip tests
Textiles
—
Determination of the elasticity of fabrics
—
Part 2: Multiaxial
tests
Textiles
—
Determination of the elasticity of fabrics
—
Part 3: Narrow fabrics
Rubber or plastic-coated fabrics- Determination of tear resistance- Part 1:
constant rate of tear methods
Textiles
—
Tear properties of fabrics
—
Part 1: Determination of tear force
using ballistic pendulum method (Elmendorf)
Textiles
—
Tear properties of fabrics
—
Part 2: Determination of tear force of
trouser-shaped test specimens (Single tear method)
Textiles
—
Tear properties of fabrics
—
Part 3: Determination of tear force of
wing-shaped test specimens (Single tear method)
Textiles
—
Tear properties of fabrics
—
Part 4: Determination of tear force of
tongue-shaped test specimens (Double tear test)
Standard Test Method for Tearing Strength of Fabrics by falling-pendulum
(Elmendorf-Type) apparatus
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 3: Determination of tensile
strength and elongation
Nonwovens
—
Test methods
—
Part 4: Determination of tear resistance by
the trapezoid procedure
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 18: Determination of
breaking strength and elongation of nonwoven materials using the grab
tensile test
Nonwovens
—
Test methods
—
Part 3: Determination of tensile strength and
elongation at break using the strip method
Standard Test Method for Tearing Strength of Fabrics by trapezoid
procedure apparatus
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Tear Strength
Tear Strength
Tear Strength
Tear Strength
Tensile strength and elongation (durability parameter
according to OVAM report [3])
Tear Strength
Tear Strength
Tensile strength and elongation (durability parameter
according to OVAM report [3])
Tear Strength
EN-ISO 13937-2:2000
EN-ISO 13937-3:2000
EN-ISO 13937-4:2000
ASTM D1424-21
ISO 9073-3:1989
ISO 9073-4:2021
ISO 9073-18:2007
ISO/FDIS 9073-3
ASTM D5587 -15-19
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
DIS
Standard
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Under development
Published
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Specific topic
Tear Strength
Tear Resistance
Tensile strength (durability parameter according to
OVAM report [3])
Tensile strength (durability parameter according to
OVAM report [3])
Tensile strength and elongation
Tensile strength and elongation
Tensile strength and elongation
Unevenness of textile
Visible change after washing
Water repellency (Functional Durability)
Water resistance after aging
Wicking (Functional durability)
Wrinkle resistance
ID code
ASTM D2261 -13-17
ASTM D2582-21
EN-ISO 13934-1:2013
EN-ISO 13934-2:2014
ASTM D5035-11
ASTM D5034-21
EN ISO 1421 (2016)
ISO 16549:2021
ISO 15487:2018
ISO 4920:2012
EN 343:2019
AATCC 197-2022e
ISO 9867:2022
Title
Standard Test method for Tearing Strength of fabric by the tongue (single
rip) procedure (constant rate of extension tensile testing machine)
Standard Test Method for Puncture-Propagation Tear Resistance of Plastic
Film and Thin Sheeting
Textiles: Tensile properties of Fabrics Part 1 Determination of maximum
force and elongation at maximum force using the strip method
Textiles: Tensile properties of Fabrics. Part 2
Determination of maximum force using the grab method
Standard test method for breaking force and elongation of textile fabrics
(strip method)
Standard test method for breaking force and elongation of textile fabrics
(grab method)
Rubber or plastic-coated fabrics - Determination of tensile strength and
elongation at break
Unevenness of textile strands. Capacitance method
Textiles
—
Method for assessing appearance of apparel and other textile end
products after domestic washing and drying
Textile fabrics
—
Determination of resistance to surface wetting (spray test)
Rain Protection
Test method for vertical wicking rate of textiles to specified distances
Textiles
—
Evaluation of the wrinkle recovery of fabrics
—
Appearance
method
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
NA
Published
5771
5772
5773
5774
5775
5776
5777
5778
5779
Standards made of several parts and only the most used are reported in this Table:
1
Made of 4 parts.
2
Made of 107 parts.
3
Made of 2 parts.
4
Made of 7 parts.
5
Made of 2 parts.
6
Made of 2 parts.
7
Made of 20 parts.
8
Made of 3 parts.
9
Made of 2 parts.
10
Made of 3 parts.
11
Made of 2 parts.
12
Made of 6 parts.
13
Made of 3 parts.
14
Made of 2 parts.
15
Made of 3 parts.
16
Made of 2 parts.
17
Made of 3 parts.
18
Made of 4 parts.
19
Made of 2 parts.
20
Made of 5 parts.
21
Made of 20 parts.
22
It is made of 2 parts.
Every ID Code indicates the year depending on the Standard reference, as follows:
•
ISO/CEN/BVL/BS -> XXX:YEAR (4-DIGIT)
•
ASTM ->XXX-YEAR (2-DIGIT)
•
AATC/JIS -> XXX-YEARe (4-DIGIT)
Table 69.
Standards used by several frameworks to test parameters related to durability of textile products
Parameter
PEFCR A&F
ISO 12945-1
(Pilling box method)
Resistance to pilling and
abrasion
ISO 12947-2 Martindale abrasion (Woven and knitted
products) and EN 13770 for knitted footwear garments,
ASTM D3939 for snagging resistance and BS 8479 for
propensity to snagging
EU Ecolabel
ISO 12945-1
Pill box method (Knitted and non-
woven products)
ISO 12945-2 Martindale method
(Woven fabrics)
Nordic Ecolabel
Blue Angel
ISO 12945-1
Pill box method (Knitted and non-
woven products)
ISO 12945-2 Martindale method
(Woven fabrics)
ISO 12947-2
Martindale abrasion (Woven
fabrics)
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Parameter
Colour fastness to dry rubbing
Colour fastness to wet rub
(Crocking)
Colour fastness to
perspiration
Colour fastness to light
exposure
Colour fastness to washing
Colour fastness to water
PEFCR A&F
NA
NA
NA
ISO 105-B02Xenon arc fading lamp test
NA
ISO 105-E02 for sea water
ISO 105-E03 for chlorinated water
Bundesmann ISO 9865 or ISO 4920
EU Ecolabel
ISO 105 X12
ISO 105 X12
ISO 105 E04 (Acid alkaline)
ISO 105-B02
ISO 105 C06 (Domestic washing)
ISO 15797 combined with ISO 105
C06 (Commercial washing)
NA
Nordic Ecolabel
Blue Angel
ISO 105 E04 (Acid alkaline)
ISO 105 A06 (saliva)
ISO 105 E04
(acid and alkaline, comparison
with multi-fibre fabric)
ISO 105 C06 (single wash, at
temperature marked on the
product, with perborate powder)
ISO 105 C06
ISO 105 D01 if dry cleaning
Water repellency
NA
ISO 6330 in combination with EN ISO 5077 (Domestic washing)
ISO 15797 in combination with EN ISO 5077 (Industrial washing)
NA
ISO 6330 (Domestic) ISO 15797
(Industrial) both in combination
with ISO 14419
ISO 6330 (Domestic) ISO 15797
(Industrial) both in combination
with ISO 22958
ISO 6330 in combination with ISO
12138 (Domestic)
ISO 10528 in combination with ISO
12138 (Industrial)
ISO 7768
ISO 6330 combined with ISO 4920
(Domestic)
ISO 15797 combined with ISO
4920
(Industrial washing)
NA
NA
NA
NA
ISO 6330 combined with ISO
4920 (Domestic)
ISO 15797 combined with ISO
4920
(Industrial washing)
ISO 6330 and ISO 5077
Garment Integrity Test after
washing
Garment Integrity Test after
dryclean
Oil repellency
Soil or stain Release
ISO 6330
ISO 3175-2 to 3175-4
NA
NA
Flame retardant functions
Easy care function
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
ISO 6330 indications of 5 cycles for machine wash and dry
Garment Dimensional Stability indications.
Shrinkage &
ISO 3175-2 to 3175-4 if dry-clean indications of 3 cycles
Skew/Twist/Torque
and ironing after final cycle.
ISO 5077 and ISO 16322-3 spirality
ISO 15487 with specific conditions for domestic and
Appearance
professional cleaning
Bursting
ISO 139381 (or-2)
ISO 6330 in combination with
ISO 12138 (Domestic)
ISO 10528 in combination with
ISO 12138 (Industrial)
ISO 7768
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Parameter
Seam slippage
Fabric Tear Strength
Fabric Tensile Strength
Seam strength
Product waterproofness
Insulation
Elasticity of fabrics
PEFCR A&F
ISO 13936-2 (Woven fabrics)
ISO 13937-1
ISO 13934-2
NA
ISO 811
ISO11092 RCT
ISO 20932-1 and ISO 20932-3
EU Ecolabel
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Nordic Ecolabel
ISO 13936-1 o ISO 13936-2
(Woven fabrics)
ISO 13937-1 applied on
outer fabric not include any
inner lining in the product
ISO 13934-2
ISO 13935-2 (Woven
fabrics)
Blue Angel
NA
NA
NA
NA
5780
5781
5782
5783
5784
5785
5786
(a) PEFCR A&F: Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules (PEFCR): apparel and footwear;
(b) EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. Commission Decision (2014/350/EU).
(c) Blue Angel
–
The German Ecolabel: DE-UZ 154 Basic Award Criteria. Edition January 2023, version 2.
(d) Nordic Swan Ecolabel: Textiles, hides/skins, and leather. Version 5.4.
Source: own elaboration
Table 70.
Standards related to the functionality of the textile product
Specific topic
Soil or stain release (Functional
durability)
Waterproofness
Water penetration
Water adsorption
Moisturising effect
Hygroscopic heat generation
Aqueous stain resistance
Thermal resistance
Thermal resistance
Fire hazard reduction
Superhydrophobic characteristics and
durability assessment
Resistance of cellulose-containing
textiles to micro-organisms
ID code
AATCC 130-18T,
2018
ISO 811:2018
ISO 18695:2007
ISO 18696:2006
ISO 21232:2018
ISO 18782:2015
ISO 23232:2009
ISO 5085-
1:1989
ISO 5085-
2:1990
ISO/TR
9240:1992
ISO/CD TS
10818
ISO 11721-
1:2001
Title
Washing Procedure selection to match care label
Textiles
—
Determination of resistance to water penetration
—
Hydrostatic pressure test
Textiles
—
Determination of resistance to water penetration
—
Impact penetration test
Textiles
—
Determination of resistance to water absorption
—
Tumble-jar absorption test
Textiles
—
Determination of moisturizing effect of textile materials by measurement of
microclimate between textiles and simulated human skin using sweating guarded hotplate
Textiles
—
Determination of dynamic hygroscopic heat generation
Textiles
—
Aqueous liquid repellency
—
Water/alcohol solution resistance test
Textiles
—
Determination of thermal resistance
—
Part 1: Low thermal resistance
Textiles
—
Determination of thermal resistance
—
Part 2: High thermal resistance
Textiles
—
Design of apparel for reduced fire hazard
Nanotechnologies
—
Textiles containing nanomaterials and nanostructures
—
Superhydrophobic characteristics and durability assessment
Textiles
—
Determination of resistance of cellulose-containing textiles to micro-organisms
—
Soil burial test
—
Part 1: Assessment of rot-retardant finishing
Type
Standard
standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Technical
Specifications
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Under
development
Published
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Specific topic
Resistance of cellulose-containing
textiles to micro-organisms
Resistance of cellulose-containing
textiles to micro-organisms
Antifungal activity
Antifungal activity
Exothermic and endothermic
properties
Deodorant properties
Deodorant properties
Deodorant properties
Deodorant properties
Deodorant properties
Moisture drying rate
Odour management
Total heat transfer
Dust mite resistance
Burning behaviour
Burning behaviour
Burning behaviour
Adsorption
Flexural rigidity
Liquid strike-through time
Drapability
Lint and particle generation
Run-off of liquids
ID code
ISO 11721-
2:2003
ISO 11737-
3:2023
ISO 13629-
1:2012
ISO 13629-
2:2014
ISO 16533:2014
ISO 17299-
1:2014
ISO 17299-
2:2014
ISO 17299-
3:2014
ISO 17299-
4:2015
ISO 17299-
5:2015
ISO 17617:2014
ISO 20645:2004
ISO 20852:2020
ISO 21326:2019
ISO 6940:2004
ISO 6941:2003
ISO 10047:1993
ISO 9073-
6:2000
ISO 9073-
7:1995
ISO 9073-
8:1995
ISO 9073-
9:2008
ISO 9073-
10:2003
ISO 9073-
11:2002
Title
Textiles
—
Determination of the resistance of cellulose-containing textiles to micro-organisms
—
Soil burial test
—
Part 2: Identification of long-term resistance of a rot retardant finish
Sterilization of health care products
—
Microbiological methods
—
Part 3: Bacterial endotoxin
testing
Textiles
—
Determination of antifungal activity of textile products
—
Part 1: Luminescence
method
Textiles
—
Determination of antifungal activity of textile products
—
Part 2: Plate count
method
Textiles
—
Measurement of exothermic and endothermic properties of textiles under humidity
change
Textiles
—
Determination of deodorant property
—
Part 1: General principle
Textiles
—
Determination of deodorant property
—
Part 2: Detector tube method
Textiles
—
Determination of deodorant property
—
Part 3: Gas chromatography method
Textiles
—
Determination of deodorant property
—
Part 4: Condensation sampling analysis
Textiles
—
Determination of deodorant property
—
Part 5: Metal-oxide semiconductor sensor
method
Textiles
—
Determination of moisture drying rate
Textile fabrics
—
Determination of antibacterial activity
—
Agar diffusion plate test
Textiles
—
Determination of the total heat transfer through textiles in simulated environments
Textiles
—
Test methods for determining the efficiency of products against house dust mite
Textile fabrics
—
Burning behaviour
—
Determination of ease of ignition of vertically oriented
specimens
Textile fabrics
—
Burning behaviour
—
Measurement of flame spread properties of vertically
oriented specimens
Textiles
—
Determination of surface burning time of fabrics
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 6: Absorption
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 7: Determination of bending length
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 8: Determination of liquid strike-through time
(simulated urine)
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 9: Determination of drapability including drape
coefficient
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 10: Lint and other particles generation in the
dry state
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 11: Run-off
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
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Specific topic
Absorbency of fabric (wettability)
Liquid strike-through time
Air permeability
Resistance to penetration by water
Water penetration
Biodegradability
Air permeability
Electrostatic property
Electrostatic property
Electrostatic property
Electrostatic property
Distortion of woven fabric
Max force and elongation at max
force
Fire hazard reduction
Fire hazard reduction
Drying rate
Reduction activity of specific proteins
ID code
ISO 9073-
12:2002
ISO 9073-
13:2006
ISO 9073-
15:2007
ISO 9073-
16:2007
ISO 9073-
17:2008
ISO 21701:2019
ISO 9237:1995
ISO 18080-
1:2015
ISO 18080-
2:2015
ISO 18080-
3:2015
ISO 18080-
4:2015
ISO 13015:2013
ISO 24281:2021
ISO 12952-
1:2010
ISO 12952-
2:2010
ISO 13029:2012
ISO 4333:2022
Title
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 12: Demand absorbency
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 13: Repeated liquid strike-through time
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 15: Determination of air permeability
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 16: Determination of resistance to penetration
by water (hydrostatic pressure)
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 17: Determination of water penetration (spray
impact)
Textiles
—Test
method for accelerated hydrolysis of textile materials and biodegradation
under controlled composting conditions of the resulting hydrolysate
Textiles
—
Determination of the permeability of fabrics to air
Textiles
—
Test methods for evaluating the electrostatic propensity of fabrics
—
Part 1: Test
method using corona charging
Textiles
—
Test methods for evaluating the electrostatic propensity of fabrics
—
Part 2: Test
method using rotary mechanical friction
Textiles
—
Test methods for evaluating the electrostatic propensity of fabrics
—
Part 3: Test
method using manual friction
Textiles
—
Test methods for evaluating the electrostatic propensity of fabrics
—
Part 4: Test
method using horizontal mechanical friction
Woven fabrics
—
Distortion
—
Determination of skew and bow
Textiles
—
Biaxial tensile properties of woven fabric
—
Determination of maximum force and
elongation at maximum force using the grab method
Textiles
—
Assessment of the ignitability of bedding items
—
Part 1: Ignition source:
smouldering cigarette
Textiles
—
Assessment of the ignitability of bedding items
—
Part 2: Ignition source: match-
flame equivalent
Textiles
—
Determination of drying rate in dynamic state by the modified sweating-guarded
hotplate
Textiles
—
Determination of reduction activity of specific proteins derived from pollen, mite
and other sources on textile products
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
5787
5788
5789
5790
5791
Standards made of several parts and only the most used are reported in this Table:
1
Made of 2 parts.
2
Made of 2 parts.
3
Made of 2 parts.
4
Made of 5 parts.
5
Made of 20 parts.
6
Made of 4 parts.
7
Made of 2 parts.
Every ID Code indicates the year depending on the Standard reference, as follows:
•
ISO -> XXX:YEAR (4-DIGIT)
•
AATC -> XXX-YEARe (4-DIGIT)
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5792
Table 71.
Standards used for textile characterization
Specific topic
Mass per unit length and mass
per unit area
Mass per unit length and mass
per unit area
Width and length
Colorimetric communication
Dyestuff identification
Fibre identification
Fibre identification
Thickness
Mass per unit area
Thickness
Composition
ID code
ISO 3801:1977
EN 12127:1998
ISO 22198:2006
ISO 10617:2010
ISO 16373-
1:2015
ISO 18074:2015
ISO 20706-1
ISO 5084:1996
ISO 9073-
1:1989
ISO 9073-
2:1995
ISO/TR
11827:2012
Title
Textiles
—
Woven fabrics
—
Determination of mass per unit length and mass per unit area
Textiles. Fabrics. Determination of mass per unit area using small samples.
Textiles
—
Fabrics
—
Determination of width and length
Textiles
—
Standard data format for colorimetric communication
—
Textiles and related measurements
Textiles
—
Dyestuffs
—
Part 1: General principles of testing coloured textiles for dyestuff identification
Textiles
—
Identification of some animal fibres by DNA analysis method
—
Cashmere, wool, yak and their
blends
Textiles
—
Qualitative and quantitative analysis of some bast fibres (flax, hemp, ramie) and their blends
—
Part 1: Fibre identification using microscopy methods
Textiles
—
Determination of thickness of textiles and textile products
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 1: Determination of mass per unit area
Textiles
—
Test methods for nonwovens
—
Part 2: Determination of thickness
Textiles
—
Composition testing
—
Identification of fibres
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Technical
Report
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
5793
5794
5795
5796
5797
Standards made of several parts and only the most used are reported in this Table:
1
Made of 3 parts.
2
Made of 20 parts.
Every ID Code indicates the year depending on the Standard reference, as follows:
•
ISO/EN -> XXX:YEAR (4-DIGIT)
Table 72.
Standards for the determination of specific substances
Specific topic
Alkylphenol ethoxylates
(APEO)
Alkylphenol ethoxylates
(APEO)
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
ID code
ISO 18254-
1:2016
ISO 18254-
2:2016
ISO 141842
ISO 14184-
1:2011
ISO 14184-
2:2011
ISO/CD 14184
ISO/CD 14184-3
Title
Textiles
—
Method for the detection and determination of alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEO)
—
Part 1: Method
using HPLC-MS
Textiles
—
Method for the detection and determination of alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEO)
—
Part 2: Method
using NPLC
Textiles
—
Determination of formaldehyde
Textiles
—
Determination of formaldehyde
—
Part 1: Free and hydrolysed formaldehyde (water extraction
method)
Textiles
—
Determination of formaldehyde
—
Part 2: Released formaldehyde (vapour absorption method)
Textiles
—
Determination of formaldehyde
Textiles
—
Determination of formaldehyde
—
Part 3: Free and hydrolysed formaldehyde (extraction method)
—Determination
by high pressure liquid chromatography
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
CD
CD
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Under
development
Under
development
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Specific topic
Phthalate
Phthalate
Phthalate
Organotin compounds
Aromatic amines derived
from azo colorants
Organotin compounds
Organotin compounds
Aromatic amines derived
from azo colorants
Aromatic amines derived
from azo colorants
Detection of disperse
dyestuff
Chlorinated benzenes and
toluenes
Determination of extractable
metals
Determination of extractable
metals
Determination of extractable
metals
Determination of extractable
metals
Determination of extractable
metals
Determination of the
metallic composition
Determination of the
metallic composition
Determination of
chlorophenols
Determination of
chlorophenols
Dyestuff identification
ID code
ISO 14389:2022
EN ISO
18856:2004
EN 14602:2012
EN ISO
17353:2007
ISO 14362-
1:2017
ISO 22744-
1:2020
ISO 22744-
2:2020
ISO 143625
ISO 14362-
3:2017
DIN 54231:2022
UNE-EN
17137:2019
EN ISO 105-
E04:2013
DIN 542337
UNE-EN 16711-
2:2016
DIN EN 16711-
2:2016
DIN 38405-
24:1987-05
EN12472-2020
ISO 1811-1:1998
EN ISO
17070:2015
EN 17134-
2:2023
ISO 16373-
2:2014
Title
Textiles
—
Determination of the phthalate content
—
Tetrahydrofuran method
Water quality- Determination of selected phthalates using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
Footwear- Test methods for the assessment of ecological criteria
Water quality- Determination of selected organotin compounds- Gas chromatographic method
Textiles
—
Methods for determination of certain aromatic amines derived from azo colorants
—
Part 1:
Detection of the use of certain azo colorants accessible with and without extracting the fibres
Textiles and textile products
—
Determination of organotin compounds
—
Part 1: Derivatisation method
using gas chromatography
Textiles and textile products
—
Determination of organotin compounds
—
Part 2: Direct method using liquid
chromatography
Textiles
—
Methods for determination of certain aromatic amines derived from azo colorants
Textiles
—
Methods for determination of certain aromatic amines derived from azo colorants
—
Part 3:
Detection of the use of certain azo colorants, which may release 4-aminoazobenzene
Textiles- Determination of dyes after methanol extraction
Textiles - Determination of the content of compounds based on chlorobenzenes and chlorotoluenes
Textiles
–
tests for colour fastness
–
part E04: colour fastness to perspiration
Testing of Textiles- Determination of metals.
Textiles - Determination of metal content - Part 2: Determination of metals extracted by acidic artificial
perspiration solution
Textiles- Determination of metal content- Part 2: Determination of metals extracted by acidic artificial
perspiration solution
German standard methods for the examination of water, wastewater and sludge: anions (group D;
photometric determination of chromium (VI) using 1,5-diphenylcarbonohydrazide (D24)
Method for the simulation of the accelerated wear and corrosion for the detection of nickel release from
coated items
Copper and copper alloys- Selection and preparation of samples for chemical analysis. Part1: sampling of
cast unwrought products
Leather- Chemical test- Determination of tetra chlorophenol, trichlorophenol content
Textiles and textile products - Determination of biocide additives - Part 2: Chlorophenol-based preservatives,
method using gas chromatography
Textiles
—
Dyestuffs
—
Part 2: General method for the determination of extractable dyestuffs including
allergenic and carcinogenic dyestuffs (method using pyridine-water)
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
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Specific topic
Dyestuff identification
Flame retardance
Flame retardance
Flame retardance
Index ingredients
Index ingredients
Index ingredients
Index ingredients
Index ingredients
Index ingredients
Index ingredients
Many substances
5798
5799
5800
5801
5802
5803
ID code
ISO 16373-
3:2014
ISO 17881-
1:2016
ISO 17881-
2:2016
ISO/TR 17881-
3:2018
ISO 2219511
ISO 22195-
1:2020
ISO 22195-
2:2020
ISO 22195-
3:2023
ISO 22195-
4:2021
ISO 22195-
5:2021
ISO 22195-
6:2021
CEN/TR
16741:2015
Title
Textiles
—
Dyestuffs
—
Part 3: Method for determination of certain carcinogenic dyestuffs (method using
triethylamine/methanol)
Textiles
—
Determination of certain flame retardants
—
Part 1: Brominated flame retardants
Textiles
—
Determination of certain flame retardants
—
Part 2: Phosphorus flame retardants
Textiles
—
Determination of certain flame retardants
—
Part 3: Chlorinated paraffin flame retardants
Textiles
—
Determination of index ingredient from coloured textiles
Textiles
—
Determination of index ingredient from coloured textiles
—
Part 1: Madder
Textiles
—
Determination of index ingredient from coloured textiles
—
Part 2: Turmeric
Textiles
—
Determination of index ingredient from coloured textile
—
Part 3: Myrobalan
Textiles
—
Determination of index ingredient from coloured textile
—
Part 4: Catechu
Textiles
—
Determination of index ingredient from coloured textile
—
Part 5: Lac
Textiles
—
Determination of index ingredient from coloured textile
—
Part 6: Punica granatum
Textiles and textile products - Guidance on health and environmental issues related to chemical content of
textile products intended for clothing, interior textiles and upholstery
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Technical
Report
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Standards made of several parts and only the most used are reported in this Table:
1
Made of 2 parts.
2
made of 2 parts.
3
Made of 2 parts.
4
Made of 2 parts.
5
made of 2 parts.
6
Made of 107 parts.
7
Made of 2
parts.
8
Made of 3 parts.
9
Made of 3 parts.
10
Made of 3 parts.
11
Made of 6 parts.
Every ID Code indicates the year depending on the Standard reference, as follows:
•
ISO/DIN/CEN -> XXX:YEAR (4-DIGIT)
Table 73.
Standards related to loss of fibre fragments from textiles
Specific topic
Loss of fibre fragments
from textiles
Loss of fibre fragments
from textiles
Loss of fibre fragments
from textiles
ID code
ISO
4484-1
ISO
4484-2
ISO
4484-3
Title
Textile and textile products- Microplastics from textile sources. Part1: Determination of material loss from fabrics during
washing
Textile and textile products- Microplastics from textile sources. Part 2: Qualitative and quantitative analysis of microplastics
Textile and textile products- Microplastics from textile sources. Part 3: Measurement of collected material mass released from
textile end products by domestic washing method
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
5804
5805
Standards made of several parts and only the most used are reported in this Table:
1
Made of 3 parts.
Every ID Code indicates the year depending on the Standard reference, as follows:
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5806
5807
5808
•
ISO -> XXX:YEAR (4-DIGIT)
Table 74
Standards and Technical Specifications potentially related to circularity and environmental aspects
Broader topic
Definitions
Circularity
Circularity
Circularity
Environmental
claims
Specific topic
Environmental aspects
Principles of circularity
Material use
Design for circularity
Terminology of
Environmental claims
ID code
ISO 5157:2023
ISO TC 38
Unknown
developed by CEN TC
248 WG 39
Unknown
developed by CEN TC
248 WG 39
Unknown
developed by CEN TC
248 WG 39
CEN/TS 16822:2015
Title
Textiles
—
Environmental aspects
—
Vocabulary
Textiles - Circular economy for textile products - General principles and
guidance
Textiles - Circular economy for textile products
–
Categorisation of and
requirements on non-virgin input materials
Textiles - Circular economy for textile products - design for circularity
Textiles and textile products - Self-declared environmental claims - Use
of the terms
Type
Standard
Technical
Specifications
Technical
Specifications
Technical
Specifications
Technical
Specifications
Status
Published
Under
development
Under
development
Under
development
Published
5809
5810
Table 75.
Standards related to topics not covered by
Table 68
to
Table 74
Broader topic
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Labelling
Labelling
Specific topic
Definitions of natural fibres
Environmental aspects
Stitch types
Seam types
Determination of mass
Woven fabric
Weaves
Knitted fabrics
Description of defects
Description of defects
Nonwoven
Nonwoven
Superfine woven wool
Man-made fibres
Labelling
Symbols on workwear
ID code
EN ISO 6938:2014
ISO 5157:2023
ISO TC 38
ISO 4915:1991
ISO 4916:1992
ISO 6348:1980
ISO 2959:2011
ISO 3572:1976
ISO 8388:1998
ISO 8498:1990
ISO 8499:2003
ISO 9092:2019
ISO 11224:2003
ISO 18103:2015
ISO 2076:2021
ISO 3758:2012
ISO 30023:2021
Title
Textiles
—
Natural fibres
—
Generic names and definitions
Textiles
—
Environmental aspects
—
Vocabulary
Textiles
—
Stitch types
—
Classification and terminology
Textiles
—
Seam types
—
Classification and terminology
Textiles
—
Determination of mass
—
Vocabulary
Textiles
—
Woven fabric descriptions
Textiles
—
Weaves
—
Definitions of general terms and basic weaves
Knitted fabrics
—
Types
—
Vocabulary
Woven fabrics
—
Description of defects
—
Vocabulary
Knitted fabrics
—
Description of defects
—
Vocabulary
Nonwovens
—
Vocabulary
Textiles
—
Web formation and bonding in nonwovens
—
Vocabulary
Superfine woven wool fabric labelling
—
Requirements for Super S code
definition
Textiles
—
Man-made fibres
—
Generic names
Textiles
—
Care labelling code using symbols
Textiles
—
Qualification symbols for labelling workwear to be industrially
laundered
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Status
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
Published
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Broader topic
Circularity
Circularity
Circularity
Environmental
claims
Specific topic
Principles of circularity
Material use
Design for circularity
Terminology of
Environmental claims
ID code
Unknown
developed by CEN TC
248 WG 39
Unknown
developed by CEN TC
248 WG 40
Unknown
developed by CEN TC
248 WG 41
CEN/TS 16822:2015
Title
Textiles - Circular economy for textile products - General principles and
guidance
Textiles - Circular economy for textile products
–
Categorisation of and
requirements on non-virgin input materials
Textiles - Circular economy for textile products - design for circularity
Textiles and textile products - Self-declared environmental claims - Use
of the terms
Type
Standard
Standard
Standard
Technical
Specifications
Status
Under
development
Under
development
Under
development
Published
5811
5812
5813
Every ID Code indicates the year depending on the Standard reference, as follows:
ISO/CEN -> XXX:YEAR (4-DIGIT)
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5814
5815
5816
5817
5818
5819
10.4 Supporting information about environmental labels
10.4.1 Types of labels in general
There are many types of labels, addressing single or multiple environmental issues and covering different
sectors and regions.
Figure 52
shows the taxonomy of labels, which includes mandatory and voluntary
frameworks (Frydendal et al., 2018).
Figure 52.
Taxonomy of labels for communication of specific product information
5820
5821
5822
5823
5824
5825
5826
5827
5828
5829
5830
5831
5832
Source:
(Frydendal
et al., 2018)
The Ecolabel Index (
190
) is known to be the largest global directory of labels related to environmental and social
aspects. On 12 January 2024, it counted 456 labels in 199 countries, and 25 industry sectors. Due to the high
number and types of voluntary environmental labels, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
established specific guidelines.
ISO Type I environmental labels
(ISO 14024:2018)
(
191
),known
as
Ecolabels,
are defined as
‘voluntary,
multi-criteria-based and third party-verified labels that indicate an overall environmental preference in a life
cycle perspective of a product or service within a specific product category’.
Ecolabels are a subset of the
environmental labels that recognise a better environmental performance of a given product or service related
to other products in the same product group. An Ecolabel must fulfil the following nine requirements (Frydendal
et al., 2018):
1.
It is built on the life cycle thinking;
190
191
Ecolabel Index. Website available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
ISO 14024:2018. Environmental labels and declarations. Type I environmental labelling. Principles and procedures. Available at
this
link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
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5833
5834
5835
5836
5837
5838
5839
5840
5841
5842
5843
5844
5845
5846
5847
5848
5849
5850
5851
5852
5853
5854
5855
5856
5857
5858
5859
2.
3.
It is based on multiple criteria, therefore it addresses many environmental impact categories, such as
global warming, eutrophication, etc.;
Criteria are justified by sound scientific and engineering reasons. Their objectivity is ensured by the
involvement of a broad range of stakeholders (industries, consumers, governments, etc…) during the
process of criteria development;
It comprises requirements related to functional aspects of the product (fitness for use). This
characteristic guarantees a sufficient quality of labelled products and services;
Criteria are continuously updated according to changes affecting the labelled products. These changes
could be related to technologies, the regulatory context and other aspects;
All stages of criteria development are transparent;
It is accessible to all potential applicants;
It involves third-party certification;
There is compliance monitoring after the licence is awarded.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
ISO Type II environmental labels
(ISO 14021:2016) (
192
),known as
Self-declared Environmental Claims,
are neither third-party verified, nor based on Life Cycle Thinking approach. Many self-declared environmental
claims on the EU market do not necessarily follow the ISO 14021:2016.
ISO Type III environmental labels
(ISO 14025:2016) (
193
),known as
Environmental Declarations,
are
labels presenting
quantified environmental information on the life cycle of a product to enable comparisons
between products fulfilling the same function.
The Environmental Declarations were mainly envisioned for
business-to-business communication, but their use in business-to-consumer communication is not precluded.
The establishment of Product Category Rules ensures that the life cycle assessment is performed with specific
rules aiming to foster transparency and facilitate comparisons between different Environmental Declarations.
The EC promotes the establishment of commonly recognised Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules
(PEFCRs)
(
194
). As any life cycle assessment, the Environmental Declarations are third-party verified.
10.4.2 Voluntary environmental labels used in EU
Table 76
Table 76.
Environmental labels used in 2021 in Europe: ISO type and addressed topics
Ecolabel
AnbefaltToxic
Better Cotton Initiative
Blue Angel
bluesign® standard
Criteria
other
Biodiversity, chemicals, natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, soil,
wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use, other
Carbon/GHG emission, Energy use/efficiency, forests, natural resources, recycling,
toxics, waste water/sewage, water quality, water use, other
Carbon/GHG emission, Carbon/GHG offsets, chemicals, energy production/source,
energy use/efficiency, material use, natural resources,
pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, toxics, waste, wastewater/sewage,
water quality, water use
Carbon/GHG emission
Animal welfare, biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emission, chemicals, energy
production/sources, energy use/efficiency, forests, GMOs, material use, natural
resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, soil, toxics, waste,
wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Chemicals, Material use, Natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides,
recycling, toxics, waste, water quality
ISO TYPE
NA
NA
Type I
195
NA
Carbon Reduction Label
Climatop
NA
NA
Compostability Mark of
European Bioplastics
NA
192
193
194
195
ISO 14021:2016. Environmental labels and declarations. Self-declared environmental claims (Type II environmental labelling).
Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
ISO 14025:2006. Environmental labels and declarations. Type III environmental declarations. Principles and procedures. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
European platform on LCA | EPLCA. Environmental footprint. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
Blue Angel
–
The German Ecolabel: DE-UZ 154 Basic Award Criteria. Edition January 2023, version 2. Available at
this link.
Last
accessed on 12 January 2024.
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Ecolabel
Coop
Naturaline:Switzerland
Cradle to Cradle
Certified (CM) Products
Program
Danish Indoor Climate
Label
ECOLOGO
Criteria
Biodiversity, chemicals, GMOs, natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides,
soil, toxics, wastewater/sewage
Chemicals, energy production/source, energy use/efficiency, forests, material use,
natural resources, recycling, toxics,
waste, wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Other (emission to indoor air)
Animal welfare, biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emissions, Carbon/GHG offsets,
Chemicals, energy production/sources, energy use/efficiency, forests, GMOs,
material use, natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, soil,
toxics, waste, wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Carbon/GHG emission, Carbon/GHG offsets, chemicals, energy production/sources,
energy use/efficiency, material use, natural resources,
pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, soil, toxics, waste, wastewater/sewage,
water quality, water use
Carbon/GHG emission, Carbon/GHG offsets, chemicals, energy production/source,
energy use/efficiency, material use, natural resources, recycling, toxics, waste,
water quality, water use
Chemicals, energy use/efficiency, forests, material use, natural resources,
recycling, toxics, waste, wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Animal welfare, biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emissions, energy use/efficiency, GMOs,
natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, soil, water use
Biodiversity, energy use/efficiency, forests, GMOs, natural resources,
pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, soil, toxics, waste, water use
Chemicals, GMOs, Material use, natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides,
soil, toxics, wastewater/sewage, water quality
Chemicals, energy production/sources, energy use/efficiency, forests, material use,
natural resources, toxics
Animal welfare, Carbon/GHG emissions, Carbon/GHG offsets, chemicals, energy
production/sources, energy use/efficiency, GMOs, material use, natural resources,
pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, toxics, waste water quality
Other (workplace environmental conditions)
Biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emissions, chemicals, energy production/sources, energy
use/efficiency, forests, material use, natural resources, recycling, toxics, waste,
wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Chemicals, toxics
Animal welfare, biodiversity, chemicals, energy use/efficiency, GMOs, material use,
natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, toxics, waste,
wastewater/sewage, water use
For floor coverings. Chemicals, toxics, other (indoor air quality)
Fire testing certification. Chemicals, forests, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, soil,
toxics
For carpets. Chemicals, wastewater/sewage, water quality
Animal welfare, biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emissions, chemicals, energy
production/sources, energy use/ efficiency, forests, GMOs, material use, natural
resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, soil, toxics, waste,
wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Carbon/GHG emissions, chemicals, energy production/sources, energy
use/efficiency, forests, material use, natural resources,
pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, soil, toxics, waste, wastewater/sewage,
water quality, water use
Animal welfare, biodiversity, chemicals, forests, GMOs, natural resources,
pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, soil, toxics
Carbon/GHG emission, chemicals, energy production/sources, energy
use/efficiency, material use, natural resources, recycling, soil, toxics, waste,
wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
ISO TYPE
NA
NA
NA
Type I
196
Ekologicky setrny
vyrobek/Environmentally
Friendly Product
Environmental product
declaration (EPD)
EU Ecolabel
Fair for life
Fairtrade
Global Organic Textile
Standard
Good Environmental
choice “Bra Miljoval”
Good Shopping Guide
Ethical Award
Good Weave
Green Crane: Ukraine
Greenguard
Green Shape
GUT
IMO Certified
Label Step
Milieukeur: the Dutch
environmental quality
label
National Programme of
Environmental
Assessment and
Ecolabelling in the
Slovak Republik
(NPEHOV)
Naturland e.V.
Nordic Swan Ecolabel
Type I **
Type III
197
Type I
198
NA
Type II***
NA
Type I
199
NA
NA
Type I****
Type II*
NA
NA
NA
NA
Type I**
Type I**
NA
Type I
200
196
197
Ecogloballabel website available
here
EPD website available
here
198
Ecolabel website available
here
199
Idem
200
Nordic Swan website available
here
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Ecolabel
Oeko-Tex Standard 100
Criteria
Toxics prohibited by law, chemicals harmful to health
OK biobased
ÖkoControl
Ølabel: Norway
Processed Chlorine Free
SEE What You Are
Buying Into
Singapore Green Label
Scheme (SGLS)
Skal Eko Symbol
SMaRT Consensus
Sustainable Product
Standards
Soil Association Organic
Standard
SustentaX
Terra Cycle
Totally Chlorine Free
5860
5861
5862
5863
5864
5865
5866
5867
5868
WindMade
Carbon/GHG emission, material use, natural resources, waste
Forests, natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, toxics
Chemicals, forests, GMOs, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, soil
Biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emissions, Carbon/GHG offsets, chemicals, energy
production/sources, energy use/efficiency, forests, material use, natural resources,
pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, toxics, waste, wastewater/sewage,
water quality, water use
Animal welfare, biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emissions, Carbon/GHG offsets, energy
production/sources, energy use/efficiency, GMOs, material use, natural resources,
recycling, waste, other
Animal welfare, biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emission, Carbon/GHG offsets,
chemicals, energy production/sources, energy use/efficiency, forests, GMOs,
material use, natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, soil,
toxics, waste, wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Pesticides/herbicides/fungicides
Animal welfare, biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emissions, Carbon/GHG offsets,
Chemicals, energy production/sources, energy use/efficiency, forests, GMOs,
material use, natural resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, soil,
toxics, waste, wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Animal welfare, biodiversity, chemicals, forests, GMOs, natural resources,
pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, soil, toxics
Animal welfare, Carbon/GHG emissions, Carbon/GHG offsets, chemicals, energy
production/sources, energy uses/efficiency, forests, material use, natural
resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, soil, toxics, waste,
wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Carbon/GHG offsets, material use, recycling, waste
Biodiversity, Carbon/GHG emissions, Carbon/GHG offsets, chemicals, energy
production/sources, energy use/efficiency, forests, GMOS, material use, natural
resources, pesticides/herbicides/fungicides, recycling, soil, toxics, waste,
wastewater/sewage, water quality, water use
Carbon/GHG emission, energy production/sources
ISO TYPE
Other Type I-like
voluntary
sustainable
scheme
201
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Type I
202
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
The topic of ‘Toxics’ addresses harmful substances that are already prohibited or regulated; whereas the topic of ‘Harmful chemicals’
address substances that are known to be harmful to health, but are not officially banned. N.B. The authors of the referenced study
use the term ‘Chemicals’ when referring to ‘Harmful chemicals’.
The authors
of the referenced study do not specify if the topic of ‘Waste’ addresses any kind of waste generated along the value chain,
or
waste generated at a specific stage. No further explanation/specification is provided for other topics.
NA: Not available.
Source:
own
elaboration
based
on
(Ranasinghe
and
Jayasooriya,
2021)
and
*(Ranasinghe and Jayasooriya, 2021), **(LEITAT, 2017), *** (Ziyeh and Cinelli, 2023), ****(UNEP, 2023b)
the
Ecolabel
Index (
203
).
201
202
203
Ecogloballabel website available
here
Idem
Ecolabel Index. Website available at this link. Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
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5869
5870
5871
10.5 Supporting information on market analysis
10.5.1 Recycling plants
Table 77.
Number of textile recycling plants classified per location
Region
Country
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Spain
Sweden
Norway
Switzerland
UK
Israel
Türkiye
Mauritius
Morocco
Bangladesh
China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
Pakistan
Singapore
Taiwan
Thailand
Canada
Guatemala
Mexico
USA
Australia
Mechanical
Pilot
All
scale
0
NA
3
NA
3
NA
3
1
4
NA
5
NA
13 1
6
2
11 2
0
NA
0
NA
0
NA
1
NA
0
NA
3
NA
1
NA
1
NA
1
NA
4
1
11 1
1
NA
3
NA
1
NA
3
NA
1
NA
1
NA
1
NA
1
NA
1
NA
1
NA
5
NA
0
NA
Full
scale
NA
2
2
2
3
5
9
3
9
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
3
1
1
1
2
7
NA
2
1
2
NA
1
1
1
1
1
5
NA
Unknown
scale
NA
1
1
NA
1
NA
3
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
3
1
1
NA
1
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Chemical
Pilot
All
scale
1
NA
0
NA
1
1
2
2
1
1
0
NA
4
1
1
1
0
NA
1
NA
1
NA
3
1
0
NA
1
NA
0
NA
0
NA
0
NA
0
NA
5
NA
1
NA
1
NA
1
NA
0
NA
0
NA
0
NA
8
1
0
NA
1
1
0
NA
0
NA
7
4
1
NA
Full
scale
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
3
NA
NA
1
1
1
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
4
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
Na
6
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
1
Unknown
scale
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
1
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
2
NA
Total
1
3
4
5
5
5
17
7
11
1
1
3
1
1
3
1
1
1
9
12
2
4
1
3
1
9
1
2
1
1
12
1
EU
Europe (Non-EU)
Middle East
Africa
Asia
America
Oceania
5872
5873
5874
5875
The recycling plants identified were equal to 130. NA: Not available
Source: own elaboration based on Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database (
204
), (Jørgensen et al., 2022; Textile Exchange,
2022a)
Table 78.
Number of textile recycling plants classified per input fibres
Input fibre
Cotton
Polyester (PES)
Blends of cotton and PES
Man-Made Cellulosic (MMC)
Polyamide (PA)
Wool
Blends of wool and synthetic fibres
Acrylic (PAC)
Other plant-based
Other synthetic
Other blends
Mechanical
Pilot
Tot
scale
53
4
51
2
14
1
5
NA
13
1
40
5
21
NA
13
1
10
NA
8
NA
6
NA
Full
scale
41
36
12
5
10
33
17
11
10
7
5
Unknown
scale
8
13
1
NA
2
2
4
1
NA
1
1
Chemical
Pilot
Tot
scale
17
7
26
13
9
3
5
1
6
NA
0
NA
0
NA
0
NA
1
NA
0
NA
1
NA
Full
scale
8
8
5
3
5
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
1
Unknown
scale
2
5
1
1
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Total
70
77
23
10
19
40
21
13
11
8
7
204
Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 31 January 2024.
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Input fibre
5876
5877
5878
5879
5880
5881
Silk
Mechanical
Pilot
Tot
scale
4
1
Full
scale
3
Unknown
scale
NA
Chemical
Pilot
Tot
scale
0
NA
Full
scale
NA
Unknown
scale
NA
Total
4
Numerous plants could process more than one type of textile fibre.
NA: Not available
Source: own elaboration based on Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database (
205
), (Jørgensen et al., 2022; Textile Exchange,
2022a)
10.5.2 Comparison among BREFs
Table 79.
Environmental performance levels for emission to water by BREFs in the World
Country/organisation
European
Union
(EU-BREF)
India
(MINAS)
South
Korea
United
States
(US EPA)
World
Bank
(EHS
Guideline)
1
China
Environmental
parameter
AOX (mg/L)
0.1-0.4
NA
NA
NA
1.4-35.2
kg/kkg(*)
Daily max
0.7-17.6
kg/kkg (*)
30-day avg
30-40 (only for
a specific wool
treatment)
BOD (mg/L)
No
BAT-AEL
applies for BOD
(**)
30
NA
New
1.4–16.9
kg/kkg (*)
Daily max
0.7-8.7
kg/kkg (*)
30-day avg
21.3-256.8
kg/kkg (*)
Daily:
0.023-0.22
kg/kkg (*)
30-day
average:
0.011-0.11
kg/kkg
(*)
NA
NA
NA
30
NA
COD (mg/L)
40-100
100
18-30
160
7-30000
Chromium (mg/L)
0.01-0.1
2
0.5
0.5
NA
Copper (mg/L)
Nickel (mg/L)
Zinc (mg/L)
0.03-0.4
0.01-0.1
0.04-0.5
NA
NA
NA
1
0.25
-
0.5
0.5
2
NA
NA
NA
5882
5883
5884
5885
5886
(*) Kilograms per 1000 Kilograms. The conversion to milligrams per litre (mg/L) is not straightforward. For enhanced accuracy, it is deemed
more prudent to retain the unit in its original form in accordance with the United States Best Available Technology (BAT) standards.
(**) As an indication, the yearly average BOD5 level in
the effluent from a biological wastewater treatment plant will generally be ≤ 10
mg/L.
Source: (OECD, 2022)
205
Airtable - Sorting for Circularity - Recyclers Database. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 31 January 2024.
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5887
Table 80.
Environmental performance levels for emission to water by the Chinese BREF
Process
Fibres
Hemp
Origin of wastewater
Biological removal
Chemical removal of glue
Joint removal of glue
Boiling cocoon and filament processes
Refining: oil removal
Refining: water washing
Washing
Carbonization (**)
Silk-Resistant (***)
NA
Slurry removal
Cooking (****)
Bleaching
Mercerization
Dyeing
Printing
Organizing (*)
Dyeing
Organizing (*)
Pre-Treatment
Dyeing
Printing
Refining
Polyester fabric alkali reduction
Dyeing
Printing
Organizing (*)
Finishing
Finishing
AOX (mg/L) COD cr Concentration (mg/L)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
30-40
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
7-3000
2000-4000
1000-3000
80-400
20-12000
800-4000
40-9000
200-400
400-600
200-600
30-10000
1000-2000
200-400
500-2000
500-2500
1200-2000
2000-10000
800-2000
300-1000
1500-2500
500-1500
1200-2000
10-8000
10000-30000
500-800
1000-2000
2000-5000
500-800
1000-2000
Processing of
raw materials
Silk
Wool
Chemical fibres
Cotton, Hemp &
mixed machine
fabrics
Wool
Finishing
fabrics
Silk
Chemical Fibres
Knitwear
Yarn
5888
5889
5890
5891
5892
5893
5894
5895
5896
(*) Organizing wastewater includes waste finishing fluids and equipment cleaning wastewater.
(**) Carbonization is the process of removing plant impurities before the comb process by chemical means.
(***) The silk photorestriction process is the process of using chlorine as a chemical auxiliary to remove surface scales of wool and apply
softeners.
(****) Cooking is the process of further removing impurities such as grease, wax, pectin and other impurities of fibre using thermoaline and
surfactants
10.5.3 Service lifespan
Table 81.
Studies addressing the lifespan of textile apparel
Study
(WRAP, 2017a)
(Laitala and
Klepp, 2020a)
Type of
study
Technical
report
Scientific
article
Source of data
Online survey
Wardrobe survey and data
collected by previous research
studies
Comments
Country: UK
Sample: 3 244 people
Wardrobe survey:
Countries: China, Germany, Japan, the UK, and the
USA
Sample: 213–230 respondents per country.
Respondents’ statistics:
100% 18-64 years old
51.6% Women
48.4% Men
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Study
Type of
study
Source of data
Comments
Researched studies from:
Australia, Norway, UK (2 studies) Netherlands (2
studies), Denmark, Finland and Norway
Values proposed by part of the industry within the
development of the Product Environmental Footprint
Category Rules for apparel and footwear
The study uses this data to perform an
environmental assessment of the Swedish fashion
consumption
Average values from surveys carried out in:
Norway, Netherlands, Greece, Spain, USA, Sweden,
Germany, Poland, Australia, Canada and Finland
Country: UK
Sample: 6 000 interviewed users who purchase
clothing at least once a year. Analysis on 44 807
items
Data are provided by the association of Australian
dry cleaners.
(Quantis, 2022)
(Roos et al.,
2015)
(Laitala, IG Klepp,
et al., 2018a)
(Gray et al.,
2022)
Technical
report
Technical
report
Scientific
article
Key
Findings
Report
Technical
report
Producer judgement and
literature studies
Surveys and expert assumptions
supported by national statistics
on related topics
Elaboration based on surveys
Surveys
5897
5898
(Drycleaning
Institute, 2015)
Expert judgement
Source: Own elaboration
Table 82.
Parameters related to lifespan of specific types of apparel
Parameter
Average wear days per year
Implied wear days per month
Total days of wear for the garment's whole lifetime
Hours of wear during lifetime
Assumed days of wear per wash
Hours of wear per wash
Average number of washes for the target lifetime
Source: (WRAP, 2017a)
T-shirts Shirts Knitwear Jeans Socks
25
2.1
112.5
1 350
2
24
56
16
1.3
80
960
2
24
40
30
2.5
150
1 800
5
60
30
75
6.2
300
3 600
10
120
30
50
4.2
125
1 500
2
24
62
5899
5900
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5901
Table 83.
Possession span expressed as years by studies reported in Laitala et al. (2018)
Wardrobe Audit
Survey in Seven
Apparel type Countries
T-shirts
Shirts and
blouses
Sweaters and
midlayers
Jackets and
coats
4.6
4.6
5.8
5.3 (Jackets)
6.3 (Coats)
Wardrobe Audit
Interviews Norway
(Textile Waste)
4.2
NA
NA
4 (Jackets)
4.3 (Jeans)
4.1 (Skirts)
2.9 (Socks)
4.4
NA
NA
Survey.
Norway
NA
5.6
10.8
(woollen
sweaters)
Online
Survey.
UK
Surv
16 Households’
ey.
Purchases.
UK
Netherlands
6.8
7.2
7.1
11.5 (Jackets) / 11.6
(Coats)
Survey.
Netherla
nds
NA
NA
6.17
(Woollen
sweaters)
NA
2.45
(Cotton
jeans)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Survey (Germany.
Online
Poland. Sweden and Survey.
USA)
Finland
3-4
NA
NA
NA
NA
7.6 (Coats)
3-4 (Jeans)
NA
NA
2.3 (Socks)
NA
NA
NA
3
NA
NA
5.3
NA
4.5
5.7
4
3.3
3.3
(Blouses)
4.3 (shirts) 3.6
3.7
4.9 (Pants)
Pants and shorts 3.9 (Jeans)
Dresses. skirts
and jumpsuits
Leggings,
stockings. tights
and socks
Underwear
Swimwear
Textile apparel
accessories
4.5 (Dresses)
4.8 (Skirts)
3.6 (Socks and stockings)
2.5
NA
NA
4.5
6.5
(Jackets)
6.4 (Coats) 6.2 (Coats)
5.4 (Pants)
3.8
4.4
(Jeans)
NA
4.7
(Dresses)
5.2 (Skirts)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
3.1
(Jeans
)
6.2
NA
15.2 (Skirts)
1.8
NA
(Socks
2.4 (Socks) )
NA
2.4
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
5902
5903
Source: (Laitala, IG Klepp, et al., 2018a)
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5904
Table 84.
Possession span, expressed as years, of types of apparel with specific fibre content
Garment Category Cotton and blends Synthetic/Man made Wool and Blends Silk
Pants/trousers
Jackets
Coats
Sweaters
Shirts and blouses
Ties
Socks and stockings
Underwear
4.2
4.3
5.8
5.6
3.8
9.5
3.3
2.2
5.1
4.9
8.4
6.5
6.2
12.8
4.2
3.2
4.8
5.7
5.3
6.0
6.0
9.3
5.5
3.9
NA
NA
NA
NA
8.5
14.5
4.3
3.5
5905
5906
5907
5908
5909
5910
5911
5912
5913
5914
5915
5916
5917
5918
5919
5920
5921
5922
5923
5924
5925
5926
5927
5928
5929
5930
5931
5932
5933
5934
5935
5936
5937
5938
5939
Source: (Laitala, IG Klepp, et al., 2018a)
10.6 Supporting information about user behaviour
10.6.1 Pre-purchase aspects
Approximately, Europeans purchase 14.8 kg of textile products annually (EEA, 2022b; Vladimirova et al., 2024),
which includes 6.0 kg of clothing, or roughly 24 new garments each year. However, these numbers conceal
significant inequalities as purchasing frequency rises with income (WRAP, 2022; Vladimirova et al., 2024).
10.6.1.1 Reasons for purchasing
McNeill and Moore (2015) distinguished two specific approaches consumers have towards apparel: 1)
consumers who see apparel as purely functional and 2) those who view apparel as self-representational. This
influences what aspects are the most important for consumers at the point of sale.
A survey among Dutch consumers show that before shopping, almost half of 1 046 users claim to know what
they are going to buy (D&B, 2020a) and they indicate that the main reasons for buying apparel are the following
(listed in order from most to less common):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Look good or fun;
Replacing old, worn or broken apparel;
Buy “essential” apparel, meaning apparel that is basic and for everyday wear, i.e.
one-colour t-shirt;
Want to join the trend;
Want new apparel;
Need apparel for a special occasion.
Another survey targeting 200 Dutch consumers showcased that consumers may be more likely to buy new
apparel when is outdated, in terms of appearance or when they are afraid the item will break again quickly
after being repaired (milieu centraal, 2021).
A survey representative of the German population showed that a third of respondents associate fun with buying
apparel. In the 40-70 age group the proportion of those who enjoy buying apparel is significantly higher than
the population average. In the female surveys from this social group, it is more than 60%. Fun shopping for
apparel is also widespread among female respondents from the young group (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018a).
It shall be noted that there are a number of factors that may influence consumers buying behaviour: brand
perception and exclusivity, personal factors such as age, gender, culture, etc., marketing campaigns, economic
conditions, etc. (Anisha and Kalaivani, 2016; Khanna, 2021). In particular, malicious interface design strategies
have been investigated to trick users into decisions against their best interests, such as spending money
(Schäfer et al., 2023). These patterns are prevalent in digital services, including online shopping sites (Yada et
al., 2022).
An example of dark patterns that may be more prevalent in apparel purchases is the ‘low-stock
message’ which entail a false
claim that a product is nearly sold out to create a sense of urgency and encourage
quicker purchases (Schäfer et al., 2023). Moreover, the results of an analysis of webshops ran by the Swiss
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5940
5941
5942
5943
5944
5945
5946
5947
5948
5949
5950
5951
5952
5953
5954
5955
5956
5957
5958
5959
5960
5961
5962
5963
5964
5965
5966
5967
5968
5969
5970
5971
5972
5973
5974
5975
5976
5977
5978
5979
5980
5981
5982
5983
5984
5985
5986
5987
5988
5989
5990
5991
5992
5993
consumer organisation (FRC) and the association Public Eye, showcased that dark patterns frequently tempt
consumers to purchase additional items. For instance, 13 shops displayed supposedly matching items as soon
as something was added to the online shopping cart, while 10 shops calculated shipping costs to encourage
higher spending if the purchase amount is too low (FRC and Public Eye, 2022).Apparel is often bought
spontaneously without thinking long beforehand. Only 16% of the respondents clearly disagree with the
corresponding statement. In turn, the proportions of spontaneous buyers and those
who regularly ‘declutter’
their wardrobe to make room for new things are above average in the 40-70 age group. More than 60% of
female respondents in this population segment are frequent spontaneous buyers. The relatively high proportion
of spontaneous buyers as a whole, leads to the conclusion that only a minority inform themselves correctly
before buying apparel. The differences between the social groups are not particularly large in this regard
(Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018a).
The aspects affecting the purchase decision of apparel among consumers could be influenced by discount offers
that stimulate impulsive purchases both in on-line sites and in physical shops (Djafarova and Bowes, 2021). In
fact, a phenomenon that affects both type of stores around the globe is the New Year sales which incentivise
the purchase motivation (Amasawa and Kimita, 2023). It seems clear that the more impulsive purchases
consumers make, the more often they buy apparel per year while also spending more money on apparel each
month (D&B, 2020a).
Even though visual aids are used in social media channels to produce a similar purchasing experience to the
one in physical stores (Djafarova and Bowes, 2021), the impulse purchases seem to be more associated to the
physical stores and affect especially the younger population (Cook and Yurchisin, 2017). However, online
retailers have also reported that a significant portion of their customer base comprised individuals who engaged
in casual shopping for fashion items without a specific utilitarian purpose often characterized as impulse buyers
(Vinted, 2021). When users have events coming up (parties, travelling plans, etc.) then, purchases of apparel
become a priority and this may lead to impulsive purchases (Hultén and Vanyushyn, 2014). Impulse purchase
tendency may be also triggered more often among consumers who are wealthier and also have more time
available for purchasing apparel (Hultén and Vanyushyn, 2014).
Moreover, according to a survey among 2 500 consumers in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Italy, France and
Germany, offering discounts can prompt excessive consumption, leading to feelings of regret among buyers.
Although the initial thrill of finding a bargain can be exhilarating, it often results in impulsive purchases and a
focus on obtaining deals rather than considering actual needs. Zalando survey indicates that 65% of consumers
prioritize low prices or discounts when shopping apparel. The allure of a discounted purchase is particularly
strong, with 52% of females and 46% of males emphasizing the importance of the excitement associated with
buying. This tendency suggests that many consumers may prioritize the thrill of the purchase over making
thoughtful, sustainable choices, potentially leading to overconsumption. Interestingly, despite recognizing that
impulsive bargain hunting contradicts their sustainability values, consumers frequently experience post-
purchase regret. A substantial 82% of respondents admit to feeling some form of regret after shopping, with
28% expressing concerns about environmental impacts and labour conditions during production (Heiny and
Schneide, 2021).
10.6.1.2 Criteria used when buying apparel
Studies revealed four main attributes concerning apparel purchase decision: brand, style, place of purchase, and
price (Iwanow et al., 2005, as cited in Harris et al., 2016). Price being one of the main drivers in apparel purchase
decision
(Adıgüzel et al., 2020).
Fashion trends are significantly more important for younger consumers than for older ones (AK Wienn and
Greenpeace, 2023a; Spaepen et al., 2021) and they are even seen as a sign of success (AK Wienn and
Greenpeace, 2023a). Preference for brand new items and aspects such as comfort when wearing an item of
apparel, its country of origin, type of textile material and even knowledge about the brand are important drivers
for older generations of consumers (Generation X and Baby Boomers) (Spaepen et al., 2021).
According to Mishra et al., 2023,
perceived value refers to “the subjective
evaluation of the worth or benefits
that a customer believes they will receive from a product or service”. In this sense, a survey of over 3
000
American adults of over 18 years old indicates that ‘value’ was the first driver influencing purchasing behaviour
across apparel followed by quality (Thredup, 2023). Similarly, 1 506 Austrians were surveyed about their
apparel consumption and most of them reported functionality (92%) and quality (85%) to be among the most
important criteria when purchasing apparel (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a). The monetary value of the
apparel follows the ranking closely with 78% of respondents who claim that a low price is a very important
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5994
5995
5996
5997
5998
5999
6000
6001
6002
6003
6004
6005
6006
6007
6008
6009
6010
6011
6012
6013
6014
6015
6016
6017
6018
6019
6020
6021
6022
6023
6024
6025
6026
6027
6028
6029
6030
6031
6032
6033
6034
6035
6036
6037
6038
6039
6040
6041
6042
6043
6044
6045
6046
6047
factor when acquiring apparel (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a).Similarly, among the primary factors
influencing Spanish consumers' apparel purchases are quality and price, with environmental impacts also
playing a significant role, being quite or very influential for 44.2% of over 2 000 surveyed consumers (CECU,
2023).
Currently, the EU lacks harmonized labelling regulations that require the disclosure of working conditions where
textile products are made. This lack of information on social responsibility is seen as an issue by 65% of
respondents to the Textile Labelling Regulation Public Consultation, as it makes it difficult to make informed
purchasing decisions (Evaluation report of the Textile Labelling Regulation, under development).
Sustainability and social standards with around 40% of respondents considering them as less important drivers
in the purchasing decision (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a). This is in line with the responses from German
consumers who indicate that ecological and social criteria play only a minor role in the purchase of apparel
(Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018a) and the average of respondents who claim that environmental aspects were
unimportant in their last purchase of a coat (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency. et al.,
2018). Moreover, 35% of 2 500 survey respondents indicate that they often opt for a deal instead of a
sustainable item (Heiny and Schneide, 2021). In the young and low-income population segments such criteria
are given far less importance (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018a). Nonetheless, the responses of three-quarters of
respondents to the survey suggest that a possible pollutant exposure could prevent them from buying certain
apparel (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018a). In any case, social criteria considerations are relevant for the revision
of the EU Ecolabel criteria on textiles.
A survey in Germany explored the social importance given to apparel by gender and by groups with similar
socioeconomic positions and cultural values (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018a). In this survey, more than half of
the respondents indicated a certain reluctance to buy apparel, with 26% who actually try to get by with few
apparel. The proportion of men in the precarious group, who claim to be reluctant to buy apparel is significantly
higher at 46.6%. In the focus groups it had already become clear that many of them have inhibitions to throw
away apparel. This is in line with the fact that 78% of respondents strongly agree with the statement that
apparel should be used for as long as possible and should only be disposed if it is no longer wearable. The
intention to use the apparel for as long as possible is significantly lower in the higher age groups (40 to 70
years with higher level of education). Also the statement “I like apparel that I can wear in many occasions” has
been repeated in all groups of survey participants. Although in the youth segment, comparatively there is less
interest in versatile apparel (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018a).
Additionally, more than half of users below 25 years old (Generation Z) are more likely to shop with a brand
that offers second hand alongside new (Thredup, 2023). Moreover, Generation Z values unique apparel and the
possibility of ordering and returning items online (Spaepen et al., 2021). Moreover, the Thredup survey (2023)
indicates that resale is increasingly driving the purchasing decisions of Generation Z users, in concrete 82% of
them have considered the resale value of apparel before buying it compared to only 58% of the overall
consumers.
According to Kleinhückelkotten et al. (2018) purchasing decisions of the German population are not very much
influenced by whether the apparel was made nationally or is easy to repair. However, a very large proportion
of respondents claim to pay attention to the easy to maintain aspect when buying apparel (Kleinhückelkotten
et al., 2018a). In contrast, a survey from Fashion Revolution (2020) revealed that 75% of surveyed German
consumers consider important that brands provide repair and care information about an apparel item, the
average being 79% of 5 000 consumers across five countries (Fashion Revolution, 2020). The survey
participants were between 16 and 75 years old (Fashion Revolution, 2020).
It shall be noted that the surveys analysed so far do not specifically address sportswear. On the contrary, a
Cotton Incorporated’s survey
investigated
consumer’s
attitudes and behaviours on sportswear purchases. The
survey targeted 1 500 gendered balanced consumers, ages 13 to 70, representative of the United States
population found that found that top purchase drivers for sportswear among consumers were: comfort (77%),
fit (69%), washes clean (65%), quality (64%) and durability (62%) (Cotton Incorporated, 2014)
10.6.1.3 Quality assessment of apparel
Consumer satisfaction with the quality of an apparel product can be measured in three phases: at the point of
purchase, while using the item, and ultimately, when it is disposed. Quality is generally first evaluated “pre-use”
and then experienced “during use”
(Piippo et al., 2022a).
Fashion is a highly tactile experience in which purchasing decisions are often made based on how the apparel
or
accessory ‘feels’ and how the quality is perceived
(De Klerk and Lubbe, 2008; Williams and Ackerman, 2011;
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6048
6049
6050
6051
6052
6053
6054
6055
6056
6057
6058
McLaren et al., 2016; Vladimirova et al., 2022). Yet, for consumers it is very difficult to assess the quality and
durability of apparel at the point of purchase (Harris et al., 2016; McLaren et al., 2016). Goworek et al. (2012)
reported that consumers usually judge apparel quality by its feel (personal considerations) and the brand. In
any case, it shall be noted that the topic of longevity in relation to visual or aesthetic degradation has been
minimally explored in existing literature. The lack of information on how expected longevity evolves over time
is a significant barrier (Kumar et al., 2023). This gap not only may prevent consumers from making informed
purchasing decisions but also complicates their ability to use the apparel item effectively according to Kumar
et al., (2023).
Several researchers have tried to gather the aspects that influence the perception of quality in apparel (Table
85).
Table 85.
Aspects that influence the perception of quality in apparel
Intrinsic product attributes
Material
Manufacturing quality
Fit
Extrinsic producer factors
Price
Brand
Manufacturing location
Experienced features
Tactile feeling
Functionality
Durability
Emotional value
Fit
Availability
Context
Price
Values, convictions
Low environmental impact
Local production
Ethical production
6059
6060
6061
6062
6063
6064
6065
6066
6067
6068
6069
6070
6071
6072
6073
6074
6075
6076
6077
6078
6079
6080
6081
6082
6083
6084
6085
6086
6087
6088
6089
6090
6091
6092
Source: Adapted from Niinimäki, (2011); Koszewska, (2016); Henninger et al., (2017)
The aspects reported in
Table 85
are mentioned in different consumer surveys. Overall, it is documented that
price is usually associated by consumers as a quality indicator (Keiser et al., 2012 as cited in Wakes et al.,
2020). In an American survey, it was documented that 58% of users thought that the apparel with lower price
had worse quality compared to higher-priced items, and 78% (ages 13–24 years and 35–70 years) indicated
that “you get what you pay for” implying that apparent better quality apparel may be the ones that have higher
price (Monitor, Cotton Incorporated Lifestyle, 2018).
Durability and ease of care characteristics seem not to be considered per se, by users when they are buying
apparel (De Klerk and Lubbe, 2008; Wakes et al., 2020a). However, this may be because quality and durability
are associated by consumers and industry specialists (Yuille, 2015; Wakes et al., 2020a). In other words, apparel
with perceived high quality is expected to be durable.
As it happens when assessing the quality of apparel, consumers’ expectations of apparel longevity are mostly
related to the price (Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022). This is a particular believe for younger generations (Monitor,
Cotton Incorporated Lifestyle 2018 as cited in Wakes et al., 2020). Nonetheless, price may not correctly reflect
the quality and hence, the durability to laundering, for instance (Ghaani Farashahi et al., 2018b; Wakes et al.,
2020a; Badgett, 2017). In fact, some studies have proved that cheaper apparel are not always a synonym of
worse quality (Wakes et al., 2020a; Badgett, 2017). Nonetheless, according to Harris et al., (2016) the price is
the deal breaker when it comes to decide whether to buy a piece of apparel or not, even among environmentally
aware consumers.
Lifetimes expectations for consumers are also linked to where the apparel are purchased, care requirements,
material and purpose/context (Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022). It is interesting to note that 43% of Austrian survey
participants declared their willingness to buy long-lasting apparel despite of the price while 30% of them
already buy them (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a). In addition, 55% out of 1 000 German consumers would
be willing to pay more for their apparel if being certain about increased durability (VZBV, 2022). In a Zalando
survey, 58% of 2 500 consumers consider long-lasting quality to be significant in apparel, with 52% stating
that they frequently consider this aspect while shopping. Similarly, 45% of respondents prioritize value for
money (Heiny and Schneide, 2021).
10.6.1.4 Information reported on apparel labels
Apparel labels and tags can have the same meaning. Generally speaking, the word label is used to refer to an
attachment that is not meant to be removed from the apparel and provides details about it. The term tag may
be referred to any type of attachment, whether made out of paper or cardboard including tags attached at the
point of sale intended for removal.
Textile products sold in the EU must have a label and comply with the EU labelling requirements set in the EU
Textile Labelling Regulation (TLR) 1007/2011 (
14
). According to the mentioned Regulation, the label must be
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6093
6094
6095
6096
6097
6098
6099
6100
6101
6102
6103
6104
6105
6106
6107
6108
6109
6110
6111
6112
6113
6114
6115
6116
6117
6118
6119
6120
6121
6122
6123
6124
6125
6126
6127
6128
6129
6130
6131
6132
6133
6134
6135
6136
6137
6138
6139
6140
6141
firmly attached to the apparel and must contain information on fibre composition. Moreover, the information
on textile composition must be separated from other type of information such as product care.
Information about care of the apparel is voluntary, according to EU law
206
and in general practice, but can also
be legally required, notably by Member States and third countries (GINETEX, 2017a). In fact, currently, nine
Member States mandate care labelling through their national laws, while others only offer it as a recommended
option (Evaluation report of the Textile Labelling Regulation, under development). In most instances, the
legislation does not specify how this requirement should be implemented. However, some countries, like Estonia,
directly reference ISO standards in their national laws. In Austria, care symbols are provided in an annex to the
national legislation (Evaluation report of the Textile Labelling Regulation, under development). When it comes
to care labelling, manufacturers and even retailers can provide the product care instructions using symbols or
offering a written explanation (GINETEX, 2017a).
It is interesting to note that when it comes to making informed consumer decisions, around 75% of respondents
to the TLR Public Consultation consider it a problem the lack of harmonised labelling rules regarding care
information of textile products and textile related products (Evaluation report of the Textile Labelling Regulation,
under development).
Information about user attention to apparel care labels is available in Section 10.6.2.8. However, when it comes
to labels in general, little is known about the extent to which consumers pay attention to them. For instance,
1 056 Portuguese consumers were surveyed about their habit of reading labels before purchasing apparel. The
results were somewhat mixed, with the majority (53%) indicating that they do have this habit, while 39%
reported that they do not typically read labels before making a purchase (Ribeiro et al., 2023).
An attitude-behaviour gap survey from Zalando showed that 58% of 2 500 respondents indicate that they
should understand certain aspects of the apparel item, i.e. the materials used. However, just 38% regularly
check the label for information (Heiny and Schneide, 2021). Similarly, while 60% of the survey participants
express the significance of transparency about apparel aspects, only 20% actively pursue information during
their buying journey (Heiny and Schneide, 2021). In like manner, a significant 74% of a sample of 1 000 Italian
consumers expressed a strong need for clearer and more transparent information regarding the true
sustainability of apparel and the production processes behind them (Altroconsumo and IPSOS, 2024).
Furthermore, a 2010 Eurobarometer survey found that 50% of 26 635 European citizens check the country of
origin when buying textiles and clothing, and over half of those individuals reported that this influences their
decision (28% of all respondents). This indicates that country of origin labelling plays a significant role in
consumers' purchasing choices (European Commission, 2010). Related to this, a survey from the Spanish
Consumer Organization (OCU) targeting 340 Spanish consumers indicated that 42% of respondents admit
looking at the origin of the apparel in order to buy locally or not to buy from countries contributing to labour
exploitation (OCU, 2018). Some of the Spanish consumers who responded to the same survey check the labels
to get information about the material composition as 38% of them have personal preferences towards natural
origin fibres while 25% avoid synthetic fibres due to the microplastic release occurring after washing the
apparel (OCU, 2018).
Overall, textile labels and the information they provide are considered valuable only if they are trusted by
consumers (Circle Economy, 2020 as cited in the Evaluation report of the Textile Labelling Regulation, under
development). This is especially important for voluntary labels that highlight the sustainability features of textile
products (Circle Economy, 2020 as cited in the Evaluation report of the Textile Labelling Regulation, under
development). In this light, users seem to have a growing interest in EU ecolabelled products in the category of
‘textiles, clothing/footwear’. In particular, 71% out of 26
635 survey respondents in the EU27 Member States
express a desire to find more of the abovementioned products carrying the EU Ecolabel. This sentiment is
prevalent in all countries, with varying percentages (from 54% in Czechia to 83% in Portugal and Romania)
(European Commission. Directorate General for Environment, 2023).
10.6.1.5 Attitudes towards second-hand apparel purchase
In recent years, there has been a notable shift in consumer behaviour towards the adoption of second-hand
apparel, reflecting evolving preferences and attitudes. In fact, more than three out of ten (34% of 26 595
206 The ongoing review of the Textile Labelling Regulation is exploring whether to harmonise and even render care labelling mandatory
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respondents) would purchase second-hand textiles (apparel and home textiles included in this category)
(European Commission. Directorate General for Environment, 2014). Another survey indicates that 17% out of
11 483 European consumers purchase their apparel in second-hand shops while 12% buy them on resale apps
(YouGov, 2021). Additionally, more than 70% of 27 498 respondents across the European Union agree that
second-hand apparel should be promoted more (European Commission, 2019). In fact, 65% of 2 500 Spanish
consumers expressed their desire to give a second life to their apparel items as 87% of them believe that is
important (Asociación para la Gestión del Residuo Textil y el Calzado, 2024). Despite of this, surveys have found
that the attitudes and the consumer behaviours are not always aligned. This is the case for 61% of users who
think that second-hand purchase is important but only 25% of them buy second-hand apparel (Heiny and
Schneide, 2021).
There seems to be gender disparities as women exhibit a higher inclination towards buying second-hand apparel
compared to men (European Commission. Directorate General for Environment, 2014; YouGov, 2021). The age
dynamics indicate that younger demographics, particularly 18-25 year-olds, lead in second-hand apparel
adoption, contrasting with relatively lower participation among those aged 26-40 (D&B, 2020a). This is
supported by the findings in AK Wienn and Greenpeace (2023), young consumers (aged 16-29) buy far more
second-hand apparel (both online and offline). The primary drivers behind the adoption of second-hand apparel
include financial savings, sustainability/environmental consciousness, and a preference for unique, vintage
pieces (D&B, 2020a).
It shall be noted that the second-hand cycle relies on the primary market and consumer behaviour, with
consumers acting as both partners and suppliers by disposing of items in good, reusable condition, thereby
making used apparel available for second-hand use (Machado et al., 2019 as cited in Turunen and Gossen
2024). Consequently, there is a dual role for consumers: those disposing of apparel items with the intention to
receive money from them (sellers) and those interested in purchasing used clothing (buyers) (Turunen and
Gossen, 2024).
Moreover, preliminary observations from the Turunen and Gossen (2024) study indicates that current second-
hand business models also incorporate consumption-promoting marketing strategies. The study also noted an
increase in unworn or slightly used items on second-hand platforms. The use of subscription models to
encourage ongoing buying and selling, may result in shorter garment lifespans. Turunen and Gossen (2024)
also highlight that self-service flea markets, with their lower prices, may attract treasure hunters more for the
shopping experience than the actual purchases, sometimes leading to less responsible buying behaviour of
apparel (Turunen and Gossen, 2024).
The
‘replacement rate’
for apparel items is understood as
“the
degree to which the purchase of second-hand
articles replaces the purchase of similar new items” (Nørup et al., 2019; Trzepacz et al., 2023). On one hand,
there are studies which highlight that second-hand purchases, generally speaking, tend to have a reduction
effect on the purchase of new apparel (Klepp et al., 2020b; Vinted, 2021) thus extending the life of existing
apparel (Klepp et al., 2020a). In particular, some studies operate under the assumption of a one-to-one
replacement ratio, meaning that buying a used apparel item completely offsets the purchase of a new one
(Trzepacz et al., 2023). However, various studies indicate that actual replacement rates differ significantly
(Sandin and Peters, 2018; Trzepacz et al., 2023). For instance, results of a survey based on over 350 000
responses across eight European markets showed that 39 out of 100 people buying a second-hand product on
the retailer’s website would have avoided purchasing a new product
(Vinted, 2021). Depending on the product
category, significant variation in the avoided purchase rate was observed for instance, coats and jackets were
among the products having high replacement rate (Vinted, 2021). In Farrant et al., (2010), purchasing 100
second-hand apparel items would save between 60 and 85 new ones, depending on the location where they
are reused.
Consequently, more research and other variables should be taken into account when considering estimations
of replacement rates (Trzepacz et al., 2023). As for example, an apparel item with low quality, sold after just
one use, may avoid the purchase of other items. However, due to its low quality, the usability of the item may
be limited. This means there may be cases in which buying brand-new items with higher quality could have
better impact on the environment than buying second-hand apparel items with lower quality.
10.6.1.6 Attitudes towards the purchase of apparel made without harmful chemicals
Over 85% of 27 498 respondents of an EU-wide survey expressed concern about how chemicals found in
everyday products may affect their health (European Commission, 2019). In particular, consumers have
reported to be increasingly concerned about the use of hazardous chemicals in apparel (Evaluation report of
the Textile Labelling Regulation, under development).
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6227
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6248
According to 61,2% of over 2 000 Spanish consumers, the restriction of hazardous chemicals in apparel is the
second most important measure that policy makers should take after ensuring clothes are produced in fair
conditions (CECU, 2023).
A survey involving 26 718 citizens across the 27 EU Member States found that the chemicals in the apparel
fabrics are generally perceived as minimally risky, with 60% of Europeans viewing them as not posing a risk to
people. Among different fabric types, synthetics are viewed as posing the highest risk, although only 22% of
Europeans categorize them as presenting a significant health risk (European Commission, 2009).
Fabrics with chemical-specific quality labels indicating the absence of harmful chemicals to health and the
environment, are thought to carry lower risks and materials like wool, cotton, or linen are perceived as entirely
risk-free. Europeans hold divergent views on the relevance health and environmental risks when purchasing
apparel
–
some consider it highly important, while an equivalent proportion does not find it significant (European
Commission, 2009).
Europeans were also surveyed about the significance they attribute to potential health and environmental risks
associated with fabric when purchasing apparel for themselves or their families. Of the respondents, 18%
consider it fairly important, while nearly four in ten respondents find it very important (39%), and a similar
proportion deems it not important (37%). A country-level analysis reveals that approximately two-thirds of
respondents in Germany and Slovakia find environmental and health risks very important when buying apparel.
Conversely, in Denmark and the United Kingdom, more than six in ten respondents consider this aspect not
important (European Commission, 2009).
Additionally, data from the Fashion Revolution (2020) consumer survey shows that an average of 37% of 5 000
consumers in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy and Spain consider important to buy apparel that is
not produced using harmful chemicals. On top of that, a survey from Sveriges Konsumenter (2020) shows that
86% of 1 000 surveyed Swedes would like to access information about the content of harmful chemicals in
apparel at the time of purchase. The Fashion Revolution survey does not provide information about the type of
chemicals. It shall be noted that all age groups, genders and users with different income provided no important
differences in the responses.
10.6.1.7 Attitudes towards the purchase of apparel made with recycled materials
The Fashion Revolution (2020) survey indicated that an average of 11% of 5 000 European consumers from
the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy and Spain pointed out that it is important that the apparel they buy
contains recycled materials. Italy, is considerably above the average with 51% of users considering important
the presence of recycled materials in the apparel they purchase. Spain, France and Germany remain in the
average for the five countries. However, the survey does not offer information about such materials. In this
case, the group of respondents between 55 and 75 years old consider less important whether the apparel they
purchase have recycled materials or not, as only 7% declare so as opposed to the youngest age group (12-24
years old) in which 14% percent of users indicate the importance of buying apparel containing recycled
materials. No notable differences in survey responses exist between different income and gender groups.
Furthermore, three-quarters of 27 498 respondents of an EU-wide survey declared that apparel should only be
made from materials that can be recycled (European Commission, 2019).
10.6.2 Post-purchase aspects: the user behaviour during use
The post-purchase aspects of apparel encompass the use and care phases. Studies on laundering procedures
have been investigated from a variety of angles, including their impact on the environment and cleanliness.
Nevertheless, the majority of these research (Gooijer and Stamminger, 2016 as cited in Laitala et al., 2017)
solely consider machine washing, paying little attention to other cleaning techniques such as hand washing, dry
cleaning, airing, steaming, ironing, and stain removal (Laitala et al., 2017). These maintenance procedures have
a different environmental impact than machine cleaning and are widely used specially for woolen and delicate
apparel according to Laitala et al., (2017).
Moreover, the underlying drivers and barriers to sustainable consumer use and care are not sufficiently well
captured in the literature, especially regarding frequency of laundering apparel, number of uses and product’s
lifetime (Conrady et al., 2014; Yates and Evans, 2016; Luo et al., 2023b). In fact, retailers claim that the way
users take care of apparel determine their physical lifespan (McLaren et al., 2016). This is important as it seems
that not many consumers seem to be willing to change their laundering behaviour (Uitdenbogerd 2007 as cited
in Luo et al., 2023).
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6266
The frequency of laundering, washing temperature, number of days apparel are worn between washes and
chemicals used for washing the apparel are among the factors that affect the durability of apparel and also
determine the extent of the environmental impacts associated to washing them. All these aspects are heavily
dependent on the behaviour of users which vary depending on the culture and climate (Laitala et al., 2017;
Klepp and Laitala, 2023b).
As a result, this chapter brings forward some information about different user laundering practices which
encompass the sorting of the apparel before washing, the washing temperature and washing frequency, the
drying method, the ironing or steaming process and the storage.
10.6.2.1 Sorting before washing
Textile materials have specific cleaning requirements, hence the importance of sorting before washing in order
to preserve the apparel shape and colour (Cooper and Claxton, 2022b; Klepp and Laitala, 2023b) and hence
extend the lifetime of the apparel (Cooper and Claxton, 2022b).
Figure 53 gives an overview of different sorting practices and average percentage of users that opt for each of
them. The results are based on responses from 545 users in Norway. It seems that sorting based on washing
temperature is the most popular sorting method while washing everything together without differentiation
between the apparel is not generally chosen by consumers.
Figure 53.
Laundry sorting methods
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6269
6270
6271
6272
6273
6274
6275
6276
6277
6278
6279
6280
6281
6282
Source: Laitala and Boks, (2012)
The sorting processes in laundry exhibit considerable variation, influenced by factors such as washing
temperature, colour, fibre type, usage area, and care labelling. Merely 3% of participants indicated a preference
for washing all items together. Younger respondents tend to categorize colours into just two groups (light and
dark). Sorting based on washing temperature is more prevalent among female participants and those in higher
age brackets. Woollen products are commonly segregated from other fibre types, with 73% of survey
respondents affirming that they avoid washing wool alongside other textile materials. Some consumers find it
challenging to amass a sufficient amount of apparel to fill the machine when using multiple sorting categories
(Laitala et al., 2012).
10.6.2.2 Washing temperature and washing frequency
The average laundry temperatures differ between different countries. The average European washing
temperature was 42.4°C in 2020 (A.I.S.E, 2020), in Scandinavia is 46.2°C and in Southern Europe lower 39.7°C
(A.I.S.E, 2017b). In the USA, the average temperature is 30°C, while in Japan is 20°C (Laitala et al., 2020).
Figure 54
shows that washing cycles at an average of 40°C have been found as the most commonly selected
washing temperature among consumers. This is also supported by the study from Laitala et al., (2012).
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Table 86.
Preferred washing temperatures for consumers
Sample details and
characteristics of the
study
Two waves of online surveys:
Wave 1 was conducted in
November 2016 and Wave 2
in June 2019.
The sample size in 2016 was
1 000 per country. In 2019
the samples were as follows:
Denmark 1 046; Germany
1 113; The Netherlands;
1 117 and Italy 1 226.
Preferred washing temperatures
(a)
20 or
cold
30
40
setting
Publication
Country
60
WRAP
(2019)
Denmark (DK),
Germany (DE),
The Netherlands
(NL) and Italy
(IT).
NA
Second most
frequently used
laundry wash
temperature in all
five countries.
Most frequently
used laundry
wash
temperature in
all five countries
NA
6284
6285
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6287
6288
6289
(a)
There is no information about the correlation between the temperatures indicated and the information reported on the care labels
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
Whether the washing temperatures in
Figure 54
are in line with care label recommendations of the apparel in
question is not specified in the study from Laitala et al., (2012). A total of 1 008 users participated in the survey
from Laitala et al., (2012) while the sample in 2010 was a bit more than half the size with 546 respondents.
Figure 54.
Distribution of washing temperatures for different textile products
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6296
6297
6298
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6300
6301
6302
6303
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6305
Source: Laitala and Boks, (2012)
The frequency of washing is a crucial factor in determining the longevity of apparel because it represents one
of the primary factors that can cause the apparel item to wear out and either extend or shorten its lifespan.
The average washing frequency per household in Europe is estimated in 3.8 washing cycles per week (Schmitz
and Stamminger, 2014; Klepp and Laitala, 2023; Laitala et al., 2018b).
The frequency of washing cycles is closely tied to the household's size. As the number of individuals in the
household rises, so does the overall number of washing cycles. However, the average number of washing cycles
per person decreases, suggesting a more efficient utilization of washing machine capacity (Klepp and Laitala,
2023b).
Other sources indicate that users wash their apparel items on average 10.9 times a month, excluding underwear
and socks (D&B, 2020a). Women (average 11.58 times per month) wash their apparel more often than men
(average 9.93 times per month). Additionally, users living in metropolitan areas tend to wash less often (8.2
times a month) than users whose home is in less urban areas (13.3 times a month in a non-urban area). The
analysis of the survey results from D&B (2020) found no explanation for this behavioural pattern. Age and
educational level, did not offer different results in washing frequency (D&B, 2020a).
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The duration of time that apparel is worn before being washed exhibits significant variability among different
types of apparel. Typically, items like underpants and socks are laundered after each use, whereas certain outer
apparel are infrequently washed (Laitala et al., 2018).
Table 87
displays the difference in number of uses prior to washing depending on the purpose of the category
of apparel.
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6311
Table 87.
Average number of uses of apparel categories prior to washing
Shirts
and
blouses
2
4.5
2/3
(Woollen
undershirt
s)
2
NA
Sweaters
and mid
layers
5
4.5
10 (Wool) /
5 (Cotton)
NA
NA
4.7
(Sweatshir
t and
hoodie)
Jackets
and
coats
20
4.5
NA
NA
100
14.5
(Non-
padded)
/ 16.7
(Padded)
Pants
and
shorts
3
4.5
5.5 (Jeans)
10 (Jeans)
9 (Jeans)
4.2
(Shorts) /
4.5
(Trousers)
/ 5.5
(Jeans)
Dresses
skirts and
jumpsuits
3
4.5
NA
NA
3 (Dresses)
Leggings
stockings
tights and
socks
2
4.5
2
2
NA
3.3
(Leggings) /
2.4 (Socks
and hosiery)
Textile
apparel
accessories
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Study
Quantis,
(2022)
Klepp et
al., (2020)
Laitala, IG
Klepp, et
al.,
(2018a)
WRAP,
(2017a)
Roos et al.,
(2015)
Gray et al.,
(2022)
T shirts
Underwear
Swimwear
Knitwear
1
4.5
1.5
(Cotton)
2
2
1
4.5
1
NA
NA
1
4.5
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
5
NA
2.6
2.3
3.2 (Skirt) /
2.6 (Dress)
3.5 (Bras)
1.7
NA
4.3
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6313
6314
6315
NA: Not available
Knitwear products could belong to more than one category from those considered
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
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6323
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6325
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6327
6328
The wardrobe survey conducted by Klepp et al. assessed the cleaning frequency among its respondents.
However, there is a big variability among respondents as 39% of them washes the apparel item after every
wear, 14% after every 2 wears, 11% after every 3 wears and 29% after every 4 wears or more (Klepp et al.,
2020a).
The study conducted by Laitala et al., 2018a presents an overview of studies that provide the average count of
wear instances before laundry for distinct types of apparel. It indicates that fibre types are an important factor
in determining the number of uses before washing (Laitala et al., 2018a) and overall influence the washing
frequency (Laitala et al., 2020)
When it comes to differences in the washing of textile categories and fibres, survey data of 23.392 apparel
representing five countries show that socks are washed more frequently compared to t-shirts and formal wear
Figure 55.
In terms of fibres, apparel made out of wool are washed less often compared to other fibres (Laitala
et al., 2020).
Figure 55.
Frequency of wash or dry clean per fibre content
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6339
6340
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6342
Source: Laitala et al., (2020).
The type of materials is likely to influence how often apparel is washed, as synthetic fabrics like polyester or
polyamide are prone to retaining strong body odours compared to apparel made from natural materials like
wool or cotton (Klepp and Laitala, 2023b).
Additionally, even identical types of apparel may undergo washing at distinct frequencies across various
countries. A study comparing laundering habits in five countries revealed that, for instance, the Japanese tend
to launder their formal wear less frequently (after an average of 8.8 wears) compared to Chinese and American
consumers, who wash them after 3.3 and 3.6 wears, respectively (Laitala et al., 2020). In this context, laundry
washes include the generic pre-programmed settings the washing machine runs to complete its work (washing,
rinsing, and spinning phase). In view of this, Italy has the highest (5.9) number of laundry washes per week,
while Germany has the lowest (4.0). However, the number of laundry washes per week have decreased since
2016 in Denmark (from 5.5 to 4.5 per week), Germany (4.4 to 4.0) and The Netherlands (6.0 to 4.8) (WRAP,
2019).
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6361
6362
6363
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6368
6369
6370
6371
6372
6373
6374
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6376
6377
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6379
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6382
6383
6384
6385
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6388
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6390
6391
6392
6393
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6395
The stronger users feel about the fact that washing apparel less often is not a habit a clean person would
follow, the more often they wash. This association of less washing with poor hygiene is also linked to our image:
we want to appear to others as a “clean” person, because that is the social norm
(D&B, 2020a). Additionally,
the more annoying users find the washing of apparel, the less often they do this. Individual beliefs about hygiene
and convenience play a role in how often users wash their apparel. Factors such as time, money and
environmental convictions do not seem to play a role in the frequency of washing apparel (D&B, 2020a).
In general, users do not only throw their apparel in the laundry bin when they are actually dirty, but also ‘after
wearing them several times’. The latter reason indicates customary behaviour also supported
by the literature:
the majority of people do not check whether the apparel are dirty before putting them in the laundry bin because
they are used to washing them after a certain number of wears (D&B, 2020a).
It is important also to consider that the cleaning process itself may have environmental and lifespan
implications. Frequent laundering may accelerate the wear and tear on apparel, indirectly reducing their total
lifespan. If laundering fails to effectively remove stains or odours from apparel, it can lead to premature
disposal of apparel (Klepp and Laitala, 2023b). As established in the study based on the survey conducted by
Laitala and Klepp (2020), apparel that are laundered less frequently exhibit longer lifespans. Those washed less
often than every 30 wears have lifespans up to 4.8 years longer than those washed after each wear. On top of
that, apparel washed after each wear are used 94 times less compared to apparel washed less often (washed
every 30 wears) (Laitala and Klepp, 2020a). Nonetheless, it shall be noted that particularities in laundry
frequency behaviour may apply for instance to sportswear. Their type of use and in some cases, distinct fibre
and fabrics, could differ significantly from everyday casual wear apparel (Wei et al., 2020). In particular, certain
types of sportswear can quickly absorb sweat and may also lead to unpleasant odours. This odour can create
social awkwardness and discomfort for both the wearer and those around them (Chang and Wang, 2023).
Therefore, washing sportswear promptly after one single use is generally done by users (Brice and Thorpe,
2021).
As a result, in addition to the frequency of washing, the examination of lifespan can also involve evaluating the
number of cleaning cycles that the specific apparel item can endure in technical assessments or the number of
cleaning cycles they generally experience during consumer studies. This approach may provide more consistent
insights into the durability and potential longevity of apparel.
10.6.2.3 Choice of softeners and detergents
According to a 2017 A.I.S.E survey, compared to 2008, fewer consumers are reading information on detergent
packaging. Nonetheless, in 2017, 52% claimed to read it before purchasing a product, and 60% mentioned
doing so before using the product (A.I.S.E, 2017c). However, it appears that a majority of consumers continue
to dose detergent arbitrarily, as indicated by A.I.S.E in 2020 hence overdosing is a common mistake, contributing
to increased environmental impact and less effective washing results due to poorer rinsing effects (Paloviita
and Järvi 2008 as cited in Klepp and Laitala, 2023).
Interestingly, when consumers' attention is compelled, the average time spent on a detergent label is
approximately 20 seconds, irrespective of the label size or content (A.I.S.E, 2017c). When asked if consumers
deliberately check composition information, 37% of European consumers responded affirmatively. They do so
primarily to compare products (59%), avoid specific substances (29%), assess the quantity of a particular
substance (28%), or because they are allergic to a specific substance (24%).
Fabric softeners, also known as fabric conditioners, are chemicals originally developed to reduce static electricity
in synthetic fabrics and are now more commonly used to soften cotton, ease ironing and add fragrance to
laundry (Klepp and Laitala, 2023b). Studies suggest that softeners are utilized in about 55% of washing cycles
in Europe (Stamminger 2016 as cited in Laitala 2023), with significant national variations. In Norway,
approximately 61% of the population use them often, 19% occasionally, and 19% never (Laitala, K., M.
Kjeldsberg, and I.G. Klepp 2012 as cited in Klepp and Laitala, 2023), while in Hungary and Romania, only about
5% use softeners in all wash cycles, and 60% never use (Stamminger 2016 as cited in Laitala, K., M. Kjeldsberg,
and I.G. Klepp 2012 as cited in Klepp and Laitala, 2023).
Further details on the A.I.S.E, 2017a survey results on laundering habits can be found in
Table 88.
In conclusion, economic factors, such as the price and promotions, play a substantial role in users' choices of
laundry products. Sustainability is an important criterion for a significant portion of respondents, but less
important than economic aspects. There is still a segment of users that may add more or less detergent than
recommended as it happens with the dosing of softeners.
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6396
6397
6398
6399
6400
6401
6402
6403
10.6.2.4 Consumer awareness on microplastic release during washing cycles
A structured survey among 411 Belgium citizens respondents spanning all age groups, aimed at gauging
consumer awareness regarding microfiber pollution and its influence on washing habits (Herweyers et al., 2020).
Overall, 68% of respondents are aware of the plastic pollution issue. Conversely, only 37% are aware of
microfiber pollution and its association with the problem. Individuals under 25 exhibit the lowest awareness of
synthetic fibre pollution (29%). Those aged 41 to 60 and over 60 are the most knowledgeable about the issue,
yet still, less than half of respondents in these age groups are aware of synthetic fibres’ potential harm (43%)
(Herweyers et al., 2020).
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6404
Table 88.
Summary of surveys on laundering habits related to apparel
Washing Habits
Choice of laundry detergents and/or softeners by users
expressed in % of respondents
Publica
tion
Sample details
&
characteristics
of the study
The
detergent
form (i.e.
liquid/po
wder)
Laundry detergents dosage habits per user expressed in %
Find it
easy to
dose
laundry
detergent
s
Usually
measure
the
quantity
of
deterge
nt to be
used
Check
the
package
for
dosing
instructi
ons
Country
Total
price
of the
box
Specials
offers and
promotions
The
fragrance
Sustainabilit
y criteria
Aware of
the dosing
instruction
s on the
package
Add more
detergent
than
recomme
nded
Add less
detergent
than
recommen
ded
A.I.S.E
(2017)
6405
4 611
participants
(aged 18-65)
200 respondents
per country.
No details on the
demographic or
social factors of
the subjects.
23
European
countries
78
71
70
71
Ranked lower
than the
economic
criteria
(a)
63
74
62
50
24
23
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
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6406
6407
6408
6409
6410
6411
6412
6413
6414
6415
6416
10.6.2.5 Drying
Apparel undergoes diverse drying methods, all of which involve air, causing moisture to evaporate and be carried
away. The tools employed by consumers include an array of drying racks and cords utilized both indoors and
outdoors, drying cabinets, dryers, and dedicated drying spaces, such as drying ceilings with or without heating.
The prevalence of tumble dryers varies significantly even among Western countries, with the USA leading at
approximately 80% of households owning one (Engelberg and Brassell, 2019), while the European average
stands at around 32% of households (De Almeida et al., 2011).
The data from surveys conducted by Laitala et al. (2020) and GINETEX (2017) provide insights into the
prevalence of specific drying methods among participants from different countries and age groups.
A summary of surveys related to drying of apparel is available in
Table 89.
Table 89.
Summary of surveys related to drying of apparel
% of users per drying method
Publication
Sample details and
characteristics of the
study
1 111 participants
Age groups: 18-29 years,
30-49 years and 50-64
years
6 000 participants (aged 18-
65)
Country
Tumble-
drier
Shared
tumble-
drier
(a)
Line dried
indoors
Line
dried
outdoors
(natural
drying)
27
Laitala et al.
(2020)
GINETEX
(2017)
China, Germany, Japan,
United Kingdom and USA
Germany, United Kingdom,
France, Italy, the Czech
Republic and Sweden
32.5
8
33
NA
NA
NA
62
6417
6418
6419
6420
6421
6422
6423
6424
6425
6426
6427
6428
6429
6430
6431
6432
6433
6434
6435
6436
6437
6438
6439
6440
6441
(a) Whether the results per drying method depend on where the user lives in, is not reported by the studies
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
10.6.2.6 Ironing
The final stages of the domestic laundry process involve employing techniques to shape, structure, and refine
the appearance of freshly washed fabrics, a step commonly achieved through ironing (Klepp and Laitala,
2023b). In contemporary times, the amount of time dedicated to ironing has notably decreased, particularly
over the past few decades (Klepp and Laitala, 2023b). As it seems, ironing is one of the procedures consumers
dislike the most (Yun et al., 2017).
Ironing practices exhibit significant variations not only between countries and consumer demographics but also
among different types of apparel. In Norway, the statistics indicate diverse ironing habits, with approximately
12% of adults ironing on a weekly basis, 40% opting for monthly ironing, 28% engaging in less frequent ironing,
and 20% asserting that they never iron anything (Laitala, IG Klepp, et al., 2018b). Notably, a higher proportion
of men and younger respondents tend to forgo ironing, in contrast to women and elderly respondents (Klepp
and Laitala, 2023b).
On a different note, the care labels on textiles often contain symbols indicating whether the apparel can be
ironed and if so, the most appropriate ironing setting. In some cases, the ironing symbol may be accompanied
by dots. The number of dots indicates the temperature ranges for ironing. Ironing at a hot setting can also
contribute to the shrinkage of apparel (Chartered Textile Technologist interview as cited in Cooper and Claxon
2022).
10.6.2.7 Storage after washing and drying
The folding and storage of apparel after being washed and dried may have influence on the lifespan of apparel.
The way users store their apparel may affect the intrinsic quality they have. Nonetheless, no studies have been
found that address the folding and storage of apparel after being washed and dried. Rather some studies on
the user behaviour related to the storage of inactive or no-longer-worn-apparel have been identified and are
presented in Section 10.6.2.10.
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6442
6443
6444
6445
6446
6447
6448
6449
6450
6451
6452
6453
6454
6455
6456
6457
6458
6459
6460
6461
6462
6463
6464
6465
6466
6467
6468
6469
6470
6471
6472
6473
6474
6475
6476
6477
6478
6479
6480
6481
6482
6483
6484
6485
6486
6487
6488
6489
6490
6491
6492
6493
6494
6495
10.6.2.8 Following apparel care label instructions
Care labels may indicate the recommended washing temperature, cycles, detergent to be used, and the way
apparel should be hanged while still damp, among other things (Cooper and Claxton, 2022b).
Survey evidence (Table
90)
suggests that a significant percentage of users across various countries tend to
follow care instructions on apparel labels, often with reasons including avoiding washing problems and
preserving apparel. Both, GINETEX (2017) and GINETEX (2019) surveys report a similar percentage of users
(70%) who always follow textile care instructions, suggesting consistency in this behaviour across the two
studies. Moreover, the surveys from GINETEX (2017) and AB-REOC and BV-OECO (2019) indicate that around
58% of users follow the care instructions often. This is in line with Ribeiro et al., (2023) study where roughly
53 % of 1 056 Portuguese consumers typically adhere to label instructions for washing and drying their apparel.
Despite consumers recognizing the influence of care and laundering practices on the lifespan of their apparel,
adherence to care labels diminished after the initial wash, as indicated by McLaren et al. 2015. In the present
survey, 47% of participants acknowledged generally reading apparel care labels. However, when specifically
asked about reading care labels for T-shirts, 59% indicated doing so either at the point of purchase (10%) or
before cleaning/after use (49%). The percentage of participants who abstained from reading care labels entirely
decreased with an increase in T-shirt price. Moreover, survey results from Cotton Incorporated's Lifestyle
Monitor revealed a declining trend in the number of consumers who 'always' or 'usually' read care labels before
laundering apparel (2003—77%; 2007—64%; 2009—57%), with younger consumers (under 35 years)
displaying a reduced inclination to read care instructions.
Furthermore, evidence suggests that there appears to be an imbalance between the essential information
consumers need and the volume of details provided on physical care labels in apparel (Evaluation report of the
Textile Labelling Regulation, under development). This results in user practices such as cutting labels out
reflected in the GINETEX (2017) survey where 62% of the respondents would do so (GINETEX, 2017a). The fact
that there are consumers who tend to cut the care labels is also observed in disposed textiles which are collected
with missing labels. This affects both, the reselling potential of apparel and their preparation for reuse (WRAP,
2017c; Cura et al., 2021; European Commission. Directorate General for Internal Market, Industry,
Entrepreneurship and SMEs, 2021). There are variations in behaviours and opinions, with some users finding
care labels uncomfortable (when wearing the apparel item) or too long. GINETEX (2017) report the behaviour
of cutting out care labels, suggesting that a portion of users across different countries may engage in this
practice. In parallel, 39% of 6 000 consumers in Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, the Czech Republic
and Sweden would never or rarely buy a piece of apparel without a label, where French consumers may bring
up the average with 67% of 1 000 users reporting so (COFREET, 2023).
There is also a desire for more convenient access to care instructions, such as having them directly on the sewn
label or accessible through a QR code on a smartphone reported by 65% and 17%, respectively, of 1 000 French
survey participants (COFREET, 2023). Similarly, when 1 056 Portuguese consumers were asked how they prefer
to access product information in apparel, 49.75% indicated that they favour getting this information directly
from the product label. Meanwhile, 33.7% showed a preference for using visual codes, such as QR codes or
barcodes, to obtain the information (Ribeiro et al., 2023).
Regarding clarity and transparency of content, approximately half of the respondents in the TLR Public
Consultation (117 out of 234) indicated that the information is somewhat clear and transparent. Meanwhile,
27% (64 out of 234) felt that the clarity and transparency are limited, and around 18% (28 out of 234) believed
the information is largely clear and transparent (Evaluation report of the Textile Labelling Regulation, under
development).
The inclusion of multiple European countries in GINETEX (2017) and GINETEX (2019) contributes to a broader
representation. The representativeness may vary based on the scope of coverage. However, these sources offer
an overview of common specific behaviours, such as attention to labels, indicate low variability in user practices.
The representativeness is influenced by the extent to which these behaviours are widespread.
While the data provides percentages of users following care instructions and engaging in specific behaviours
related to care labels, the reasons behind these behaviours are not extensively detailed. Understanding the
motivations behind user actions could enhance the representativeness of the findings. Nonetheless, the data
provide valuable insights into the way users follow care instructions and engage in specific behaviours related
to care labels.
Further details on surveys about user behaviour interaction with apparel care labels can be found in
Table 90.
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6496
Table 90.
Summary of surveys on user behaviour interaction with apparel care labels
% of users who follow the
textile care instructions
% of most repeated reasons to
follow the care instructions
according to users
Follow
the care
label to
preserve
their
apparel
and keep
them
longer
Never
or
rarely
buy a
piece of
apparel
without
a label
Other behaviour and opinions related to apparel care labels expressed in
% of users
Think
that
care
labels
are
often
too long
and
uncomfo
rtable
Publication
Sample
details and
characteristic
s of the study
Country
Average
for the EU
population
Follow
them
‘Always’
Follow
them
‘Often’
To avoid
washing
problems
such as
shrinking
Find
the
care
labels
Useful
Cut
the
care
labels
out
Think that
care
labels itch
and
irritate
the skin
Want to find
the
maintenance
instructions
directly on the
sewn label on
the apparel
Want to
consult
them on
smartphon
e via a QR
code.
GINETEX
(2017)
6 000
participants
(aged 18-65)
GINETEX
(2019)
7 000
participants
(aged 18-65)
Germany,
United
Kingdom,
France,
Italy, the
Czech
Republic
and
Sweden
France,
Germany,
the Czech
Republic,
the United
Kingdom,
Sweden,
Italy and
Spain
Belgium
70
13
57
38
31
39
NA
62
74
55
NA
NA
70
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
82
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
AB-REOC
and BV-
OECO
(2019)
COFREET
(2023)
1 756 Belgian
residents (aged
16-80)
1 000 French
residents (aged
18-65)
NA
NA
58
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
France
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
67
NA
NA
NA
NA
65
17
6497
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
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6498
6499
6500
6501
6502
6503
6504
6505
6506
6507
6508
6509
6510
6511
6512
6513
On a different note, in the investigation conducted by Wakes et al. in 2020, it was observed that the price of
the T-shirt had an impact on individuals' attitudes towards care labels: a lower purchase price correlated with
a lower likelihood of adhering to care instructions. For T-shirts priced above the lowest tier, over 40% of
participants followed care instructions before cleaning or after use. Notably, purchasers of higher-priced T-
shirts exhibited a greater tendency to read care labels at the point of sale compared to those who bought lower-
priced T-shirts (Wakes et al., 2020a). The Wakes et al., (2020) study was conducted in New Zealand, among
females from 18–25 years.
The extent to which users associate a care label symbol to its corresponding care instruction is collected in
Table 91.
Survey evidence indicates that there seems to be a consistent understanding across symbols among
participants in both, the GINETEX (2017) and AB-REOC and BV-OECO (2019) surveys. There is a demonstrated
high level of understanding for the ironing symbol, with almost all respondents in both surveys correctly
associating it with the care instruction. The washing symbols also show a strong association, with 91% in
GINETEX (2017) and 89% in AB-REOC and BV-OECO (2019) correctly connecting the symbol with the care
instruction.
Table 91.
Summary of surveys indicating the extent to which users associate a care label symbol to its corresponding
care instruction.
Sample details
and
characteristics of
the study
% of users who correctly associate the care label symbol with the
care instruction
Professional
Ironing
Washing
Bleaching
Drying
cleaning
symbol
symbols
symbol
symbol
symbol
Publication
Country
GINETEX (2017)
6000 participants
(aged 18-65)
Germany,
United
Kingdom,
France,
Italy, the
Czech
Republic
and
Sweden
Belgium
97
91
33
32
21
6514
6515
6516
6517
6518
6519
6520
6521
6522
6523
6524
6525
6526
6527
6528
6529
6530
6531
6532
6533
6534
6535
AB-REOC and
BV-OECO
(2019)
1756 Belgian
residents aged
between 16 and 80
98
89
28
24
15
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
However, there is a notable decrease in the correct interpretation and understanding of the bleaching, drying
and professional cleaning symbols and their respective care instructions among the participants of the two
surveys. This suggests that users may find the bleaching, drying and professional cleaning symbols less intuitive
compared to other symbols.
While both surveys provide insights into user associations, the GINETEX (2017) survey encompasses a broader
international scope, involving participants from Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, the Czech Republic,
and Sweden. In contrast, AB-REOC and BV-OECO (2019) focuses specifically on Belgian residents. Despite this
difference, the overall patterns in user understanding of care label symbols are comparable between the two
surveys.
10.6.2.9 Repairing
Consumers nowadays have a quite transitory relationship with their apparel as they are often disposed before
they are worn out or broken. Reasons for this may be related to overconsumption and the fact that it is easier
and more convenient to replace the unwanted apparel for certain new items rather than repair or modify them
(Harris et al., 2016). The degree of emotional product-person attachment also influences whether users are
willing to engage in repairing certain apparel items
(Terzioğlu, 2021; EEA, 2022a).
The product-person
attachment is described in Section 10.6.3.3.
Consumers can repair their apparel by themselves in private households or at a professional repair shop (EEA,
2022a). The apparel repair industry appears to be predominantly comprised of independent repairers operating
as small businesses, often with the owner and a few employees, if any. However, there is a lack of detailed
information about the characteristics of this business sector, as European statistical data (Eurostat) on the
professional repair of textiles is not available separately (EEA, 2022a).
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6536
6537
6538
6539
6540
Figure 56
reflects that most of the apparel repairs are carried by the user followed closely by somebody the
user knows, e.g. family member. Bringing the apparel item to repair to a tailor comes as third option. It shall be
noted that most repairs are successful in the three repair options users usually opt for.
Figure 56.
Number of successful and failed repairs done by different actors (total 625 repairs)
6541
6542
6543
6544
6545
6546
6547
6548
6549
6550
6551
6552
6553
6554
6555
6556
6557
6558
6559
6560
6561
6562
6563
6564
6565
6566
6567
6568
6569
6570
Source: Laitala et al., 2021
A survey in Ireland discovered that 45% of consumers pay to have their apparel repaired while 34% ask family
or friends to help them with the repairs. The same survey revealed that around 48% of users would like to
repair apparel but do not have the equipment to do it or do not know how to do it. Only 23% of people agree
they are not interested in repairing. Interestingly, this behaviour tends to be more common among consumers
who purchase apparel often and among young men (EPA Circular Economy Programme and B&A, 2021).
Moreover, a survey among 200 Dutch consumers showed that consumers are more likely to help their loved
ones with apparel repairs rather than other acquaintances and unknown people (milieu centraal, 2021).
69% of the over 1 000 respondents to a survey in Spain confirm to know where to bring their apparel and shoes
for repair (CECU and Amigos de la Tierra, 2022). 67.4% of them add that, if apparel had a label indicating to
what extent the product can be repaired, they would use this as a criterion to decide whether to purchase or
not the apparel (CECU and Amigos de la Tierra, 2022). Additionally, 52% of 2 000 surveyed consumers declare
repairing or bringing their apparel to repair (CECU, 2023).
Furthermore, according to
Terzioğlu,
(2021), individuals typically weigh the costs and benefits before deciding
whether to repair an item. For example, how easy is to find a repair solution compared to the price of an apparel
item influences the user’s decision to engage in repairing activities. As a result, the
consumer’s trust in
commercial repair shops could be promoted by improving the transparency of prices, quality and repair time
for example. This would help overcoming the barriers affecting the repair of apparel (EEA, 2022a).
Repair skills for apparel are ceasing to exist. Recent research on sewing skills shows that while different sewing
instructions are readily available on the Internet, the main incentive for sewing is trust in one’s own skills. A
study focused on textile repair in the United Kingdom found that citizen’s
lack the skills needed to repair
compared to previous generations. According to researchers, the decrease in skills is due to the fact that they
are no longer taught in schools and the lack of time and equipment in everyday life (Finnish Ministry of the
Environment, 2023a).
Laitala and Boks 2012 indicate that users decide to mend their apparel depending on whether they have sewing
skills. A relevant number of consumers report to be able to sew a button on (Table
93),
and have done so in
the past year (Table
92).
On the contrary, replacing the zipper is highlighted as a demanding repair which can
be seen by the low rate of users who replaced it in the past year (Table
92)
and who are confident about doing
such work (Table
93).
If the zipper breaks, the apparel is disposed unless a strong person-product attachment
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6571
6572
6573
6574
6575
6576
6577
6578
exists (Laitala and Boks, 2012). Nonetheless, the users who still may be able to adequately repair apparel may
not feel the need to do so anymore (Harris et al., 2016). Moreover, a survey discovered an attitude-behaviour
gap among 2 500 users as 58% of them declared to find apparel repair as important while only 23% of them
engaged in repair activities (Heiny and Schneide, 2021). This is largely due to the reason indicated above: for
some consumers it is more convenient and easier to replace undesired apparel with new items rather than
opting for repair or modification (Harris et al., 2016).
Table 92.
Summary of surveys that provide the percentage of respondents who have made repairs to their apparel in the
past year.
% of respondents who have made different repairs to their apparel in
the past year
Repaired Lengthen
holes or
or
Has
worn
shorten
sewn
Fixed
Patched
Adjusted Changed
areas in
pants
a
seams apparel
size/fit
zipper
the
(take a
button
apparel
hem up
(darning) or down)
Publication
Sample details
and
characteristics
of the study
Country
Laitala and
Boks (2012)
Laitala and
Boks (2012)
Laitala and
Klepp
(2018)
6579
6580
6581
6582
6583
6584
6585
6586
6587
Survey year:
2010
268 participants
(aged 15-60+)
Survey selection
is female
dominated
(83%)
Survey year:
2011
1 124
participants
(aged 18-60+)
Gender of
participants
equally
represented
Survey year:
2011
1 001
participants
(aged 18-60+)
Gender of
participants
equally
represented
Norway
73
55
31
27
26
16
10
Norway
64
52
34
NA
NA
NA
NA
Norway
51
41
NA
25
NA
NA
NA
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
The data collected regarding the respondents who have made repairs to their apparel in the past year (Table
92)
refers to their own willingness to repair and is not always correlated with the user repairing capabilities.
The data collected in
Table 93
regarding how confident users are to repair their apparel is related to their own
willingness to repair and is not always correlated with the user repairing capabilities or skills. Additionally, a
summary of surveys that showcase how confident users are to mending their apparel depending on the type
of repair needed may be found in
Table 94.
Table 93.
Summary of surveys that showcase how confident users are to mending their apparel depending on the type of
repair needed.
% of respondents who are confident undertaking apparel
repairs
Repair
Lengthen
Sew a
holes or
or
Adjust
Changed Stain
button worn
shorten
size/fit zipper
removal
on
areas in
pants
the
(take a
Publication
Sample details
and
characteristics of
the study
Country
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apparel
(darning)
Two waves of
online surveys:
Wave 1 was
conducted in
November 2016
and Wave 2 in June
2019.
The sample size in
2016 was 1 000
per country. In
2019 the samples
were as follows:
Denmark 1 046;
Germany 1 113;
The Netherlands;
1 117 and Italy
1 226
hem up
or down)
WRAP (2019)
Denmark (DK),
Germany (DE),
The
Netherlands
(NL) and Italy
(IT)
DK 75
DE 75
NL 70
IT 69
DK 52
DE 46
NL 40
IT 48
DK 46
DE 30
NL 35
IT 32
DK 27
DE 17
NL 25
IT 36
DK 25
DE 25
NL 25
IT 29
DK 72
DE 69
NL 71
IT 61
6588
6589
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
Table 94.
Summary of surveys that showcase overall declared frequency of apparel repairs.
Overall declared frequency of apparel repairs without
specifying the type of repair
% of
% of users
% of
users
% of
who have
users
% of users
who have
users who
repaired
who
who repair
repaired
never
apparel in
repair
apparel
apparel
mended
the past 6
apparel
sometimes
in the
apparel
months
often
past year
NA
NA
35
51
14
Publication
Sample details and
characteristics of
the study
Country
Laitala and
Boks (2012)
EPA Circular
Economy
Programme and
B&A (2021)
CECU and
Amigos de la
Tierra (2022)
268 participants
(aged 15-60+)
Survey selection is
female dominated
(83%)
Survey year: 2011
1 000 participants
(aged +16)
Gender of
participants equally
represented
1 011 participants
(+25)
Norway
Ireland
NA
43
NA
NA
NA
Spain
6590
6591
6592
6593
6594
6595
6596
6597
6598
6599
6600
6601
6602
6603
67.3* (the
question
included
footwear
too)
NA
NA
NA
NA
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
The aptitude to repair is the same or very similar disregarding the country. Denmark and German consistently
rank higher in repair confidence across various activities, while the Netherlands and Italy generally exhibit lower
but still varied confidence levels. These variations may stem from cultural, educational, or societal factors
influencing attitudes toward apparel repairs in each country. However, all countries seem to have high level of
confidence in sewing a button and repairing holes or worn areas in the apparel.
Finally, there is also research such as Laitala et al., (2023) highlighting the importance on the need for clear
guidelines defining what constitutes unacceptable wear and tear versus normal use, and distinguishing between
commercial warranties and legal rights. Consumer’s
complaints
on defective or faulty apparel items that fail to
meet minimum lifespan requirements, serve as a valuable source of feedback for retailers to understand
product performance especially with regards to durability.
The apparel’s general quality, and consequently its value, influences the consumer's decision on whether to
consider it worthwhile to invest time and money in repairing. Hence, the importance of a good design that may
also contribute to strengthen the emotional product-person attachment with the apparel.
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6604
6605
6606
6607
6608
6609
6610
6611
6612
6613
6614
6615
6616
6617
6618
6619
6620
6621
6622
6623
6624
6625
6626
6627
6628
6629
6630
6631
6632
6633
6634
6635
6636
6637
6638
6639
6640
6641
6642
6643
6644
6645
6646
6647
6648
6649
6650
6651
6652
6653
6654
6655
10.6.2.10 The storage of apparel
The storage of apparel can be done for active or inactive apparel. Storing active apparel would be the action of
placing inside wardrobes, for instance, all those apparel items that an individual wears regularly. In other words,
the apparel that users move between use and storage frequently (Cluver, 2008a). Inactive apparel items
constitute the apparel kept at home without being used for an undetermined time. These are represented by
the over 30% of apparel stored in Europeans closets that have not been used for a year or even more time
(European Parliamentary Research Service, 2019).
Inactive apparel may comprise apparel that do not fit. In fact, this seems to be generally the case among
consumers (Bye and McKinney, 2007). Therefore, why would consumers store items that are not able to use
due to their body size? The wishful thinking that the apparel will eventually fit again may trigger the storing of
these apparel. In certain cases, this practice may also help some consumers to monitor their weight. This
temporary storage of inactive apparel, can be understood as keeping apparel that are not worn for an unknown
time period before doing something different with them. Temporary storage may be done while the users are
considering the best way to dispose the apparel, when waiting for the apparel to be back in fashion, to repair
in the case of wear and tear or just because they want to make sure there was no longer a way to make use
of the apparel (Cluver, 2008a). Interestingly enough is the fact that basic apparel that were once very necessary
for the user, even though no longer in fashion and/or suffered wear and tear, were stored until new apparel
were purchased to substitute them (Cluver, 2008a).
Bye and McKinney, (2007) carried out surveys in which respondents indicated that inactive apparel could be
linked to the past personality of the owner who no longer wants to be attached to, hence the reason not to wear
them, but still feels like a part of their lives (Guy et al., 2001; Bye and McKinney, 2007). The respondents
indicated that they hold onto apparel that were no longer used because they allowed them to recall important
people and past experiences they had while wearing them (sentimental value). In other cases, the consumer
keeps apparel that were purchased because of a wrong choice just to justify the price paid for them. Finally,
some consumers keep certain apparel because a perceived aesthetic value attached to them. On a different
note, around 13% of 350 000 Vinted users who are engaged in the resale of apparel items report to store in
the closet the items that they do not manage to sell in the online platform Vinted, without the intention of using
them (Vinted, 2021). In any case, it is important to note that prolonged inactive storage can eventually cause
consumers to discard their apparel due to extended periods of non-use (Accenture, 2022).
All in all, as indicated by Maldini et al., (2019) wardrobes can be seen as a "pull" system, where new apparel
items are added only when unsatisfactory ones are replaced. Thus, delaying disposal should delay purchases,
decreasing overall demand. However, in practice, wardrobes integrate new apparel items for various reasons,
following unpredictable patterns. New items are frequently purchased without considering existing ones,
pushing older apparel to the back as more attractive options come in. This behaviour may eventually result in
disposing the apparel due to lack of space for new items (Accenture, 2022).
It can be concluded that the storage of apparel items, whether temporary or not, seem to be strongly linked to
a person-product attachment. Additionally, it should not be not assumed that longer apparel lifespans and
delayed disposal always yield positive environmental impacts given the unpredictability of the users
‘purchase
and storage behaviour, as described above.
10.6.3 User behaviour regarding the disposal of apparel
10.6.3.1 Reasons for the disposal of apparel
Disposal of apparel happens when a user transfers its ownership to another person or entity (Cluver, 2008a).
Henninger et al., (2021) investigated 154 papers of which 32 touched upon the user behaviour related to the
disposal of apparel items. Moreover, most of the studies were published after 2015 which showcases that it
is a topic that is recently gaining more attention than in the past (Henninger et al., 2021).
The intrinsic or physical durability can be defined as the ability of a product to withstand the tear and wear of
time without its functionality and aesthetics being compromised. This is envisaged during the design phase of
the product when the selection of materials, modelling, etc. focused on improving the robustness of the article
(Alliance of Commerce and Deloitte, 2022).
The intrinsic durability of apparel may be lost due to abrasion, colour changes, broken zipper, soiling that cannot
get cleaned, etc. (Laitala and Boks, 2012). However, Laitala and Boks (2012) reported that the examination of
disposed apparel showed that there is a great difference in opinions regarding when the apparel is too worn
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6656
6657
6658
6659
6660
6661
6662
6663
6664
6665
6666
6667
6668
6669
6670
out to be used. Some users did not mind pilling or small holes, whereas for others, these changes indicated the
apparel was worn out and were important disposal reasons.
A composition analysis involving 391 composition samples from Swedish municipalities between 2012 and
2014 revealed that 59% of apparel was in a condition suitable for reuse (SMED, 2016).
However, a survey run by Cooper and Claxon in 2022 on 1 476 disposed apparel items unveiled various types
of physical issues. The predominant problems were associated with colour fading, particularly in jersey and
woven fabrics, and pilling in knitwear and jersey items. Fabric deterioration, characterized by fraying, especially
around hems, as well as wear around the crotch of trousers and jeans, and accidental damage such as stains,
tears, and rips, were also prevalent. Other forms of failure included the loss of dimensional stability, logo
malfunction, discoloration, notably in the collar area of white shirts, holes in seams (including jacket linings),
and trim failure. The percentages are calculated based on all apparel in the sample. Notably, 69% of all apparel
exhibited either a colour-related or logo problem, while 75% experienced fabric-related issues, indicating that
many apparel had multiple problems (Cooper and Claxton, 2022b). The physical failures found in disposed
apparel are indicated in
Table 95.
Table 95.
Recorded problems in apparel (% of all apparel items)
Type of Failure
Colour fading
Fabric breakdown
Accidental damage
Loss of dimensional stability
Logo failure
Discolouration
Hole(s) in seams
Trim failure
Source: Cooper and Claxton (2022).
6671
6672
6673
6674
6675
6676
6677
6678
6679
6680
6681
6682
6683
6684
6685
6686
6687
6688
6689
6690
6691
6692
6693
6694
6695
6696
6697
6698
6699
6700
6701
%
53
29
29
20
16
15
14
8
The individual characteristics of the consumers, their habits, demographic context, product traits and quality
seem to influence the user’s decision to get rid of a product
(Cluver, 2008; Goworek et al., 2012, as cited in
Harris et al., 2016; Sandin et al., 2019).
The perceived quality of a product is decisive when consumers decide to get rid of a piece of apparel, either
because it seems to be worn-out or no longer functional (Aakko and Niinimäki, 2022). In fact, early disposal of
apparel may be also accentuated by the loss of the symbolic perceived value of apparel for the consumer
(Gwozdz et al., 2017a). Moreover, certain studies document that low quality, may trigger an early disposal of
apparel (Piippo et al., 2022a). Additionally, the fact that some consumers often want to own new apparel
shortens their time in use too (Klepp and Grimstad, 2001; Piippo et al., 2022a). This is the case for 45% of 982
Italian consumers who indicated that they dispose their apparel items because of they are old (YouGov, 2019).
Similarly, 7% of 1 000 Polish consumers indicated to get rid of apparel items as they lacked sufficient space
for new ones (Accenture, 2022).
The two most common reasons for the disposal of apparel for both, female and male German participants to a
survey were material defects due to wear and tear and an inappropriate size. For German men, the third most
common reason to dispose apparel is that it had fallen out of shape. This reason was also mentioned by the
female respondents, but it was more often stated that the apparel simply was not liked anymore. In this regard,
the female respondents from the youth group stand out. The percentage of those who disposed apparel because
they no longer liked it is significantly larger in this social segment than among female respondents from other
social environments and almost twice as much compared to the male respondents from the same social group.
Reasons related to taste, fashion or personal style are more commonly mentioned among the young people
(Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018a).
The decision to dispose apparel, and how frequently it happens, is also influenced by the price of the apparel.
There is evidence that consumers see higher value in more pricey apparel items (Morgan and Birtwistle, 2009b;
Joy et al., 2012b). This means consumers tend to dispose more frequently the cheapest apparel as they
understand that the value proposition in terms of durability and quality is lower (Lewis, 2015).
Across all countries reported in
Table 96,
a significant percentage of participants cite intrinsic quality as a
primary reason for the disposal of apparel, indicating a shared concern for durability and material integrity.
Additionally, fit problems are a consistent factor influencing apparel disposal, suggesting that comfort and
suitability play a universal role in user behaviour. Participants in most countries mention perceived value,
indicating that subjective judgments, such as taste-related unsuitability, impact their decision to dispose
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6702
6703
6704
6705
apparel. These results are in line with the ones presented in the Laitala and Klepp, (2022) review of 17 consumer
studies involving around 20 000 participants in which the most common reasons for apparel disposal were
identified as intrinsic quality, perceived value and fit issues (Figure
57).
Figure 57.
Main reasons for disposal of apparel
6706
6707
6708
6709
6710
6711
6712
6713
6714
6715
6716
Source: Laitala and Klepp, (2022).
Finally, changing fashion trends contribute to apparel disposal across various countries, emphasizing the
influence of style preferences on user behaviour.
The overall implication of the data reported above is that the reasons for the disposal of apparel exhibit a
complex interplay of individual factors. Quality and fit are universal concerns, suggesting a global emphasis on
durable and well-fitting apparel. Cultural differences emerge in the importance placed on perceived value, taste-
related aspects, situational reasons (e.g lack of space for new apparel), and responsiveness to fashion changes.
While each study contributes valuable insights, the combined dataset offers a more comprehensive
understanding of global apparel disposal trends. Variations in sample characteristics and the scope of data
collection highlight the importance of considering multiple studies for a holistic perspective.
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6717
Table 96.
Summary of apparel disposal reasons in recent consumer studies with high number of participants.
Sample details and
characteristics of the
study
1 011 participants
1 014 participants (aged
16-74)
546 participants (adult
population, age groups
not defined)
77% of the subjects
were women and the
25-39 age group is
overrepresented in
comparison to the rest
age groups
1 111 participants (aged
18-65)
Women and men are
equally represented in all
countries
2 058 participants
555 participants
1 439 participants
982 participants
1 000 participants
Intrinsic quality
(e.g worn-out
items)
92
60
Main reasons for the disposal (expressed in % of respondents)
Perceived value (e.g.
Other (e.g. Situational
Fit issues
taste-related
Fashion changes
reasons, functional
unsuitability)
shortcomings)
72
9
64
21
40
NA
NA
4
Publication
Greenpeace,
(2015)
Ungerth and
Carlsson, (2011)
Country
Germany
Sweden
Laitala and Boks,
(2012))
Norway
49
19
11
NA
19
Laitala and Klepp
(2020)
WRAP (2017b)
Lang, Armstrong,
and Brannon
(2013)
Morell-Delgado et
al., (2024)
YouGov, (2019)
Accenture, (2022)
China, Germany,
Japan, United
Kingdom, and
USA
United Kingdom
USA
Spain
Italy
Poland
44
18
30
NA
60
38
13
42
31
44
47
21
35
33
39
21.5
16
7
NA
NA
NA
NA
12
6
9
NA
NA
2.5
2
21
6718
6719
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
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6720
6721
6722
6723
6724
6725
6726
6727
6728
6729
6730
6731
6732
6733
6734
6735
6736
6737
6738
6739
6740
6741
6742
6743
6744
6745
6746
6747
6748
6749
6750
10.6.3.2 Disposal channels for apparel
By 1 January 2025, mandatory separate collection of textiles will be set in the EU Member States as required
by Article 11(1) of the Waste Framework Directive. Additionally, the Commission has proposed the
establishment of mandatory extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes designed to streamline and put in
place collection, sorting, reuse, preparation for reuse, and recycling infrastructure required to address the
material collected once the separate collection obligation takes effect
207
. Moreover, the on-going review of the
Textile Labelling Regulation is exploring whether to introduce specifications for physical and digital labelling of
textiles, including end-of-life disposal instructions and other circularity parameters based on requirements
under the proposed Regulation on eco-design for sustainable products and on the implementation of EPR
schemes across Member States.
The person-product type of attachment plays a key role in how apparel may be disposed of. If there are positive
associations with a piece of apparel, this might be gifted to relatives or friends while if there is a negative
association the apparel may end up being donated, swapped or just disposed in the general waste bin (Joung
and Park-Poaps, 2013; Lewis, 2015). Throwing away (usable) apparel is associated with bad conscience and
moral aspects hence they are given to friends, family and charities as the preferred way to dispose of the
apparel (Klepp and Grimstad, 2001). Furthermore, selling apparel is among the alternative methods consumers
are using nowadays when they wish to get rid of apparel they no longer wear. In fact, 21% of 11 483 European
consumers sell their apparel online, and 59% of those do so more than once a year (YouGov, 2021).
The surveys in
Table 97
show the most common disposal trends in different countries. In both surveys, donating
apparel to charity emerges as a popular choice among participants, indicating a shared inclination towards
contributing to charitable causes through apparel. Also, both surveys highlight the significance of giving apparel
to family and friends as a prevalent disposal method, suggesting a common practice of sharing apparel within
one's social network.
By and large, the studies reported in
Table 97
provide valuable insights into apparel disposal practices. While
there are some differences in terms of the represented countries, the similarities in identified disposal methods
across the survey results suggest common trends in how individuals choose to handle apparel they no longer
need or use. The prominence of charitable donations and sharing within social circles appear to be consistent
behaviours, transcending geographical and cultural boundaries to some extent. The survey run by Vinted slightly
differs, as participants were asked what would they do with the apparel items that they did not manage to sell
in the online platform Vinted.
Table 97.
Surveys responses on main types of alternative apparel disposal
Sample and
characteristi
cs of the
study
201
participants
(aged 18-35)
75% of the
subjects were
women
546
participants
(adult
population,
age groups not
defined)
350 000
participants
Main types of alternative apparel disposal (expressed in % of
respondents)
Give to
Used as
Discarded in the
Donate to
family/friends
cleaning
general waste
charity
208
208
cloth
bin at home
Publication
Country
Koukouvinos
(2012)
Greece
51
59
45
NA
Laitala and
Boks (2012)
Norway
36
12
8
27
Vinted
(2021)
Belgium,
Germany,
Spain,
France, Italy,
19
19
NA
Less than 1
207
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2008/98/EC on waste (COM/2023/420 final).
Available here:
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A52023PC0420
208
The quality of these products is unknown.
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YouGov,
(2021)
11 483
participants
Morell-
Delgado et
al., (2024)
6751
6752
6753
6754
6755
6756
6757
6758
6759
6760
6761
6762
6763
6764
6765
6766
6767
6768
6769
6770
6771
6772
6773
6774
6775
6776
6777
6778
6779
6780
6781
6782
6783
6784
6785
6786
6787
1 469
participants
(aged 16 to
more than 65)
68.8% of the
subjects were
women
The
Netherlands,
Poland and
United
Kingdom
France,
Germany,
Austria,
Denmark,
Finland,
Italy,
Norway,
Spain,
Sweden,
Switzerland
Spain
(survey
sample
focused on
Catalonia
Autonomous
Community)
69
34
NA
13
26
48.9
32.5
7.8
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
Finally, it is also important to note that the primary finding of the European Commission's Directorate General
Joint Research Centre (2021) study on the quality of clothing found in residual waste is the existence of a
correlation between the proportion of separately collected clothing and the average quality and value of clothing
discarded in residual waste. According to this study, this correlation is partly due to households making
discerning decisions based on the perceived monetary value of apparel, determining which items are suitable
for donation or resale for reuse and which have minimal potential for reuse. This idea is supported by a study
conducted in Denmark in 2018 (Watson et al., 2018), which strengthens this theory. The study suggests that
the 42 000 tonnes of clothing disposed of in Danish residual waste for incineration in 2017 had an estimated
value of 12-15 million euros before disposal. In contrast, the 36 000 tonnes of clothing separately collected
were sold on reuse markets for an estimated 65 million euros, indicating a value per tonne four to five times
higher. As a result, it appears to be commonly understood that textiles with the least potential for re-use are
more abundant in the textile portion of mixed municipal waste, but the limited existing research presents
inconclusive results according to Huygens et al., 2023. Additionally, an analysis of 38 samples from across five
Welsh local authorities emphasises the correlation between the method of textile collection and the reusability
of the collected textiles. For instance, in Wales, the reusability rate of textiles collected via container stands at
75.3%, compared to 54.6% for those gathered through door-to-door collection (WRAP Cymru, 2022). Last but
not least, findings from Morell-Delgado et al., (2024) indicate that apparel perceived to be in better condition
are typically disposed of in street containers for textile waste (78%), with minimal disposal in mixed-fraction
containers (3%). Conversely, when apparel are in worse condition, citizens exhibit uncertainty regarding disposal
methods, with approximately 30% disposing of them in specialized containers and another 30% opting for
mixed-fraction containers. Therefore, the population's decision regarding the disposal destination of unwanted
apparel seems to be influenced by the perception of the quality the item may still possess by the consumer
(Morell-Delgado et al., 2024).
10.6.3.3 Person-product attachment
The emotional attachment formed between the apparel and the consumer is generally referred to as ‘person–
product attachment’. This type of connection between a textile item and the user has an influence on how
long
consumers own a textile and how often they make use of it. The person-product attachment is usually
embedded in the term ‘emotional durability’ which goes beyond just functionality. The Ellen MacArthur
Foundation report (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2021)
defines emotional durability as: ‘the product’s relevance
and
desirability to a user, or multiple users, over time’. A product that holds emotional durability tells a
compelling narrative, creates history with its users through bonding and aligns with their values.
The ownership of apparel could be ‘active’ (i.e.
use
on a daily basis or several times a week), ‘seldom’ (use
several times a year) or ‘inactive or in storage’ (very rarely or never use the apparel)
(Niinimäki and Armstrong,
2013).
Niinimäki and Armstrong (2013) carried out a survey with over 400 participants from United States of America
(45.1% were men). The sample ranged in age from 18 to 67: 18–24 (7.5%), 25–34 (27.4%), 35–44 (23.5%),
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6788
6789
6790
6791
45– 60 (28.1%), and over 60 (13.5%), most of whom were Caucasian/white (88.0%) and had completed a
college degree or higher (66.1%).
Table 98
collects the elements that generate person-product attachment
listed according to the number of times each of them were mentioned by the respondents to the questionnaire.
Table 98.
Elements that generate person-product attachment (Niinimäki and Armstrong, 2013).
Order of relevance
Element
Description (in order of most referenced by users)
Comfortable
Good fit
Multi-function
Functional (good for sports and hide body deformation)
Easy to match
Easy to put on
Memories (youth and childhood)
Received from special person
Family ties
Remind of special person
Represent membership to a group (e.g. team/band)
Look/feel good in it
Receive compliments wearing the piece of apparel
Love the brand
Good design (e.g. cool looking)
In style
Nice colour
Pleasant to touch (silky and soft)
Fabric aesthetic (not thick, light weight, and sparky)
Flexible (not stretched)
Uniqueness
Feel relaxed in it
Durable
High quality in manufacturing
High quality in material
Reward for self
Hand made
Price (good deal and very expensive)
1
Functionality
2
Memory
3
4
5
6
7
8
Emotional satisfaction
Design and style
Fabric and material
Personal values
Quality
Effort invested
Financial value
6792
6793
6794
6795
6796
6797
6798
6799
6800
6801
6802
6803
6804
6805
6806
6807
6808
6809
6810
6811
6812
6813
6814
6815
6816
6817
9
Source: Niinimäki and Armstrong (2013).
The findings showed that apparel that were purchased brand-new turned out to have the highest emotional
attachment for the respondents. This is largely explained by the fact that there is a widespread idea of ‘new’
apparel as something that has a value in itself. New apparel are clean canvas, both in the sense that they are
physically clean, i.e. free of spots, presentable and hygienic, but it is also ‘mental clean’ in the sense that it is
free from stories attached to the apparel in question (Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022).
Moreover, it is the frequently used regular T-shirts, dresses and jeans the ones respondents indicated to be
more meaningful to them. Functionality, a special memory, emotional satisfaction were the most repeated
attributes by the respondents that help promoting emotional attachment to apparel.
The value found in new apparel is a major barrier to reuse and is also reflected in the fact that apparel are
used more when they are brand new than when they have several years. In fact, apparel purchased as second
hand are used 30 per cent less than those purchased as brand new (Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022). On top of
that, it should be noted that reuse may increase the possession span of the apparel, but does not necessarily
increase the use of the apparel (Forbrugerrådet Tænk 2022; Laitala and Klepp 2021).
The durability and active use of apparel depends on the robustness and longevity of its materials but also on
the changing trends, needs and wishes of consumers. Emotional durability remains a forward-looking issue,
which is difficult to measure because it is intrinsically linked to consumer perceptions and brand representations.
Its understanding is based on social sciences concepts and there is no evaluation methodology that has been
fully tested (Alliance of Commerce and Deloitte, 2022).
However, apparel may have a certain initial physical or functional lifetime that may be extended if a strong
product-user relationship is promoted by retailers. For instance, retailers can maximise the value of the apparel
they sold by ensuring that the design meets real long-term needs and that incorporates a particular added
value which prevents the user from an early disposal of the textile product (Niinimäki and Armstrong, 2013;
Alliance of Commerce and Deloitte, 2022). The aim would be to create articles that can be adapted to the
different stages of consumer life, integrating more modularity (multi-seasonality, reversibility, extensibility, etc.)
and facilitating alterations, or offering timeless products whose colours and shapes are resistant to changes in
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6818
6819
6820
6821
6822
6823
6824
6825
6826
6827
6828
6829
6830
6831
6832
6833
6834
6835
6836
6837
6838
6839
6840
6841
6842
6843
6844
6845
6846
6847
6848
6849
6850
6851
6852
6853
6854
6855
6856
6857
6858
6859
6860
6861
6862
6863
6864
6865
6866
6867
6868
6869
6870
trends. To enhance the perceived value of their articles, brands can rely on personalisation levers or marketing
methods such as co-creation, tailor-made manufacturing or limited series, which make it possible to create an
emotional attachment of the customer to their apparel, while limiting promotions and the continuous inflow of
novelties (Alliance of Commerce and Deloitte, 2022).
Bottom line is the role of the quality of the apparel. Laitala et al., (2021) asked a number of consumers what
aspects would incentivise them to wear their apparel longer. The most repeated answer both for men and
women was if the apparel were of better quality. The same was concluded in OVAM (2021). Along the same
lines, 92% of 101 visitors to a dress exchange at Greenpeace Hamburg declared that they would wear apparel
for more than a year if they were of good quality. 89% of participants to the same survey indicated that if
apparel maintained their shape and colour for a longer period would also incentivise them to wear apparel for
longer. The third most commented reason for wearing apparel for longer was if there was a bonding with the
apparel (product-person attachment) (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2019).
All in all, the consumers deal with objects in different ways. This is the main reason why the product-user textile
attachment is quite subjective and difficult to draw conclusions from. The designers may play an important role
in stimulating the length of ownership and use of apparel when choosing the fabrics, the type of confectionary
work and durable design. Research has referred this design as ´emotional durable design´ which emphasizes
creating enduring experiences over new products. The primary challenge is to develop something that captivates
customers, encouraging them to cherish it rather than succumb to the desire for novelty (Chapman 2015 as
cited in Vanacker et al., 2022). Through each design decision, the long-term customer satisfaction may be
increased, resulting in a higher emotional user-product attachment. Nonetheless, there is also research
indicating that strategies towards the promotion on person-product attachment showed that their effect had
not been empirically validated (Maldini and Balkenende, 2017).
10.6.3.4 Returns of apparel
Convenience seem to be the main reason for buying online as reflected by half of the usual online customers
in the survey run by AK Wienn and Greenpeace (2023). However, if the consumer lacks the time to return a
parcel to a retailer with a non-flexible returns policy, he or she may be more selective when choosing what to
buy to avoid having to keep the purchased items because the time to return the items is up. This may be one
of the reasons why longer periods for free returning allow for ordering more apparel as the customer has a
more relaxed approach to the potential returns. At the same time, it can happen that for some consumers
returning online buy-outs is deemed a barrier because it becomes cumbersome to send it back, despite the type
of return policy that the retailer may offer. This means that apparel that do not fit, or apparel that are not up
to the customer’s preference, end up stored in the cabinet
(Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022).
A study from the European Environment Agency retrieved that casual dresses and jackets have the highest
return rate followed closely by jeans and vests (EEA, 2024). Interestingly, the same EEA study found that
expensive products have more probability of being returned. An explanation for this behaviour has not been
found.
When it comes to demographics, it is not widely analysed in the scientific literature whether it is females or
males who are more prompt to return apparel. A study pinpointed that women return more online purchases
than men (AK Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023a). This seems to be supported by the fact that womenswear is the
winner category of apparel when it comes to returns
(British Fashion Council’s Institute of Positive and Roland
Berger, 2023). Moreover, young consumers are more likely to order online and return apparel more frequently
as they tend to buy more apparel and order several sizes compared to other age groups (AK Wienn and
Greenpeace, 2023a).
According to the results of the Foresight Factory survey fit issues is the first reason for returns by consumers
(Foresight Factory, 2021; Zimmermann et al., 2021) .The second most popular reason to return apparel is taste-
related unsuitability of an item and/or its product details for the consumer. In this category, the share of total
returns in Zimmermann et al. (2021) corresponds to the dislike of the shape or cut of the apparel (16%), a
dislike for the material (8%) and colour or pattern (6%).
Online shopping often leads to mis-buying (Forbrugerrådet Tænk, 2022).The main reasons found in the
literature for returning apparel are problems fitting the item and the dislike of the apparel by the consumer.
These two reasons are followed almost equally by lack of quality of the apparel and receiving a faulty item. A
survey run by Foresight Factory in 2021 with over 20 000 respondents, reports the same main reasons for
returning apparel by consumers; 38% of them reported that the items did not fit well while 15% of respondents
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6871
6872
6873
6874
6875
6876
6877
6878
6879
6880
6881
6882
6883
6884
6885
6886
6887
6888
6889
6890
6891
6892
6893
6894
6895
6896
6897
6898
6899
6900
6901
6902
6903
indicated that the apparel did not suit them. Quality was not enough for 14% of the survey participants and
13% of them received faulty items (Foresight Factory, 2021).
‘Bracketing’
occurs when consumers purchase several identical or similar items, have them shipped, keep one,
and return the others (NRF and APPRISS RETAIL, 2023). It is interesting to see that in the study from
Zimmermann 2021, bracketing, is not among the main reasons for returning goods (Zimmermann et al., 2021).
A similar behaviour is reported by the survey from Foresight Factory, in which only 6 % of the respondents
explicitly indicated that they bought multiple sizes but did not intend to keep all the ordered items. The same
percentage of users reported that they purchased multiple styles without the intention to keep everything
(Foresight Factory 2021).
Another reported behaviour linked returns is what is known as ‘wardrobing’. This
happens when a consumer purchases an expensive item, wears it, and then returns it (NRF and APPRISS RETAIL,
2023). A survey focusing on retailers, highlighted that 48.8 % of them experienced wardrobing (NRF and
APPRISS RETAIL, 2023).. No data was found from consumers acknowledging this practice.
The fitting issues that usually come with ordering apparel online are often linked to the inability of consumers
to interpret correctly the sizing scales offered in some online sites but there may be also cases of inconsistent
and not correct sizing (Vladimirova et al., 2022).
Products with perceived low quality, less durability and the remorse of the consumer due to buying apparel are
also highlighted as potential reasons for returning apparel (Bernon et al., 2011).
A lot of consumers have a look at the return policies before purchasing items online (Asdecker and Sucky, 2019;
Makov, 2023). In fact, 70% of consumers indicate that whether they repeat a purchase on a site or not, depends
on their return experience (Asdecker and Sucky, 2019). Nonetheless, it seems that most users assume that the
returned items are always put back into sale when this is not necessarily the case due to the complex reverse
logistics of the supply chain (Makov, 2023).
In summary, with the data available, it is not possible to clearly distinguish between the behaviour regarding
apparel returns of men and women. Nonetheless, some studies stress that younger generations return more
items given their tendency to buy apparel more often. The influence different demographic aspects play when
returning products have not been possible to analyse.
Reasons for returning items purchased online tend to have a common root: the difficulties users have choosing
the appropriate size and the right product based on the online descriptions. Furthermore, studies exploring the
reasons for returning products at physical stores have not been found. This may be because online returns are
comparatively much higher than those at physical stores. The impossibility for consumers to try the apparel on
the spot and have a tactile experience contributes to this difference in number of returns between the online
and physical store shopping.
Table 99.
Reasons for returning apparel to e-commerce
Sample details
and
characteristics
of the study
Reason for returning (expressed in % of
respondents)
Taste-
Insufficient
Fit
related
perceived
Faulty items
issues
unsuitability quality
Publication
Country
Change
of mind
Foresight
Factory
(2021)
20 000
participants
6904
United
Kingdom,
United
States,
Canada,
Australia,
France,
Germany,
Italy,
Netherland,
Norway,
Japan,
Saudi
Arabia and
UAE
38
15
14
13
8
Source: own production based on references indicated in the first column of the table
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6905
6906
6907
6908
10.7 Supporting information about environmental labels and current EU Ecolabel
criteria
10.7.1 Figures of EU Ecolabel for textile products
Figure 58.
Evolution of licences and products awarded with EU Ecolabel for textile products
6909
6910
6911
Source: own elaboration based on EU Ecolabel facts and figures
(
209
)
Table 100.
Figures of EU Ecolabel for textile products in September 2023
Licences
Competent
body
Denmark
Italy
Norway
Austria
Germany
Netherlands
Sweden
Czechia
Bulgaria
Spain
Poland
Belgium
Portugal
Romania
Cyprus
Estonia
Greece
Finland
France
Croatia
Hungary
Ireland
Iceland
Lithuania
Luxemburg
Latvia
Malta
Number
24
18
11
6
5
5
5
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Percentage
compared to the total number
(%)
28
21
13
7
6
6
6
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Products
Competent
body
Portugal
Italy
Denmark
Sweden
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Austria
Czechia
Germany
Spain
Bulgaria
Belgium
Romania
Cyprus
Estonia
Greece
Finland
France
Croatia
Hungary
Ireland
Iceland
Lithuania
Luxemburg
Latvia
Malta
Number
3854
3359
1338
172
164
161
89
50
31
14
9
7
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Percentage
compared to the total number
(%)
42
36
14
2
2
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
209
EU Ecolabel facts and figures. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
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Licences
Competent
body
Slovenia
Slovakia
Number
0
0
Percentage
compared to the total number
(%)
0
0
Products
Competent
body
Slovenia
Slovakia
Number
0
0
Percentage
compared to the total number
(%)
0
0
6912
6913
6914
6915
6916
The licence is awarded to a company by a competent body. A licence can include the award of the EU Ecolabel to one or more products.
The expression ‘number of products’ does not refer to the number of items related to a specific product.
Source: Own elaboration after consultation with EU Ecolabel Helpdesk
10.7.2 Contributions to the initial questionnaire
Table 101.
Type of respondents that contributed to the section on EU Ecolabel during the initial questionnaire
Type of respondent
University or research institute
Certified laboratory
Government (local, regional, or national)
Non-governmental organisation
–
Environment
Non-governmental organisation
–
Consumers
Industry
–
manufacturing
Industry
–
manufacturing - association
Industry
–
waste collection, sorting and treatment
Industry
–
waste collection, sorting and treatment - association
Distributer/Retailer
Distributer/Retailer association
Other
TOTAL
Number
2
0
6
2
2
10
1
0
1
2
1
7
34
Percentage compared to the total (%)
6
0
18
6
6
29
3
0
3
6
3
21
100
6917
6918
6919
6920
6921
Among the respondents of the questionnaire, 7 declared to be licence holders of the EU Ecolabel for textile products, and 4 declared to be
competent bodies of the EU Ecolabel.
Source: own elaboration
Table 102.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU ecolabel criteria 1-9, which focus on
fibres
Criterion
Suggestions
- Make sure that only fibre-to-fibre from post-consumer waste is accepted;
- Analyse the real traceability of fibres;
- Investigate regenerative farming;
- Focus only on organic cotton, disregarding the Integrated Pest Management cotton;
- Establish a clear distinction between organic cotton and transitional organic cotton;
- Investigate the implications of different minimum percentages of organic cotton;
- Extend the analysis of restricted pesticides to recycled cotton;
- Consider the expansion of the restricted pesticides following Blue Angel and Oeko-Tex 100.
- Investigate the possible use of the European Flax standards developed by the Alliance for
the European Flax-Linen and Hemp;
- Revise the COD and TOC limits as absolute values.
- Assess the possible inclusion of organic fibres;
- Consider the inclusion of biological husbandry control;
- Specify that also recycled fibres should be checked for ectoparasiticide;
- Ban mulesing;
- Investigate the possible inclusion of specific certified wool, e.g. recycled, responsible and
regenerated wool;
- Question the ambition of pH, COD and temperature limit values.
Limit the residual acrylonitrile in raw fibres to 1.5 mg/kg.
Investigate the possibility to accept 5% of elastane if the current production of elastane
does not involve a large use of organotin.
- Extend the traceability along the entire value chain of any feedstock material: recycled or
virgin;
- Investigate the effectiveness of verification methods if production occurs outside EU;
- Include thresholds of CO
2
emissions.
- Remove the distinction between consumers and commercial or public sector customers;
- Allow only fibre-to-fibre recycling;
- Analyse the traceability of fibres: virgin and recycled.
- Decrease the limit of antimony and accept its verification via a test.
Criterion 1.
Cotton and other cellulosic
seed fibres
Criterion 2.
Flax and other blast fibres
Criterion 3.
Wool and other keratin fibres
Criterion 4.
Acrylic
Criterion 5.
Elastane
Criterion 6.
Polyamide
Criterion 7.
Polyester
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Criterion
Criterion 8.
Polypropylene
Suggestions
- Investigate the feasibility of verification of VOC emissions.
Investigate the relevance of VOC emissions
- Increase the percentage of fibre coming from sustainable forestry management;
- Include the regenerated fibres based on the FAO principles on sustainable forestry
management;
- Align the ambition of this criterion to the latest EU Ecolabel criteria for absorbent hygiene
products;
- Investigate how to better support applicants and CBs to check compliance with criterion
9(a);
- Consider potential updates of the criterion 9(a) due to latest European Regulation;
- Allow only use of organic cotton;
- Question the ambition level of AOX emissions;
- Investigate the use of the latest learnings about the Roadmap for cleaner viscose by
Changing Market Foundation;
- Investigate inclusion of other environmental impacts caused by the production of MMCF.
Criterion 9.
Man-made cellulose fibres
6922
6923
6924
Source: own elaboration
Table 103.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU Ecolabel criteria 10-12, which focus on
components and accessories
Criterion
Criterion 10.
Filling
Criterion 11.
Coating, laminates and membrane
Criterion 12.
Accessories
Source: own elaboration
Suggestion
Include specific sub-criteria addressing:
- animal welfare (e.g. prohibition of live plucking),
- wastewater production,
- hygiene requirements when downs and feathers are used.
- Include limits about adhesives, organic solvents, and minimum recycled content;
- Forbid the use of CFCs as foaming agents;
- Include assessment of polyamide in criterion 11(b).
Extend the scope of accessories as done in the criteria of Blue Angel.
6925
6926
6927
Table 104.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU ecolabel criteria 13-16 and
appendixes, which focus on chemicals
Topic
General points
Suggestion
- Cover the entire supply chain;
- Simplify requirements revising their proportionality;
- Explicitly report the chemicals that should be analysed;
- Improve the comprehension of the criteria.
- Provide directions about the random sampling;
- Investigate the use of ZDHC Gateway;
- Assess aspects related to Hercosett method on wool;
- Transparently report intentionally added chemicals;
- Forbid any ingoing SVHC regardless of their concentration;
- Use other certification schemes, such as Oeko-Text Standard 100 and Bluesign, as
criterion verification.
- Include restriction to substances that hinder recyclability, and reassess those
currently derogated;
- Ban substances classified as H400;
- Consider the expansion of the following hazard classes: Persistent, bioaccumulative,
Toxic (PBTs), very Persistent very Bioaccumulative (vPvBs); Persistent, Mobile and Toxic
(PMT), Very Persistent very Mobile (vPvM), endocrine disruption;
- Investigate the possibility to completely exclude flame retardants, biocides and
optical brighteners.
Update the criterion considering the latest evolution of best available technologies.
- Update the criterion considering the requirements set by the latest EU-BREF;
- Include emission parameters set by the latest version of the Blue Angel criteria;
- Investigate verification methods which would facilitate the process when a facility is
located outside EU.
Criterion 13.
Restricted Substances List (RSL)
Criterion 14.
Substitution of hazardous
substances in dyeing, printing and
finishing
Criterion 15.
Washing, drying and curing energy
efficiency
Criterion 16.
Treatment of emissions to air and
water
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Topic
Appendix 1. EU Ecolabel textile
restricted substance list
Suggestion
- Analyse the possible ways to verify chemical requirements when the supply chain is
outside EU.
- Assess the possibility to include in the RSL:
•
All per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (some exemptions remain for outdoor
use)
•
Flame retardants
•
SVHC regardless of concentration
•
Biocides (currently allowed for transportation and storage)
•
Nanomaterials
•
Phthalates
•
Elemental chlorine or hypochlorite
•
Metal complex dyes
•
APEOS also in end products
•
PFAS
•
Chlorinated solvents
•
Organotin compounds
•
Azo dyes
- In (f), (ii) the term surfactant is redundant and the 95% is hard to interpret and
calculate.
- In verification column of (g), (ii) it can be more clear that non-use means no use of
easy-care finish.
-
The term SDS could always be written as “SDS (updated REACH/GHS)” to prevent
many outdated incomplete SDS.
- Investigate latest updates adopted by other ISO Type I environmental labels and
Oeko-Tex;
- Consider inclusion of ZDHC MRSL v.3.0 or higher;
- Analyse the possible ways to verify dye requirements when the supply chain is
outside EU.
- Update the criterion considering the latest evolution of best available technologies;
- For washing, assess formulations including surfactants (anionic and nonionic)
together with polymers and enzymes with good cleaning performance at low
temperatures.
Appendix 2. Dye restrictions
Appendix 3. Best available
techniques in the field of washing,
drying and curing energy efficiency
6928
6929
6930
Source: own elaboration
Table 105.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU Ecolabel criteria 17-25, which focus on
fitness for use
Criterion/topic
Criterion 17.
Dimensional changes during washing and
drying
Criterion 18.
Colour fastness to washing
Criterion 19.
Colour fastness to perspiration (acid,
alkaline)
Criterion 20.
Colour fastness to wet rubbing
Criterion 21.
Colour fastness to dry rubbing
Criterion 22.
Colour fastness to light
Criterion 23.
Wash resistance of cleaning products
Criterion 24.
Fabric resistance to pilling and abrasion
Criterion 25.
Durability of function
Suggestion
- Investigate latest updates adopted by other ISO Type I environmental labels;
- Include examples of fabrics with interlock and chunky knit;
- Include specific fibre groups that are missing;
- Reassess the ambition level of the criterion.
Investigate to include restriction to dry cleaning.
Verify if the depth method is still up to date;
Investigate latest updates adopted by other ISO Type I environmental labels.
Investigate latest updates adopted by other ISO Type I environmental labels.
Investigate latest updates adopted by other ISO Type I environmental labels.
- Verify if the standard depth method is still up to date;
- Investigate latest updates adopted by other ISO Type I environmental labels.
Investigate latest updates adopted by other ISO Type I environmental labels.
- Extend the possibility to verify the requirement using ISO 12945-3 (RTPT -
random tumble);
- Include more fibre groups.
- Investigate latest updates adopted by other ISO Type I environmental labels.
- Consider the possibility to include further durability aspects, as reported by
latest publications;
- Investigate aspects related to oil and stain repellence, which are connected to
the use of PFAS;
- Assess the exclusion of flame retardants.
Include requirements on tear strength and zipper quality.
Other
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6931
6932
6933
Source: own elaboration
Table 106.
Suggestions received by respondents to the initial questionnaire on EU ecolabel criteria 26-28, which focus on
Corporate Social Responsibility and supporting information
Criterion
Criterion 26.
Fundamental principles and
rights at work
Suggestion
- Investigate the possibility to use the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and
the application to the entire value chain;
- Assess the latest legislative developments reported in the proposal for the Corporate
Sustainability Due Diligence Directive;
- Change the headline to better reflects social aspects;
- Include the ILO convention 190 and ILO Convention 185, or even going beyond the ILO
core criteria;
- Investigate the possibility to use other certifications, such as BSCI/Amfori, SMETA, to
verify compliancy;
- Align with the latest EU Ecolabel requirements for electronic displays and absorbent
hygiene products.
- Investigate the possibility to use the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and
the application to the entire value chain;
- Restrict potassium permanganate.
- Investigate the possibility to include:
•
a sentence about social aspects;
•
a specific recycled material content, with its traceability;
•
Information that sums up the requirements that the product meets;
•
the specific chain of custody model used for the traceability of virgin and
recycled materials;
- Consider the latest proposal for Green Claims Directive.
Criterion 27.
Restriction on the sandblasting
of denim
Criterion 28.
Information appearing on the
Ecolabel
6934
6935
Source: own elaboration
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6936
6937
10.7.3 Comparison among Ecolabels
Table 107.
Textile fibres - comparison among Ecolabels
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
Topic
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Minimum quantity of organic cotton used to
manufacture the final product to be labelled: 95%
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
Minimum quantity of organic cotton used to manufacture the
final product to be labelled: 100%
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Must be sourced from controlled organic cultivation
or fibres from the conversion phase and comply with
requirements of regulations and certificates.
At all stages of the processing chain, it must be
ensured that controlled biological fibres and
products are not mixed with conventional fibres and
products and controlled biological fibres are not
contaminated due to contact with prohibited
substances.
Require
ment
N.A
Organ
ic
cotto
n
Verifica
tion
Common regulation to certify organic cotton: American National Organic Programme (NOP)
Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007
Traceability of organic cotton
Certification annually for each country or origin:
Regulation (EC) No 834/2007; The US National
Organic Programme (NOP), Set by other trade
partners.
Cotton volume or blend requirements require
records, invoices, and documentation from the
spinning or fabric production stages.
Minimum content of 20% of cotton grown according
to IPM principles, and 60% is the minimum content
of cotton grown according to IPM principles for the
following products: T-shirts, woman's tops, casual
shirts, jeans, pyjamas, and nightwear, underwear,
and socks.
Regulation (EU) 2018/848
N.A
Fulfilling requirements, emphasising the cultivation of organic
cotton in line with the standards.
Transaction certificates for suppliers with Global Organic Textile
Standard certification are needed.
Implied in the requirement text
Compliance verification of requirements. Fibres
labelled with the German organic logo (Bio-Siegel),
the EU organic logo ("Euro leaf"), or the American
National Organic Program (NOP), IFOAM or DIN EN
ISO/IEC 17065. For products in the conversion phase,
certification of Fibre production is required, and in
the case of RAL GmbH, a shipping or transaction
certificate is necessary if relevant.
Applicable to: the fibres used in the products must
not be sourced from genetically modified organisms
(GMO). In the case of fine yarns (fineness range >
NM100), where the required fibre lengths cannot
currently be sourced from the controlled organic
cultivation of cotton
Other
cotto
n
produ
ction
Require
ment
Only applicable to clothing (uniforms and workwear) and bed
linen, towels, bathrobes, tablecloths, tea towels, cloths, and
napkins for, e.g., hotels, hospitals, and other institutions.
Cotton cultivated according to different IPM standards (BCI,
CmiA, and FairTrade cotton) and not GMO (genetically modified
organisms according to EU Directive 2001/18)
210
211
212
EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products. Commission Decision of 5 June 2014 establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the EU Ecolabel for textile products. Commission Decision (2014/350/EU).
Available at
this link.
Nordic Swan Ecolabel criteria for textiles, hides/skins, and leather. Version 5.6, 01 March 2022
–
31 December 2026. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 27 November 2024.
Blue Angel
–
The German Ecolabel: DE-UZ 154 Basic Award Criteria for textiles. Edition January 2023, version 2. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Traceability requirements.
List of forbidden pesticides for conventional cotton
production
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
At all stages of the processing chain, it must be
ensured that controlled biological fibres and
products are not mixed with conventional fibres and
products and controlled biological fibres are not
contaminated due to contact with prohibited
substances.
The German Environment Agency can inspect to
decide whether the cotton used in the product has
been certified by a different certification system
(e.g., Cotton Made in Africa (CmiA) and Fairtrade
Cotton) can also be approved.
N.A
•Need for proper documentation or certification to demonstrate compliance with standards concerning cotton production.
•Certified Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) schemes during the cotton cultivation process: BCI, CmiA, and Fair Trade
cotton.
•Emphasis on the absence of genetically modified cotton and the traceability of the supply chain.
Verifica
tion
Pesticide restrictions. Necessity for testing or
declarations of non-use from farmers or producer
groups.
Comprehensive testing methodologies for pesticides
such as US EPA 8081 B, 8151 A, 8141 B, and 8270
D for different types of pesticides.
Same as the general recycling requirement
Same as the general recycling requirement
Verifica
tion
N.A
Recyc
led
cotto
n
(fibre
s or
mater
ials)
Require
ment
Pre-consumer or post-consumer raw materials, according to ISP
14021 standard
Mechanically and chemically recycled fibres are included
Global Recycled Standard certificate 4.0 (or later versions),
Recycled Claim Standards (RCS) or other certification approved
by Nordic Swan Ecolabelling,
AND/OR
Documentation indicating the fibre was purchased 100%
recycled and indicates the supplier
The same requirements as the recycled Fibres
The same requirements as the recycled Fibres
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
N.A
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
N.A.
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Require
ment
Must be sourced from controlled organic cultivation
or fibres from the conversion phase and comply with
requirements of regulations and certificates.
At all stages of the processing chain, it must be
ensured that controlled biological fibres and
products are not mixed with conventional fibres and
products and controlled biological fibres are not
contaminated due to contact with prohibited
substances.
Retted under ambient conditions and without Retting only allowed if the wastewater from the retting ponds is If the Fibres are produced using water retting, the
thermal energy inputs.
treated to reduce the COD or TOC
water has to be treated to reduce the chemical
oxygen demand (COD) or the total organic carbon
Percentage by which COD or TOC in wastewater from retting should be reduced (at least 75% for hemp and at least 95% for flax and other bast Fibres)
N.A
Only cultivated using pesticides permitted according to
Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009
N.A
For water retting:
Test method for measuring COD and TOC: ISO 6060.
Test report from the producer or
Proof of a valid EU Ecolabel licence in line with the Commission
Decision of July 2014.
For pesticides: Valid certificate from European Flax Standard or
equivalent.
N.A
The fibres used in the products must not be sourced
from genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
For water retting:
Test of the COD will be carried out in accordance
with ISO 6060 or DIN 38409-41 or DIN 38409-44
or DIN-ISO 15705.
Compliance verification
Compliance with requirements: Fibres labelled with
German organic logo (Bio-Siegel) or Euorganic logo
("Euro leaf") or American National Organic
Programme (NOP),·IFOAM or DIN EN ISO/IEC 17065,·
For products "in conversion" only if fibre production
can be certificated.
In the case of RAL GmbH --> a shipping or
transaction certificate (if relevant), Regulation (EC)
No 834/2007 2018/848 (EC Organic Regulation)
Declaration of compliance with requirements and
verification submission for using residues from the
agricultural, timber and food industries.
N.A
Flax,
linen
and
other
bast
fibres
N.A
For water retting:
Test report showing compliance and using the test
method: ISO 6060 (COD)
Declaration of the retting method used by the
farmers and/or other suppliers.
N.A
Verifica
tion
Wool
and
Require
ment
The
same restrictions on a group of ectoparasiticides
with a maximum of 0.5 ppm or a maximum of 2 ppm. The
requirement does not apply if specific documentary evidence is presented, together with an independent verification of
specific details.
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Topic
other
kerati
n
fibres
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Derogation for Wool scourers operating closed-loop
water systems that break down the ectoparasiticides
above must comply with at least two treatments
indicated in EUEL.
COD
values restrictions for wool scouring operations.
Limits (same as the Nordic Swan)
•45 g/kg for fine wool
•25
g/kg for coarse wool
N.A
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
N.A
Blue Angel
(
212
)
COD
emissions from wool scouring plants.
Limits (same as the EUEL)
• 45 g/kg for fine wool
• 25 g/kg for coarse wool
Wastewater sent to local/regional treatment works is exempted.
Measurement of PCOD, TOC or BOD may also be used if a
correlation to COD is evident.
pH value and temperature
of wastewater from wool scouring
The pH value of the wastewater released to the surface water
must be 6-9 (same as Blue Angel), and the temperature must
be lower than 40°C (higher temperature than Blue Angel's
requirement)
N.A
Verifica
tion
Scouring:
Measures to recover value from either
Scouring
agents
oxidised grease, fibre, suint or sludge arising from Must be either readily aerobically biodegradable or inherently
the scouring site used for the ecolabelled wool aerobically biodegradable by test method: OECD 301 A-F (60%
products
degradability), OECD 310 (60% degradability), OECD 302 A-C
•Recovery for sale as a chemical feedstock;
(70% degradability) or equivalent.
•Production of compost or liquid fertiliser;
•Manufacturing of
products such as building
materials;
•Treatment and energy recovery by anaerobic
digestion or incineration
Ectoparasiticides:
Provide the documentation or
Ectoparasiticides:
Tests must be performed in accordance
the following test methods: IWTO draft test method with IWTO Draft Test Method 59 (same as EUEL).
59 (same as the Nordic Swan). In case of derogation, Verify through the wool supplier's declaration that no mulesing
applicants must provide evidence confirming the has been used.
scouring plant configuration and laboratory test Test report showing that the pesticide requirement has been
reports.
fulfilled.
COD
same test for all: Test method ISO 6060 and the following compliance/verification methods
Requirements for wastewater from wool scouring
before mixing (indirect discharge)
The
COD
limit is 45 g/kg of greasy wool before
mixing with other wastewater (it does not apply to
recycled fibres)
Requirements for wastewater from wool scouring at
the discharge point (direct discharge)
The COD limit is 150 mg/l (qualified random sample)
or 1.5 mg/l (2-hour mixed sample) of greasy wool.
pH value of the wastewater
discharged to
surface waters must be between 6 and 9 (same as
the Nordic Swan) (unless the pH value of the
receiving waters is outside this range), and the
temperature
must be below 35°C (lower
temperature than Nordic Swan's requirement)
(unless the temperature of the receiving waters is
already above this limit). The requirement does not
apply to recycled fibres.
Scouring:
Exclusion of washing agents containing
alkylphenol ethoxylates
Washing agents containing alkylphenol ethoxylates
(APEO) are prohibited.
Direct and indirect discharge limits may not exceed
5μg/l APEO (NPEO, OPEO, NP, and OP).
N.A
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
COD:
Compliance with this criterion shall be based
on monthly averages for the six months preceding
the application.
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
COD:
Test report or a valid GOTS or EU Ecolabel certificate
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Scouring:
Provide a report and waste transfer notes
confirming the type and proportion of waste
recovered and the method used.
N.A
Require
ment
Organ
ic
wool
N.A
COD:
Declaration of compliance with the
requirements and confirmation from the operator of
the wool scouring plant+ method treatment
Test of the COD: DIN 38409-41 or, DIN 38409-44 or
DIN-ISO 15705.
If discharged to an urban wastewater treatment
plant, the applicant shall also enclose a notice of
approval verifying compliance with Directive (EEC)
91/271.
Scouring:
Declaration from the chemical supplier and safety
Scouring:
declaration of conformity - Annex 57 of
data sheet for the scouring agents used and/or OECD or ISO test the German Wastewater Ordinance or equivalent
results showing compliance with the requirement.
international test reports.
The following test methods can be used here (based
on a qualified random sample or a 2-hour mixed
sample): NPEO, OPEO, NP, and OP: ISO 18857-1, ISO
18857-2, ISO 18254-1 or ASTM D7742-17.
Certified organic wool: wool fibre certified as organic according Wool, alpaca and cashmere must be sourced from
to a standard approved in the IFOAM.
controlled organic cultivation, controlled biological
animal husbandry, or fibres from the conversion
phase (transition from non-organic to organic
farming) and comply with the requirements
indicated in "verification".
At all stages of the processing chain, it must be
ensured that controlled biological fibres and
products are not mixed with conventional fibres and
products and controlled biological fibres are not
contaminated due to contact with prohibited
substances.
Certification required: standards approved in the IFOAM, such as Regulation (EU) 2018/848, ISO 17065), USDA National
Organic Program (NOP) (same as Blue Angel)
APEDA’s National Programme for Organic
Production (NPOP),
China Organic Standard GB/T19630, GOTS certification.
Also approved are GOTS and DEMETER and certification as
“transitioning to organic cultivation”. The certification body must
have the accreditation required for the standard, such as IFOAM
(same as Blue Angel).
The applicant shall declare compliance with the
requirement.
Fibres labels accepted: German organic logo (Bio-
Siegel), the EU organic logo (“Euro leaf”)
In the case of alpaca, certification according to the
Responsible Alpaca Standard 1.0 © 2021 Textile
Exchange.
The certification of products” in conversion” is
possible.
Verifica
tion
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
Blue Angel
(
212
)
In the case of cashmere, certification according to
the Good Cashmere Standard® (GCS) by AbTF can be
submitted as an alternative to certification of
controlled biological animal husbandry.
Require
ment
Recyc
led
wool
Verifica
tion
Same as the general recycling requirement.
Same as the general recycling requirement.
Recycled wool: As per the definition in the ISO 14021 standard.
Both mechanically and chemically recycled fibres are included.
Fulfilment with either a) or b):
a) Global Recycled Standard certificate 4.0, Recycled Claim
Standard certificate, or equivalent certification.
b) Present documentation demonstrating that the recycled fibre
was purchased as recycled and state the supplier.
If bio-based origin:
Must contain at least 90% bio-based raw material.
Palm oil, soybean oil, and soy flour must not be used.
They must meet either a) or b):
a) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
b) If sugar cane is used, it must be certified to Bonsucro
standard, version 5.1 or later version or certified to a standard
that meets the requirements.
The producer must have a CoC certification according to the
standard by which the raw material is certified.
Traceability must at least be ensured by mass balance. Book
and claim systems are not accepted.
The producer of the bio-based polymer must document its
purchase of certified raw materials for polymer production.
The raw materials must meet either c) or d):
c) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
d) Primary raw materials not genetically modified.
If fossil origin:
Same as the requirements for the recycled fibres.
Same as the requirements for the recycled fibres.
The emissions to air of
acrylonitrile
(during
polymerisation and up to the solution ready for
spinning) shall be less than 1g/kg of fibre produced
(same limit as Blue Angel) as an annual average.
Acryli
c
Require
ment
The workplace emissions to air of
N, N-
dimethylacetamide
(127-19-5)
during
polymerisation and spinning shall not exceed an
Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Value of 10.0
ppm.
The emissions to air of
acrylonitrile
(during
polymerisation and up to the solution ready for
spinning), expressed as an annual average, must be
less than 1 g/kg of fibre produced (same limit as
EUEL) (this requirement does not apply to recycled
fibres unless the recycling process breaks down the
materials to the monomer level. If this is the case,
this requirement also applies to recycled fibres)
The
residual acrylonitrile content
in raw fibres
leaving the fibre production plant must be less than
1.5 mg/kg (this requirement does not apply to
recycled fibres unless the recycling process breaks
down the materials to the monomer level. If this is
the case, this requirement also applies to recycled
fibres)
N.A
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
100% recycled material. This must not include recycled plastic
from EFSA plants or FDA-approved food contact material or be
marketed as compatible with these.
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Acrylonitrile:
Detailed documentation and/or test
reports showing compliance with this criterion and a
Declaration of Compliance from the fibre
manufacturer.
Verifica
tion
N, N-dimethylacetamide:
Emissions values
measured at those process stages in which the
substances are used, expressed as an 8-hour
average value. Test reports and monitoring data
from the fibre manufacturer showing compliance
with this criterion.
If bio-based origin:
-Test according to ISO 16620, ASTM D6866, or equivalent
standards showing the content of bio-based raw material.
- Declaration by the producer that palm oil, soybean oil and soy
flour are not used.
- For waste and residual products: Documentation that shows
the requirement's definition of waste or residual products and
traceability is met.
- Sugar cane: Certification system sugar cane is certified for.
CoC certificate or a certificate number. Documentation from the
producer of the bio-based polymer showing the purchase of bio-
based polymer from certified raw material in at least the same
annual quantity as is used in the production of the bio-based
polymer. Declaration stating that it has not been genetically
modified.
- For primary raw materials: Declaration stating that they have
not been genetically modified. Name and geographical origin of
the primary raw materials used.
If fossil origin:
- Declaration from the producer of the recycled raw material
that it is not EFSA or FDA-approved.
- Certificate from an independent certifier of the supply chain.
- Documentation from the producer showing that the raw
material is 100% recycled.
Acrylonitrile
Compliance with the requirement and
submission of confirmation from the suppliers of the
fibres, as well as a test (according to specified
methods) report from the suppliers of the fibres
verifying compliance with this requirement.
N.A
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Bans organotin compounds.
Limits exposure to 3 specific aromatic diisocyanates:
(i)
diphenylmethane-4,4'-diisocyanate
(101-68-8) 0.005 ppm
(ii)
toluene-2,4-diisocyanate (584-84-9)
0.005 ppm
(iii)
N, N-dimethylacetamide (127-19-5)
10.0 ppm
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
If bio-based origin:
Must contain at least 90% bio-based raw material.
Palm oil, soybean oil, and soy flour must not be used.
They must meet either a) or b):
a) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
b) If sugar cane is used, it must be certified to Bonsucro
standard, version 5.1 or later version or certified to a standard
that meets the requirements.
The producer must have a CoC certification according to the
standard by which the raw material is certified.
Traceability must at least be ensured by mass balance. Book
and claim systems are not accepted.
The producer of the bio-based polymer must document its
purchase of certified raw materials for polymer production.
The raw materials must meet either c) or d)
c) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
d) Primary raw materials not genetically modified.
If fossil origin:
100% recycled material. This must not include recycled plastic
from EFSA plants or FDA-approved food contact material or be
marketed as compatible with these.
Synthetic fibre of fossil origin 100% recycled material in line
with ISO 14021,
EXCEPTION:
• For elastane
fibres that are STANDARD 100 by OEKO-TEX
certified
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Bans organotin compounds.
Limits exposure to aromatic diisocyanates a 0.05
mg/m³ value expressed as an 8-hour average.
It applies to recycled fibres, only if the recycling
process breaks down the materials to the monomer
level.
Elast
ane
Require
ment
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Declaration of non-use from the Fibre manufacturer
and measurement of emissions values, provided as
an 8-hour average value. Test reports and
monitoring data from the fibre manufacturer(s)
demonstrating compliance are necessary.
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
If bio-based origin:
-Test according to ISO 16620, ASTM D6866 or equivalent
standards showing the content of bio-based raw material.
- Declaration by the producer that palm oil, soybean oil and soy
flour are not used.
- For waste and residual products: Documentation which shows
that the requirement's definition of waste or residual products
is met, as well as traceability.
- Sugar cane: Certification system sugar cane is certified for.
CoC certificate or a certificate number. Documentation from the
producer of the bio-based polymer showing the purchase of bio-
based polymer from certified raw material in at least the same
annual quantity as is used in the production of the bio-based
polymer. Declaration stating that it has not been genetically
modified.
- For primary raw materials: Declaration stating that they have
not been genetically modified. Name and geographical origin of
the primary raw materials used.
If fossil origin:
- Declaration from the producer of the recycled raw material
that it is not EFSA or FDA-approved.
- Certificate from an independent certifier of the supply chain.
- Documentation from the producer showing that the raw
material is 100% recycled.
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Declaration of the non-use of specific compounds
and submit confirmation from the fibre suppliers,
with the option to use suitable HPLC test methods
recognised testing laboratories.
Verifica
tion
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
a) The level of antimony present in the polyester
fibres shall not exceed 260 ppm (same limit as Blue
Angel). Polyester fibres manufactured from recycled
PET bottles are derogated (same requirement as
Blue Angel).
b) Staple fibres shall contain a minimum content of
50 % and filament fibres 20 % of recycled PET
(same requirement as Blue Angel). Micro-fibres are
derogated from this requirement and shall comply
with (c).
c) Emissions of VOCs during the production of
polyester limit 1.2 g/kg for PET chips (same limit as
Blue Angel) and 10.3 g/kg for filament fibre (same
limit as Blue Angel).
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
If bio-based origin:
Must contain at least 90% bio-based raw material.
Palm oil, soybean oil, and soy flour must not be used.
They must meet either a) or b):
a) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
b) If sugar cane is used, it must be certified to Bonsucro
standard, version 5.1 or later version, or certified to a standard
that meets the requirements.
The producer must have a CoC certification according to the
standard by which the raw material is certified.
Traceability must at least be ensured by mass balance. Book
and claim systems are not accepted.
The producer of the bio-based polymer must document its
purchase of certified raw materials for polymer production.
The raw materials must meet either c) or d):
c) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
d) Primary raw materials not genetically modified.
If fossil origin:
100% recycled material. This must not include recycled plastic
from EFSA plants or FDA-approved food contact material or be
marketed as compatible with these.
Synthetic fibre of fossil origin 100% recycled material in line
with ISO 14021,
EXCEPTION:
• For white polyester (200-220
GG, Tint 0-3 or equivalent
according to the CIE Whiteness Index) for professional textiles,
an exception is given until June 30th, 2024. When using the
exception, it is required that the fibres be STANDARD 100 by
OEKO-TEX certified.
Blue Angel
(
212
)
a) Limit the amount of antimony present in the
polyester fibres 260 ppm (same limit as EUEL) or an
elutable amount of 30 mg/kg. This requirement also
applies to recycled fibres.
b) The use of PET beverage packaging in the
production of recycled fibres is permitted for a
transitional period of two years (after this period,
PET from beverage packaging is not permitted).
Staple fibres shall contain a minimum content of 50
% and filament fibres 20 % of recycled PET (same
requirement as EUEL)
c) VOC emissions must not exceed 1.2 g/kg for PET
chips (same limit as EUEL), 10.3 g/kg for filament
fibres (same limit as EUEL) or 0.2 g/kg for produced
polyester resin. This requirement does not apply to
recycled polyester fibres unless the recycling
process breaks down the materials to the monomer
level. If this is the case, this requirement also applies
to recycled polyester fibres.
Polye
ster
Require
ment
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
a) Declaration of non-use or a test report using the
test methods indicated in the criterion. A declaration
shall be provided for fibres manufactured from
recycled PET bottles.
b) Recycled content shall be traceable back to the
reprocessing of the feedstock.
c) The applicant shall provide monitoring data and/or
test reports demonstrating compliance with EN
12619 (same standard as Blue Angel) or standards
with an equivalent test method.
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
If bio-based origin:
-Test according to ISO 16620, ASTM D6866, or equivalent
standards showing the content of bio-based raw material.
- Declaration by the producer that palm oil, soybean oil and soy
flour are not used.
- For waste and residual products: Documentation that shows
the requirement's definition of waste or residual products and
traceability is met.
- Sugar cane: Certification system sugar cane is certified for.
CoC certificate or a certificate number. Documentation from the
producer of the bio-based polymer showing the purchase of bio-
based polymer from certified raw material in at least the same
annual quantity as is used in the production of the bio-based
polymer. Declaration stating that it has not been genetically
modified.
- For primary raw materials: Declaration stating that they have
not been genetically modified. Name and geographical origin of
the primary raw materials used.
If fossil origin:
- Declaration from the producer of the recycled raw material
that it is not EFSA or FDA-approved.
- Certificate from an independent certifier of the supply chain.
- Documentation from the producer showing that the raw
material is 100% recycled.
Blue Angel
(
212
)
a) Declaration of antimony-free polyester fibres and
the corresponding declaration or a test report from
the fibre suppliers to verify compliance. Leaching
according to DIN EN ISO 105-E04 / determined
according to ISO 17294-2 (ICP/MS). The recycling
process must be described if recycled fibres are used
a) and c) a Declaration of compliance with the
requirement and submission of a declaration of
conformity from the fibre suppliers, as well as a test
report by DIN EN 12619 (same standard as EUEL).
The recycling process must be described if recycled
fibres are used.
Verifica
tion
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Bans the use of lead based pigments.
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
If bio-based origin:
Must contain at least 90% bio-based raw material.
Palm oil, soybean oil, and soy flour must not be used.
They must meet either a) or b):
a) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
b) If sugar cane is used, it must be certified to Bonsucro
standard, version 5.1 or later version or certified to a standard
that meets the requirements.
The producer must have a CoC certification according to the
standard by which the raw material is certified.
Traceability must at least be ensured by mass balance. Book
and claim systems are not accepted.
The producer of the bio-based polymer must document its
purchase of certified raw materials for polymer production.
The raw materials must meet either c) or d):
c) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
d) Primary raw materials not genetically modified.
If fossil origin:
100% recycled material. This must not include recycled plastic
from EFSA plants, FDA-approved as food contact material, or
marketed as compatible with these.
Synthetic fibre of fossil origin 100% recycled material in line
with ISO 14021,
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Bans the use of lead based pigments.
Polyp
ropyl
ene
Require
ment
303
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Declaration of non-use.
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
If bio-based origin:
-Test according to ISO 16620, ASTM D6866, or equivalent
standards showing the content of bio-based raw material.
- Declaration by the producer that palm oil, soybean oil and soy
flour are not used.
- For waste and residual products: Documentation that shows
the requirement's definition of waste or residual products and
traceability is met.
- Sugar cane: Certification system sugar cane is certified for.
CoC certificate or a certificate number. Documentation from the
producer of the bio-based polymer showing the purchase of bio-
based polymer from certified raw material in at least the same
annual quantity as is used in the production of the bio-based
polymer. Declaration stating that it has not been genetically
modified.
- For primary raw materials: Declaration stating that they have
not been genetically modified. Name and geographical origin of
the primary raw materials used.
If fossil origin:
- Declaration from the producer of the recycled raw material
that it is not EFSA or FDA-approved.
- Certificate from an independent certifier of the supply chain.
- Documentation from the producer showing that the raw
material is 100% recycled.
If bio-based origin:
Must contain at least 90% bio-based raw material.
Palm oil, soybean oil, and soy flour must not be used.
They must meet either a) or b):
a) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
b) If sugar cane is used, it must be certified to Bonsucro
standard, version 5.1 or later version or certified to a standard
that meets the requirements.
The producer must have a CoC certification according to the
standard by which the raw material is certified.
Traceability must at least be ensured by mass balance. Book
and claim systems are not accepted.
The producer of the bio-based polymer must document its
purchase of certified raw materials for polymer production.
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Declaration of non-use and confirmation from the
fibre suppliers. The recycling process must be
described if recycled fibres are used.
Verifica
tion
Man-
made
cellul
ose
fibres
Require
ment
Sustainable Forestry Management:
A minimum of 25% of pulp Fibres must be
manufactured from wood grown according to
sustainable forestry management principles. The
remaining proportion of pulp Fibres should be from
legal forestry and plantations.
Pulp from Cotton Linters:
Pulp produced from cotton linters must meet the
requirements of either cotton criterion 1a or 1b.
Bleaching Process:
Requirement (9c): The pulp used for fibre
manufacturing must be bleached without elemental
chlorine. Total chlorine and organically bound
chlorine (OX) in finished Fibres must not exceed 150
N.A
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
ppm. AOX in wastewater from pulp manufacturing
must not exceed 0.170 kg/ADt pulp.
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
The raw materials must meet either c) or d):
c) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
d) Primary raw materials not genetically modified.
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Verifica
tion
Value Recovery from Spent Process Liquors:
Requirement (9d): A minimum of 50% of the pulp
used for Fibre manufacturing must be purchased
from dissolving pulp mills that recover value from
spent process liquors through on-site electricity and
steam generation or manufacturing chemical co-
products.
Sulphur Content in Emissions (for Viscose and Modal
Fibres):
Requirement (9e): The sulphur content of emissions
of sulphur compounds to air from Fibre production
processes must not exceed specified performance
values.
Sustainable Forestry Management: The applicant
needs to obtain valid, independently certified chain
of custody certificates from the Fibre
manufacturer(s) demonstrating compliance with
sustainable forestry management principles.
Certifications from FSC, PEFC, or equivalent schemes
are accepted.
Pulp from Cotton Linters: Cotton must be certified by
an independent control body, complying with
regulations and standards. Non-genetically modified
varieties of cotton should be verified according to
specified regulations.
Bleaching Process: The applicant needs to provide a
test report showing compliance with OX or AOX
requirements using the appropriate test methods
(OX: ISO 11480, AOX: ISO 9562).
Value Recovery from Spent Process Liquors: The
applicant must provide a list of pulp suppliers,
documentation, and evidence of energy generation
and co-product recovery systems.
If bio-based origin:
-Test according to ISO 16620, ASTM D6866, or equivalent
standards showing the content of bio-based raw material.
- Declaration by the producer that palm oil, soybean oil and soy
flour are not used.
- For waste and residual products: Documentation that shows
the requirement's definition of waste or residual products and
traceability is met.
- Sugar cane: Certification system sugar cane is certified for.
CoC certificate or a certificate number. Documentation from the
producer of the bio-based polymer showing the purchase of bio-
based polymer from certified raw material in at least the same
annual quantity as is used in the production of the bio-based
polymer. Declaration stating that it has not been genetically
modified.
- For primary raw materials: Declaration stating that they have
not been genetically modified. Name and geographical origin of
the primary raw materials used.
N.A
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Sulphur Content in Emissions (for Viscose and Modal
Fibres): The applicant needs to provide detailed
documentation and/or test reports showing
compliance with this criterion, along with a
declaration of compliance
N.A
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Recycled Content:
Recycled raw materials for producing new regenerated cellulose
fibres must be pre-consumer or post-consumer* cellulosic
material. It must be documented that 100% is recycled material.
Chain of Custody Certification:
Chain of Custody certification (FSC or PEFC).
Manufacturers using only recycled material are exempt from the
Chain of Custody requirement
Bleaching Restrictions: Prohibits the use of chlorine gas in
bleaching.
Recycled Content:
Allows the use of recycled materials.
Chain of Custody Certification:
Requires certain certifications for cellulose origin.
Bleaching Restrictions: Restricts the use of
elementary chlorine.
Additional Bleaching Process Restrictions Place
restrictions on using hypochlorite and set limits on
chlorine dioxide consumption and AOX emissions to
wastewater during bleaching.
Emission Limits: Sets limits on emissions to
wastewater and air, including COD, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulphur compounds, and dust.
N.A
Cellulose Origin: Requires cellulose from wood or
bamboo cultivated according to sustainable forestry
principles. It also allows using recycled materials and
residues from the agricultural, timber, and food
industries.
Emission Limits Specific to Fibre Types: Sets specific
emission limits for viscose and modal fibres,
including sulphur content in emissions.
Energy Consumption Limits: specifies limits on
specific electrical and heating energy consumption
in cellulose production.
Halogen Content: Specifies a maximum halogen
content for fibres.
N.A
Regen
erate
d
Cellul
ose
fibres
Emission Limits: Imposes emission limits for specific substances
in the production process.
Require
ment
Tree Species Limitation: Restrictions on using virgin wood Fibres
from specific tree species.
Origin: Requires traceability of regenerated cellulose fibre or
recycled textile fibre
N.A
N.A
N.A
Traceability: Requires traceability of regenerated cellulose fibre
or recycled textile fibre
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
N.A
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
Recycled Content: Certificate from either Global Recycled
Standard or Recycled Claim Standard
Chain of Custody Certification: Verification with valid FSC/PEFC
Chain of Custody certificates.
Bleaching Restrictions: Declaration from the cellulose mass and
regenerated cellulose manufacturers or a valid EU Ecolabel
License.
Emission Limits: Documentation of closed-loop processes and
test reports for emission requirements
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Recycled Content: Certificate from either Global
Recycled Standard or Recycled Claim Standard or
submission of purchasing and procurement receipts
for waste material.
Chain of Custody Certification: Verification through
valid, independently issued certificates from Fibre
producers
confirming
sustainable
forestry
management for wood or bamboo Fibres.
Bleaching Restrictions: Manufacturers to submit test
reports and documentation showing adherence to
the specified limits
Emission Limits: compliance declarations, emission
values, and test reports for various aspects of
production, including emissions to air and water.
Cellulose Origin: For cellulose sourced from bamboo,
a transaction certificate must be submitted
N.A
Emission Limits Specific to Fibre Types: Compliance
with emission limits for specific fibre types
Energy Consumption Limits: Manufacturers need to
ensure that the specific electrical and heating energy
consumption in cellulose production meets the
defined limits
Halogen Content: Manufacturers must ensure that
the halogen content of fibres does not exceed the
specified maximum limit.
N.A
Verifica
tion
Cellulose Origin: Declaration from the cellulose mass and
regenerated cellulose manufacturers or a valid EU Ecolabel
License.
Tree Species Limitation: Documented with a certificate from
either the Global Recycled Standard or the Recycled Claim
Standard.
N.A
N.A
N.A
Traceability: documented with a certificate from either the
Global Recycled Standard or the Recycled Claim Standard.
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Polyamide products shall comply with at least one of
the following:
- Fibres shall be manufactured using a minimum
content of 20 % recycled from pre and/or post-
consumer waste.
- The emissions to air of N2O from nylon monomer
production, expressed as an annual average, shall
not exceed 9.0 g N2O/kg of caprolactam or adipic
acid.
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
If bio-based origin:
Must contain at least 90% bio-based raw material.
Palm oil, soybean oil, and soy flour must not be used.
They must meet either a) or b):
a) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
b) If sugar cane is used, it must be certified to Bonsucro
standard, version 5.1 or later version or certified to a standard
that meets the requirements.
The producer must have a CoC certification according to the
standard by which the raw material is certified.
Traceability must at least be ensured by mass balance. Book
and claim systems are not accepted.
The producer of the bio-based polymer must document its
purchase of certified raw materials for polymer production.
The raw materials must meet either c) or d):
c) Waste or residual products defined by (EU) Renewable Energy
Directive 2018/2001.
d) Primary raw materials not genetically modified.
If fossil origin:
100% recycled material. This must not include recycled plastic
from EFSA plants or FDA-approved food contact material or be
marketed as compatible with these.
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Polyamide products shall comply with at least one
of the following:
- Fibres shall be manufactured using a minimum
content of 20 % recycled from pre and/or post-
consumer waste.
- The N2O emissions to air during the monomer
production, expressed as an annual average, must
not exceed 9 g/kg of caprolactam or adipic acid. In
addition, reduction technologies must be used to
produce caprolactam and adipic acid. It must be
ensured that the degree of reduction in the N2O
emissions during adipic acid production is at least
95%.
Polya
mide
Require
ment
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Recycled content shall be traceable back to the
reprocessing of the feedstock. This shall be verified
by independent certification of the chain of custody
or by documentation provided by suppliers and
processors.
The applicant shall provide documentation or test
reports showing compliance based on monitoring
data and a Declaration of Compliance from the fibre
manufacturer and their feedstock providers.
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
If bio-based origin:
-Test according to ISO 16620, ASTM D6866 or equivalent
standard showing the content of bio-based raw material.
- Declaration by the producer that palm oil, soybean oil and soy
flour are not used.
- For waste and residual products: Documentation that shows
the requirement's definition of waste or residual products and
traceability is met.
- Sugar cane: Certification system sugar cane is certified for.
CoC certificate or a certificate number. Documentation from the
producer of the bio-based polymer showing the purchase of bio-
based polymer from certified raw material in at least the same
annual quantity as is used in the production of the bio-based
polymer. Declaration stating that it has not been genetically
modified.
- For primary raw materials: Declaration stating that they have
not been genetically modified. Name and geographical origin of
the primary raw materials used.
If fossil origin:
- Declaration from the producer of the recycled raw material
that it is not EFSA or FDA-approved.
- Certificate from an independent certifier of the supply chain.
- Documentation from the producer showing that the raw
material is 100% recycled.
An extensive list of substances and limits indicated Extractable
metals, Organic tin compounds, Chlorophenols, Per- and
polyfluorinated compounds, Phthalates, Surfactants, wetting
agent residues, Dyes,
a) an Oeko-Tex standard 100 class I certificate or
b) test report showing that the requirement is complied with.
And a description of the procedure confirming an annual test.
Blue Angel
(
212
)
Declare compliance with the requirement and
submit a DoC from the monomer producer and test
reports for the raw and clean gas, verifying that a
reduction of at least 95% has been achieved.
Verifica
tion
Require
ment
Recyc
led
textil
e
fibre
Recycled content shall meet the requirements of the
Criterion 13 Restricted Substance List.
Verifica
tion
Recycled content shall be traceable back to the
reprocessing of the feedstock. This shall be verified
by independent third party certification of the chain
of custody or by documentation provided by
feedstock suppliers and reprocessors.
Annually
Provision of information on the recycled content, the
type and composition of the recycled fibre, the
origins and composition of the materials fed into the
recycling process, and a description of the recycling
process.
Declaration from the manufacturer about the
recycled content and origins, accompanied by one of
the flowing certificates:
• RCS (Recycled Claim Standard),• GRS (Global
Recycled Standard),• International Sustainability and
Carbon Certification (ISCC+), • Roundtable on
Sustainable Biomaterials
(RSB), • RedCert (only in
Europe) •or a comparable certification system whose
scope and requirement standards is equivalent to
one of the named certification systems. An
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Topic
Require
ment/
Verifica
tion
EU Ecolabel
(
210
)
Nordic Swan
(
211
)
Blue Angel
(
212
)
independent environmental verifier must confirm
the equivalence of the certification system.
6938
6939
Table 108.
Components and accessories
–
comparison among Ecolabels
Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
Blue Angel
Fibre restrictions: Not explicitly mentioned
Fibre Restrictions: defined fibre restrictions for fillings in alignment with their respective standards
Chemical Substances: emphasis on the chemical Chemical Substances: restricts chemical substances used in
substances used in fillings and their laundering additives and treatments applied to fillings. It does not
processes. The criteria include biocides, mention the laundering process.
formaldehyde emissions, fabric softeners, and
other relevant chemicals.
Fillings
Requirement
Polyurethane and Latex: not specifically address Polyurethane and Latex: focuses on restrictions related to
polyurethane and latex fillings.
blowing agents
Foamed Synthetic Materials: Formaldehyde
emissions restrictions resulting from the
laundering process.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): Not
referenced
Foamed Synthetic Materials: Limits on emissions from
substances used in foamed synthetic materials, including
formaldehyde and others.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): For foamed
synthetic materials such as polyurethane, latex, and
expanded polystyrene, the content of each PAH stated in the
requirement shall be below 0.5 mg/kg.
Chemical Substances: references substance
restrictions from the REACH "list of candidates,"
the CLP Regulation (EC/1272/2008), and limits
from the ZDHC MRSL, provided they are stricter
than REACH. It does not mention the laundering
process.
Polyurethane and Latex: concentration limits and
VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) emissions for
polyurethane and latex. The concentration of
aromatic diisocyanates and blowing agents are
also restricted in PUR.
Foamed Synthetic Materials: Latex foam and
specifies restrictions regarding its concentration
and volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): Not
mentioned
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
Blue Angel
Fibres: Not explicitly mentioned
Fibres: follow their fibre verification methods
Emissions from PUR and latex foams: not Emissions from PUR and latex foams: same standard for verification, but different verification methods.
mentioned
Polyurethane: not mentioned
Polyurethane: Declaration of Conformity (DoC) regarding Polyurethane: Declaration of Conformity (DoC)
blowing agents
and test reports on limit values for additives and
emissions (CFCs and VOCs).
PAHs: not mentioned
PAHs: tested by ISO 18287 or ZEK 01.2-08 (GC/MS)
PAHs: not mentioned
Ethical requirements: prohibit using feathers and down plucked from live birds or forced feeding birds
Includes recycled down and feather
N.A
Verification
Requirement
N.A
Feathers
and downs
Microbial cleanliness: must document microbial purity and Microbial cleanliness: requirements for down and
comply with the oxygen index number of max. 10 and fat feathers regarding oxygen index, microbiological
content
state, mesophil aerobic bacteria count, faecal
streptococci count, sulphite reducing clostridium
count, presence of salmonella, oil and grease
content, turbidity, pH
Labelling: requires labelling feathers and down-filling Labelling: Does not mention it.
materials; Blue Angel Ecolabel does not mention it.
Wastewater: The given text does not provide specific Wastewater: detailed wastewater discharge
wastewater discharge standards.
standards, including limits for various
parameters
and
pH
and
temperature
requirements.
Adherence to the Down Standard or an equivalent.
Submission of audit reports from testing
institutions.
For recycled materials, either a Recycled Global Standard N.A
certificate or supplier documentation is required.
N.A
For wastewater: compliance with the
requirements. A declaration of conformity from
the processing plant operator and test reports.
Verification
N.A
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Focuses on specific criteria for polyurethane and
polyester,
including
workplace
emissions,
antimony content, and VOC emissions.
Addresses restrictions on phthalates in polymers.
Allows the use of fluoropolymer membranes and
laminates but with restrictions on PFOA.
Does not mention adhesives.
Nordic Swan
It covers requirements for textiles used as substrates,
including materials for coatings, laminates, and membranes.
Specifies criteria for recycled and biobased raw materials,
including palm oil, soybean oil, and soy flour restrictions.
Specifically, if a polymer constitutes more than 5% by weight
of the finished fabric, it must be either 100% recycled or
composed of at least 90% bio-based raw material.
Prohibits halogenated polymers and sets requirements for
additives (CLP Regulation 1272/2008) in polymers.
Lists various prohibited substances and materials, such as
siloxanes, flame retardants, PFCs, and heavy metals.
Covers adhesives used in the laminating process.
Blue Angel
Focuses on requirements for laminates and
membranes used in products.
Addresses textile and membrane materials.
Requires compliance with recycled materials (at
least 30%) or avoiding organic solvents for
polyurethane membranes.
Allows only specific types of adhesives
(thermoplastic or reactive hot melt) and prohibits
solvent-based adhesives.
Using reactive polyurethane-based hot melt
adhesives sets limits for aromatic diisocyanates
in workplaces.
Coating,
laminates
and
membranes
Requirement
Verification
Includes criteria for functional products, with
exclusion criteria for certain substances and
materials, such as biocides, flame retardants,
PFCs, and VOCs.
For polyester components, compliance involves Verification procedures align with specified fibre criteria. A Verifies textiles against fibre criteria. They have
meeting standard fibre criteria. There are specific Declaration of Conformity confirms the absence of blowing specific requirements related to recycled
requirements related to antimony content and VOC agents for polyurethane components.
materials and antimony content. Verification
emissions.
relies on the Declaration of Conformity (DoC)
process.
N.A
Zippers, buttons, and non-textile accessories are limited if N.A
they do not have a practical purpose.
Concentration of metals:
Concentration of metals:
Nickel migration 0.5
μg/cm2/week
Lead (Pb): 90 mg/kg.
Lead 90 mg/kg
Cadmium (Cd): 40 mg/kg
Cadmium -> Intended for children under 3 y -> Nickel (Ni): migration
50 mg/kg
0.5 micrograms/cm
2
/week
Others 100 mg/kg
Chrome 60 mg/kg
Mercury 60 mg/kg
Plastic accessories cannot have phthalates
N.A
Restrictions on chlorinated plastics
N.A
Concentration of metals:
Lead 90mg/kg;
Cadmium: 50 mg/kg;
than Chromium: 60 mg/kg.
Nickel: migration value for metal alloys is
0.5 ug/cm
2
/week.
Accessories Requirement
limit
must
be
less
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
Blue Angel
Verification
Nickel test migration and testing for other metals.
Phthalate Testing
Declaration from the manufacturer of the plastic material Phthalate Testing
that the plastic meets the requirement.
N.A
Declaration from the Licensee that no details or accessories N.A
are used without a practical function.
6940
6941
Table 109.
Fitness for use - comparison among Ecolabels
Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
This does not apply to fibres or yarn labelled "dry clean only."
or equivalent, and furniture fabrics that are not removable and
washable.
Knitted products +-4.0%
Chunky knit +-6%
Interlock +-5%
Woven fabrics: cotton, cotton mix +-3%, wool mix and synthetic fibres
+-2%
Socks and hosiery, bathroom linen +-8%
Washable and removable woven upholstery +-2%
Woven Mattress ticking +-3%
Non-woven mattress ticking +5%
All other non-woven fabric +6%
Nordic Swan
Not apply to fibres or yarn, products
labelled “dry clean only”, and upholstery
fabrics not removable and washable.
Knitted products and hosiery +-5.0%
100% Wool knitwear +-10%
Curtains and upholstery cover removable
and washable +-2%
Woven fabrics for duvets and pillows +-
5%
Woven textiles of wool blend and
synthetic fibres +-2%
Woven textiles not covered by the
categories above +-3%
Bedding, tablecloths and napkins +-5%
Terry towels and washcloths +-7%
Blue Angel
Not apply to fibres or yarn, products labelled
“dry clean only”, not removable and washable
furniture fabrics.
Knitted products +-5.0%
Chunky knit +-6%
House and home textiles +-8%
Woven fabrics: cotton, cotton mix, linen, flax
and silk +-3%, cotton and cotton mix for
bedding and wool mix +-5%, and synthetic
fibres +-2%
Socks and hosiery +-5%
Bathroom linen, including terry towelling and
fine rib fabrics +-8%
Regenerated and synthetic woven fabrics +-
3%
Regenerated and synthetic knitted fabrics +-
5%
DIN EN ISO 6330 combined with EN ISO 5077.
Requirement
Dimensional
changes
during
washing
and drying
For domestic washing, EN ISO 6330 combined with EN ISO 5077.
For commercial washings, ISO 15797 combined with EN ISO 5077.
Verification
For domestic washing, EN ISO 6330
combined with EN ISO 5077.
For commercial washings, ISO 15797
combined with EN ISO 5077.
Woven products for duvets and pillows
with feathers and down filling tested
with EN 13186
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
N.A
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
Trousers, shorts, skirts 1.5daN
Jackets and coats 1.2daN
Sportswear, ski clothing, and other
outdoor wear 1.2daN
Lingerie, pyjamas, and other nightwear
0.8daN
T-shirts, blouses, shirts, and dresses
0.8daN
Swimwear 1.0 daN
Bed linen and sheets 0.8daN
Towels 0.8daN
ISO 13937
Trousers, shorts, skirts 18daN
Jackets and coats 15daN
Sportswear, ski clothing, and other
outdoor wear 18daN
Lingerie, pyjamas, and other nightwear
12daN
T-shirts, blouses, shirts, and dresses
12daN
Swimwear 15 daN
Bed linen and sheets 12daN
Towels 12daN
ISO 13934-2
Woven fabrics
The seam in the lining 80N
Textile with fabric weight <220g/m2
150N
Textile with fabric weight >220g/m2
200N
Backpacks and bags 200N
ISO 13935-2
N.A
Blue Angel
Tear
Strength
Requirement
Verification
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
Tensile
Strength
Requirement
Verification
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
Seam
Strength
Requirement
Verification
N.A
N.A
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
N.A
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
If testing with EN-ISO 13936-1
Trousers, shorts, skirts 4mm at 14 daN
load
Jackets and coats 4mm at 14 daN load
Sportswear, ski clothing, and other
outdoor wear 4mm at 14 daN load
Lingerie, pyjamas, and other nightwear
4mm at 10 daN load
T-shirts, blouses, shirts, and dresses
4mm at 11 daN load
Swimwear 4mm at 14 daN load
Bed linen and sheets 4mm at 10 daN
load
If testing with EN-ISO 13936-2
Trousers, shorts, skirts 12 daN load at
3mm
Jackets and coats 12 daN load at 4mm
Sportswear, ski clothing, and other
outdoor wear 12 daN load at 4mm
Lingerie, pyjamas, and other nightwear 6
daN load at 3mm
T-shirts, blouses, shirts, and dresses 6
daN load
Swimwear 4mm at 14 daN load at 3mm
Bed linen and sheets 6 daN load at 3mm
ISO 13936-1 or ISO 13936-2
N.A
Blue Angel
Seam
Slippage
resistance
Requirement
Verification
N.A
At least 3-4 for colour change and staining
It does not apply to products labelled “dry clean only”, to white
products or products that are neither dyed nor printed or to non-
washable furniture fabrics.
N.A
At least levels 3-4 according to ISO 105-A03
or A04 and A02 or A05.
It does not apply to products labelled “dry
clean only,” indigo-dyed
denim, or end
products that are neither dyed, printed nor
non-washable furniture fabrics.
ISO 105-C06
At least levels 3-4 according to ISO 105-A03
or A04 and A02 or A05.
It does not apply to printed or dyed products,
curtains, and similar textiles intended for
interior decoration except cushions.
Requirement
Colour
fastness to
washing
Verification
Colour
fastness to Requirement
perspiration
Level 3-4 for colour change and
discolouration
It does not apply to white products,
products that are neither dyed nor
printed or non-washable furniture
fabrics.
For domestic washing, ISO 105 C06. For industrial washing, ISO 15797 Test method for wash: ISO 105 C06. Test
combined with ISO 105 C06.
method for dry cleaning: ISO 105 D01
At least levels 3-4 according to ISO 105.
Underwear, sportswear, and t-shirts must
It does not apply to white products, products neither printed or dyed,
meet:
furniture fabrics, curtains, and similar textiles intended for interior
For discolouration: level 4
decoration
-For staining: level 4
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Topic
(acid
alkaline)
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
Level 3 is permitted for textiles that are
dark in colour and/or made from recycled
wool.
It does not apply to white products or
end products that are neither dyed nor
printed.
Blue Angel
Verification
ISO 105 E04
N.A
Baby clothes must meet the following
standards:
-For discolouration: level 4
-For staining: level 4
Level 3 is permitted for textiles that are
dark in colour and/or made from recycled
wool.
This requirement does not apply to white
products or end products that are neither
dyed nor printed.
ISO 105-A06
At least level 3-4
It does not apply to white products,
products neither printed nor dyed
Dark coloured denim level 1-2
Medium-coloured denim level 2-3
At least level 4.
It does not apply to white products,
products neither printed nor dyed,
curtains, and similar textiles intended for
home furnishing textiles.
Dark-coloured denim level 3
At least level 5 for outwear, swimwear,
UV-protecting clothing, furniture,
curtains, and drapery.
The requirement does not apply to white
textiles, mattress covers, and mattress
protectors.
Colour fast level 5 for baby and children
products according to DIN 53160-1.
This requirement does not apply to end
products that are neither dyed nor printed.
Requirement
Colour
fastness to
saliva
Verification
N.A
At least level 2-3. Level 2 allowed for dark-dyed denim.
Level of 1 for all other denim colour shades
It does not apply to white products, products neither printed nor dyed.
Colour
Requirement
fastness to
wet rubbing
Verification
§64 of the LFGB, B 82. 92-3 and BVL B 82.92-
13 in combination with DIN 53160-1
At least levels 2-3. For dark colours level 2,
according to DIN EN ISO 105-A03 or A04 and
A02 or A05.
It does not apply to dyed or printed.
ISO105 X12
At least level 4.
Levels 3-4 are allowed for dark-dyed denim. Level of 2-3 for all other
denim colour shades
It does not apply to white products, products neither printed nor dyed,
curtains, and similar textiles intended for interior decoration.
ISO105 X12
At least level 5 for furniture, curtains, or drapes.
At least level 4 for all other products.
It does not apply to mattress ticking, mattress protection, or
underwear.
At least level 5 for furniture, curtains, or
drapes.
At least level 4 for all other products,
This requirement does not apply to mattress
ticking, protection, or underwear.
At least levels 3-4 for dark colours and level 3
for denim.
It does not apply to dyed or printed interior
decoration.
Colour
Requirement
fastness to
dry rubbing
Verification
Colour
fastness to Requirement
light
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
Verification
ISO105 B02
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
Blue Angel
Wash
resistance
and
absorbency
of
cleaning
products
Requirement
Woven and non-woven products for wet cleaning 80 washes, 40ºC
Microfibre products for dusting 200 washes, 40ºC
Products deriving from recycled textile fibres 20 washes, 30ºC
Mop for washing floors 200 washes, 60ºC
Cloths for washing floors 5 washes 30ºC
N.A
N.A
Verification
Absorbency of cleaning products
Products deriving from recycled textile fibres, Microfibre products for
surface and floor cleaning, woven and non-woven products for wet
cleaning, and products for washing floors <= 10 seconds
EN ISO 6630
N.A
N.A
N.A
Resistance
to abrasion
Requirement
Verification
N.A
Number of rubs/abrasions (Martindale)
N.A
50.000 cycles for commercial upholstery
30.000 cycles for workwear for outdoor
use and domestic upholstery
20.000 cycles for workwear for indoor
use, trousers, shorts and skirts,
sportswear, ski clothing and other outdoor
wear, swimwear
16.000 cycles for jackets and coats
12.000 cycles for T-shirts, blouses, shirts
and dresses
10.000 cycles for lingerie, pyjamas, and
other nightwear, bed linen, and sheets
8.000 cycles for knitting
EN ISO 12947-2
N.A
Non-woven fabrics and knitted garments,
accessories, and blankets made of wool, wool
mixes, and polyester must resist pilling up to a
minimum rating of 3.
Woven cotton fabrics used for garments must
also resist pilling up to a minimum rating of 3.
Polyamide tights and leggings must resist
pilling up to a minimum rating of 2.
-Knitted and non-woven: ISO 12945-1 Pill box
method
-Woven: ISO 12945-2 Martindale method
Requirement
Resistance
to pilling
Verification
Minimum of 3 for non-woven fabrics and knitted garments, accessories, Minimum of 4 for clothing woven fabric,
and blankets made of wool, wool blends, and polyester woven cotton. fleece, and upholstery for professional
Minimum of 2 for polyamide tights and leggings.
use.
Minimum of 3-4 for upholstery for private
use and upholstery of wool or wool blends
for professional use.
Minimum of 2-3 for clothing woven fabric
with raised surface and knitting.
-Knitted and non-woven: ISO 12945-1 Pill box method
ISO 12945-2
-Woven: ISO 12945-2 Martindale method
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Oil repellents shall retain the functionality of 3.5 out of 4
Stain repellents shall retain functionality of 3.0 out of 5.0
Washable products shall retain functionality after 50 industrial wash
and tumble dry cycles at a minimum of 75ºC.
Non-washable products shall retain their functionality after a soak test.
Natural fibres shall achieve an SA-3 fabric smoothness grade.
Blended natural and synthetic fibres with an SA-4 fabric smoothness
grade after 10 domestic wash and tumble-drying cycles at 40ºC.
N.A
Nordic Swan
Blue Angel
Water repellents shall retain the functionality
of 80 out of 90 after 5 domestic wash and
tumble dry cycles at 40ºC or after 5 industrial
washing and drying cycles at a minimum of
75ºC.
Industrial washing temperatures may be
reduced to 60ºC for garments with taped
seams.
Care instructions on the reimpregnation of the
product must be supplied with the textile.
Washable products shall retain functionality
after 25 industrial wash and tumble dry cycles
by care instructions.
Non-washable products shall retain their
functionality after a soak test.
Natural fibre products shall achieve an SA-3
fabric smoothness grade.
Blended natural and synthetic fibres with an
SA-4 fabric smoothness grade after 10
domestic wash and tumble-drying cycles at
40ºC.
Water repellent function
Domestic washing ISO 6330 in combination
with ISO 4920
Industrial washing ISO15797 in combination
with ISO 4920
Flame retardant
Domestic washing ISO 6330 in combination
with ISO 12138
Industrial washing ISO10528 in combination
with ISO 12138
Easy care function ISO 7768
Requirement
Durability
of function
Water repellent function
Domestic washing ISO 6330 in combination with ISO 4920
Industrial washing ISO15797 in combination with ISO 4920
Oil repellent function
Domestic washing ISO 6330 in combination with ISO 14419
Industrial washing ISO 15797 in combination with ISO 14419
Verification
Stain repellent function
Domestic washing ISO 6330 in combination with ISO 22958
Industrial washing ISO 15797 in combination with ISO 22958
Flame retardant
Domestic washing ISO 6330 in combination with ISO 12138
Industrial washing ISO10528 in combination with ISO 12138
Easy care function ISO 7768
N.A
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6942
6943
Table 110.
Chemicals and processes - comparison among Ecolabels
Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
Blue Angel
Substance
restrictions
or
specific
chemical
requirements
Requirement
restricted
substances
The 3 labels refer to restrictions imposed by REACH (1907/2006/EC), the Candidate List of substances of very high concern for Authorisation with reference to
ECHA, and CLP Regulation (EC/1272/2008) and Restricted Substances List (RSL by REACH), with the following indications:
*EUEL and BA approach per process/service; meanwhile, NS focuses on categorising ingoing substances.
*at the general level, EUEL lists products included in product categories. Meanwhile, NS and BA highlight the general substance category, except where lists are
also indicated.
*most substances with requirements indicated in the 3 ecolabels coincide, including most of the testing methods, with some exceptions, and are presented in
different manners that could be different naming and quantification (as units of measurement).
Halogenated carriers (referred to in Nordic Chlorinated solvents as carriers agents (referred to as Chlorinated solvents and carriers agents
Ecolabel and Blue Angel as
Halogenated carriers in EUEL)
(Halogenated carriers in EUEL) for bleaching.
chlorinated agents) for bleaching and dyeing
The only label indicating limits for chlorinated
benzenes and toluenes.
Azo dyes (25 azo dyes listed)
Azo dyes (35 azo dyes listed): additional from EUEL and Azo dyes (25 azo dyes listed)
Blue Angel are the 10 following:
2-amino-4-nitrophenol 99-57-0
m-phenylenediamine 108-45-2
2-amino-5-nitrothiazole 121-66-4
2-amino-5-nitrophenol 121-88-0
p-aminophenol 123-30-80
p-phenetidine 156-43-4
2-methyl-phenylenediamine,2,5diaminotoluene 615-50-9
2-methyl-phenylenediamine,2,5diaminotoluene 95-70-5
2-methyl-phenylenediamine, 2,5 diaminotolunene 25376-
45-8
6-chloro-2,4-dinitroaniline 3531-19-9
CMR dyes and Potentially sensitising dyes
Not specifically mentioned
CMR dyes and potentially sensitising dyes
Chrome mordant dyes are not permitted.
Metal complex dyes based on copper, chrome,
and nickel shall only be permitted for
dyeing: wool, polyamide, and blends of wool
and/or polyamide with man-made cellulose
fibres.
Plastisol binders banned
Biocide finishes banned
Anti-felting and shrink resistance restricted
Mention of chromium in metal dyes
Only metal complex dyes and pigments based on copper
that comprise a maximum of 5% by weight may be used
to dye wool, polyamide, a blend of wool, and/or polyamide
with regenerated cellulose fibre.
mentioned just in Re-used textiles, hides/skins, leather
Biocides and antibacterial banned
not specifically mentioned
Chrome mordant dyes are not permitted
No specific mention (but testing measures for
direct and indirect discharge of wastewater)
restriction less than 1,000mg/Kg
Biocides are banned, but in-con preservatives
are permitted
Anti-felting and shrink resistance restricted
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Water, stain and oil repellent treatments
Flame retardants (list of banned substances
included)
not specifically mentioned
Biodegradability: 95% (additional indication:
eliminable in wastewater treatment plants)
APEO generally indicated
Nordic Swan
not specifically mentioned
Flame retardants (general term) banned
not specifically mentioned
Biodegradability: similar requirements 95% indicated
Blue Angel
Water, stain and oil repellent treatments
Flame retardants (general term) banned
Cerium compounds restricted
Biodegradability: 90% (additional indication:
eliminable in wastewater treatment plants)
APEO specified in the treatment of wool and
water discharges
EDTA and DTPA are mentioned only in bleaching
processes in regenerated fibres
N, N-dimethylacetamide, dimethylformamide,
and N-methyl pyrrolidone are restricted to
0.1% by mass.
Formaldehyde residues are measured in mg/kg
(20 mg/kg), but the same verification tests.
Organotin compounds and Chlorophenols
(limits indicated) extended list compared to
EUEL and NS
Prohibited phthalates listed
Extractable metals (mg/kg), the same list as
EUEL, are also included in accessories.
Carcinogenic substances referred to in Article
57 of REACH
Endocrine disruptors in Chapter 1 of the ZDHC
MRSL
Substances referred to in Article 59 of REACH
refers to ZDHC MRSL
Nanomaterials with H (hazard) phrases
not specifically mentioned
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are not
similar with Nordic Swan
Mineral oil defoamers, enzymatic processes,
content of soluble proteins from natural
rubber, Free aniline in jeans products,
EDTA, DTPA, and more are generally prohibited EDTA and DTPA in generally prohibited substances
substances
N,N-Dimethylacetamide % limits of 0.001%w/w not specifically mentioned
for babies and children under 3
products, 0.005% w/w for products in direct
contact with skin and garments with limited
contact and interior textiles
Formaldehyde residues measured in ppm (16 ppm), but the same verification tests
Organotin compounds and Chlorophenols are
generally indicated and listed
Prohibited phthalates listed
Extractable metals (mg/kg) apply to products
intended for babies and children under 3 years
old and accessories; the list does not coincide.
Carcinogenic substances referred to in Article 57
of REACH
Endocrine disruptors in Article 57 of REACH
Substances referred to in Article 59 of REACH
not specifically mentioned
not specifically mentioned
not specifically mentioned
not specifically mentioned
not specifically mentioned
Nanomaterial generally approached
Silicones, Linear alkylbenzene sulphonates (LAS)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are not comparable with
Blue Angel
Organotin compounds and Chlorophenols generally
indicated
Prohibited phthalates generally mentioned
Extractable metals - Referred to as Heavy metals
measured in ppm, the list does not coincide.
Carcinogenic substances indicated in the document
Endocrine disruptors referencing the EU ED LISTS
not specifically mentioned
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
Blue Angel
Perfluorinated and polyfluorinated chemicals
(PFCs) in hydrophobised textiles,
Chinoline/quinoline
Requirement
hazardous
substances
Verification
Additional hazards are indicated in comparison Less than EUEL and Blue Angel. Below are missing hazard
Less than EUEL. Below are missing hazard
to Nordic Swan and Blue Angel.
phrases:
phrases:
Below are the differentiating elements:
Acute toxicity: H304 (R65) and EUH070 (R39/41)-
Acute toxicity: EUH070 (R39/41) -different
Acute toxicity: H304 (R65) and
EUH070 different than EUEL and Blue Angel Acute toxicity: H304
than EU EL
(R39/41) -different than Nordic Swan
(R65) and EUH070 (R39/41)-different than EUEL and
Specific target organ toxicity: no difference
Specific target organ toxicity: H371 (R68/20, Blue Angel
with EU EL
R68/21, R68/22) and H373 (R48/20, R48/21, Specific target organ toxicity: H371 (R68/20, R68/21,
Respiratory and skin sensitisation,
R48/22) -different than Nordic Swan
R68/22) and H373 (R48/20, R48/21, R48/22)-different
carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic for
Respiratory and skin sensitisation, carcinogenic, than EUEL and Blue Angel
reproduction (referred to in Blue Angel as
mutagenic or toxic for reproduction (divided in Respiratory and skin sensitisation, carcinogenic, mutagenic Carcinogenic, mutagenic, and reprotoxic
Nordic Swan:
Germ cell mutagenicity*, or toxic for reproduction (divided in Nordic Swan: Germ
substances)-no difference with EU EL
Carcinogenicity*,
Reproductive
toxicity*), cell mutagenicity*, Carcinogenicity*, Reproductive toxicity*) Hazardous to the aquatic environment
Hazardous to the aquatic environment, (H412 -different than EUEL and Blue Angel Respiratory and skin
(referred to in Blue Angel as Water-hazardous
(R52/ 53) and H413 (R53)-different than Nordic sensitisation, carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic for
substances)-no difference with EU EL
Swan)Respiratory and skin sensitisation, reproduction (divided in Nordic Swan: Germ cell
Hazardous to the ozone layer (EUH059 (R59)-
carcinogenic,
mutagenic
or toxic
for mutagenicity, Carcinogenicity, Reproductive toxicity) -
different than EU EL but identical with Nordic
reproduction (divided in Nordic Swan: Germ cell different than EUEL and Blue Angel
Swan due to H420).
mutagenicity, Carcinogenicity, Reproductive Hazardous to the aquatic environment: H412 (R52/ 53)
toxicity), Hazardous to the aquatic environment, and H413 (R53)-different than EUEL and Blue Angel
(H412 (R52/ 53) and H413 (R53)-different Hazardous to the ozone layer (EUH059 (R59)- different
than Nordic Swan)
than EU EL but identical with Blue Angel due to H420).
Hazardous to the ozone layer (EUH059 (R59)-
different than Nordic Swan).
Mainly, the provision of declarations of compliance with the requirements is supported by evidence such as technical datasheets or test reports showing fulfilment
of the requirement.
Manufacturing facilities, associated chemical providers, and analytical labs must adhere to the outlined testing procedures. Where required, product analysis
tests shall be conducted yearly throughout the licensing term, and the results must be forwarded to the relevant authoritative organisation for confirmation.
Similar general BAT themes: 1. general energy management, 2. washing and rinsing, and 3. drying and curing using stretchers
2 additional techniques are almost identical to Blue Angel:
1) Combining multiple wet treatments into one process.
2) Using solar thermal panels, solar photovoltaic panels, or
a heat recovery system for hot water, aiming to generate
energy amounting to 30% of what the process requires.
The same testing: I SO 50001 or equivalent systems for energy or carbon dioxide emissions
Similar 15 techniques among the 3 ecolabels
Almost identically presented techniques with
Nordic Swan
Washing,
drying
and
curing
energy
efficiency
Requirement
Verification
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Emissions to water:
TREATED: 20 g COD/kg textiles processed:
applied to weaving, dyeing, printing, and
finishing processes used to manufacture the
product(s). Measured downstream of on-site
wastewater treatment plant and/or off-site
wastewater
treatment
plant
receiving
wastewater from these processing sites.
DIRECT DISCHARGE: IF Effluent is treated on-site
and discharged directly to surface waters: 1) pH
between 6,0 and 9,0 (unless the pH of the
receiving water is outside this range)
2) temperature of less than 35C (unless the
temperature of the receiving water is above this
value)
If colour removal is required:436 nm (yellow
sector) 7 m-1, (ii) 525 nm (red sector) 5 m-1,
(iii) 620 nm (blue sector) 3 m-1- with BA
Nordic Swan
Emissions to water:
TREATED: COD (chemical oxygen demand) in wastewater
from wet processes which is discharged to surface water
after treatment shall not exceed 150 mg/L
DIRECT DISCHARGE: The pH value of the wastewater
released to the surface water shall be between 6 and 9
(unless the pH value in the recipient lies outside this
interval).
The wastewater released to the surface water shall be
lower than 40°C (unless the temperature in the recipient is
higher).
Blue Angel
Emissions to water:
•COD: 100 mg/l (expressed as an average
yearly
value),
• BOD5: 30 mg/l,
• Sulphite: 1 mg/l,
• Ammonium nitrogen: 10 mg/l,
• Total nitrogen: 15 mg/l,
• Total phosphorous: 2 mg/l,
The dye must comply with the following values:
Spectral absorption coefficient at with EUEL
*436 nm (yellow spectral region) 7 m-1
*525 nm (red spectral region) 5 m-1
*620 nm (blue spectral region) 3 m-1
• Toxicity to fish eggs GEI: 2
• The pH value of the wastewater discharged to
surface waters must be between 6 and 9
(unless the pH value of the receiving waters is
outside this range), and the temperature must
be below 35 °C (unless the temperature of the
receiving waters is already above this limit).
Before mixing (direct and indirect discharge)
• AOX: 0.5 mg/l,
• Sulphide: <=1 mg/l,
• Copper: 0.4 mg/l,
•
Nickel: 0.2 mg/l,
• Total chromium: 0.3 mg/l,
• Tin: 2 mg/l,
• Zinc: 0.8 mg/l,
• Antimony: 1.2 mg/l
Treatment of
emissions to
water
Requirement
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Detailed documentation and test reports, using
ISO 6060 and ISO 7887 as relevant+
compliance with this criterion based on monthly
averages for the six months preceding the
application
Nordic Swan
COD content shall be tested by ISO 6060 or equivalent. test
report+ procedure in place for annual testing in line with
the requirement and for ensuring compliance with the
requirement
Report showing average monthly calculations of COD, pH,
and temperature for at least three of the past 12 months
Blue Angel
Declare compliance, declaration of conformity
from the operator of the textile finishing plant
and test reports verifying compliance
TEST METHODS:
COD: ISO 6060 or DIN 38409-41 or DIN 38409-
44 or DIN ISO 15705,
BOD: DIN EN 1899-2 or ISO 5815-1,
Copper and nickel: ISO 8288,
Total chromium: ISO 9174 or DIN EN 1233,
Sulphide: DIN 38405-27 or ISO 10530,
Sulphite: DIN EN ISO 10304-3,
Toxicity to fish eggs: DIN EN ISO 15088,
AOX (chloride content < 5g/l): DIN EN ISO 9562,
Spectral absorption coefficient: DIN 38404-3,
Ammonium nitrogen: DIN EN ISO 11732,
Total nitrogen: DIN EN ISO 12260,
Total phosphorus: DIN EN ISO 11885,
Tin: DIN EN ISO 11885,
Zinc: DIN EN ISO 11885,
Antimony: DIN EN ISO 11885
The wastewater treatment plant must be
regularly monitored(at least every six months)
Emissions to air:
Emission of organic compounds to air in the
textile finishing process in thermosetting,
thermosoling, coating, impregnating, or
finishing of textiles (not comparable with the
other ecolabels)
Additional emission from firing systems in the
textile finishing process in thermosetting,
thermosoling, coating, impregnating, or
finishing of textiles with a strict list of
limitations
Verification
Treatment of
emissions to
air
Requirement
Emissions to air:
Emission of organic compounds (not
comparable with the other eco-labels) from
thermosetting, thermosoling, coating, and
impregnating textiles, including their respective
drying (centre) facilities.
Emissions to air:
Emissions from printing pastes and foamed synthetic
materials indicating different substances (not comparable
with other ecolabels)
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Compliance according to EN 12619 or other
equivalent standards. Monthly averages for the
total emissions of organic compounds from
production sites shall be provided for the six
months preceding the application.
Nordic Swan
Declaration from the producer or supplier and emission
testing according to the ISO 16000 standard, parts 3, 6, 9,
& 11
Blue Angel
Compliance by DIN EN 12619 (total gaseous
organic carbon), DIN CEN/TS 17638
(formaldehyde) and DIN EN ISO 21877
(ammonia).
For firing systems: testing:
Depending on the heating capacity, the heating
boilers must be tested as follows:
- 0.3 MW to 2 MW every 3 years
- > 2 MW at least yearly
- > 5 MW continuously
Verification
6944
6945
Table 111.
Corporate social responsibility - comparison among Ecolabels
Topic
Requirement
/
Verification
Requirement
Fundamenta
l principles
and rights
at work
EU Ecolabel
Worker principles based on ILO Conventions. UN
Global Compact and OECD Guidelines for
Manufacturing Principles.
Third-party verification, including site visits by
auditors.
Verification
In countries where the ILO Labour Inspection
Convention, 1947 (No 81) has been ratified, ILO
supervision indicates that the national labour
inspection system is effective and verification by
labour inspector(s) appointed by a public
authority shall be accepted.
Manual and mechanical sandblasting is
prohibited.
The applicant must provide details of all
production sites—evidence of the alternative
processes to achieve distressed denim finishes.
Nordic Swan
Must comply with the relevant national laws and regulations
and the ILO Conventions. Some extra requirements were
added for product licenses.
Third-party verification (BSCI audit report) or SA8000
certificate for manufacturing. Description of code of conduct,
policy and routine for produce licence.
Blue Angel
Must comply with the social and human rights
requirements for the Green Button 2.0
Test report from an auditing body or SA8000
certificate.
Requirement
Restriction
on
the
sandblastin
g of denim
Manual and mechanical sandblasting is prohibited. The use of potassium permanganate is not permitted.
Declaration stating the method used and that the
requirement is fulfilled.
The applicant must provide details of all
production sites. Evidence of the alternative
processes used to achieve distressed denim
finishes. Confirmation that no mechanical
sandblasting or potassium permanganate is
used.
Verification
6946
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6947
Table 112.
Miscellaneous criteria - comparison among Ecolabels
Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
The label may optionally contain text like:
- More sustainable fibre production or a text
defined in ECOLABEL, depending on product
content.
-Less polluting production processes
-Restrictions on hazardous substances
-Tested for durability
Label sample + DoC
N.A
Nordic Swan
Mandatory information:
- Product Type
- Name and the fibre composition
-All fabrics, their name, and % by weight
-Membranes/coatings, impregnations or laminates
-Details/accessories with information on the material type
-Fillings and stuffing with information of the material type
-Information on all recycled or biobased materials
-If reused
Schematic overview
PVC must not be used
-It shall be possible to recycle the main material
- Only monomaterials shall be used. Multi-material hangers
are allowed if reused in a textile manufacturer's take-back
system.
- Plastic packaging shall be made from PE, PP, or PET.
- Coloured plastic cannot be used for virgin plastic
feedstock. Only if at least 50% by weight of the plastic is
recycled material is colouring permitted.
- Information on how it can be sorted for recycling
- Chlorophenols and their salts, PCB, and organotin
compounds shall not be used in transport or storage.
Declaration of Compliance about who is responsible for the
product’s primary packaging.
Declaration of Compliance about PVC from the
manufacturer of plastic material.
Description of the main material and how it can be recycled.
Description of primary packaging documenting compliance.
Multi-material hangers: textile manufacturer's procedure
describing the take-back system for hangers.
Product labels or artwork providing information on recycling.
Suppliers must declare that chlorophenols are not used in
the yarn, fabric, or end product or have a valid license
certificate for the EU Ecolabel.
Unsold textiles must not be sent for incineration or dumped
in landfills.
The brand owner must inform Nordic Swan Ecolabelling and
state how they deal with unsold products on their website.
Blue Angel
Fibres are used by Regulation EC 1007/2011.
Care and cleaning information (textile care
symbols) by GINETEX or ISO EN DIN3758 and
ISO10023 for industrial washing textiles.
Information on repairable or replaceable parts
of the textile.
Information
appearing on
the Ecolabel
Requirement
Verification
Label sample + DoC
Mandatory description. Unnecessary packaging
must be avoided. Composite packaging is not
permitted and may not contain any dimethyl
fumarate. The requirements apply to
repackaging and transport, sales, and delivery
of packaging directly used by the applicant.
Clothes hangers are exempt.
Requirement
Packaging
N.A
DoC and a description of the intended
packaging
solution,
designation
and
composition, raw materials and their origin, and
a sample of the product packaging where
relevant.
Verification
N.A
Unsold
textiles
Requirement
N.A
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
Products with contaminations that are harmful to the
environment or health are exempt.
Military and police uniforms are exempt.
Blue Angel
Verification
N.A
N.A
Requirement
Reused
textiles
N.A
Verification
N.A
N.A
N.A
Production
Chain
Requirement
Verification
N.A
Reduced
washing
Requirement
Verification
Description of how unsold products are dealt with and its
procedure.
The material shall not come from workwear and other
textiles used in the chemical and oil industry
-The material must not contain plastisol print
- Textiles from the health care sector must be washed,
inactivating microorganisms.
- Material originally eco-labelled with the Nordic Swan
Ecolabel, the EU Ecolabel, GORS, or Bra Miljöval or have
Oeko-Tex 100 or only be used for furnishing fabrics such as
rugs, tablecloths
If re-designed for professional use, the product must fulfil
the expected function.
If processed with chemical products, the requirements for
chemicals must be accomplished.
Invoice or label on the textile
-Documentation showing that the textile used is reused
- Declaration that the textile has been washed in an
industrial laundry in a microbiological wash
- Declaration that The material does not contain PVC
The text "Reduce the number of washes and help save
energy and reduce climate impact" must be included.
Photo
Description of all the production methods/treatment
techniques, including production by suppliers.
-Name of the fibres, yarns, and fabrics
-Information of all the actors in the production chain
Schematic overview
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
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Topic
Requirement/
Verification
N.A
EU Ecolabel
Nordic Swan
The sewing thread is not covered
-Embroidery thread applies chemical requirements
-Belt buckles of metals must not exceed 25% by weight
-Fibre types with less than 5% by weight are exempt.
-Small textile elements present between 5% to 10% by
weight may be exempted from the requirements of the
textile element has an EU-Ecolabel or GOTS or Oeko Tex 100
class I certificate
- For elastic bands, up to a total of 25% of the product's
weight may be exempted from the requirements if GOTS or
Oeko-Tex 100 class I certification
- Information printed directly on the textile product must
meet the requirements of prohibited substances
Declaration of Compliance and certificate where applicable.
If Oeko Tex 100: Statement regarding fluorinated organic
compounds
Written documentation obtained annually showing that
suppliers are familiar with Nordic Swan Ecolabel's
requirements. Supplier changes must be approved.
An individual responsible for ensuring the fulfilment should
be appointed.
The licence must guarantee the quality of the labelled
product during the validity period.
Written notice must be given in case of changes.
Nonconformities must be reported.
Traceable product.
Documentation, operational chart and procedures
description.
The brand owner is responsible for ensuring that a Nordic
Swan Ecolabelled product can be traced back to a production
licence.
-The brand owner must submit the information specified in
the requirement.
- A description of the procedure, which shows how it is
ensured that the information held by Nordic Ecolabelling is
kept updated.
N.A
Blue Angel
Materials
limitations
Requirement
Verification
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
Quality and
regulatory
requirements
Requirement
Verification
Traceability
of the Nordic
Swan
Ecolabelled
product
Requirement
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
Verification
N.A
6948
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6949
Table 113.
Dyes restriction - comparison among Ecolabels
Topic
Carcinogenic
aromatic
amines
Requirement/
Verification
Requirement
Verification
Requirement
EU Ecolabel
The same 25 dyes listed, limitation: 30 mg/kg
for each amine
Test results: EN 14362-1 and 3.
An extended list of prohibited disperse, basic,
acid and direct dyes
limitation: 30 mg/kg for each amine
Test results: EN 14362-1 and 3.
Nordic Swan
Prohibited: the same 25 dyes listed + 10 additional dyes
Prohibited: Declaration from the chemical manufacturer or
chemical supplier that the requirement is fulfilled
There is no specific dyes list, but in the section addressed to
recycled fibres, there are limitations for cleavable dyes
according to Oeko-Tex 100 Annex 5
Cleavable, classified as carcinogenic in Oeko-Tex Annex 5:
Total 20 mg/kg
Cleavable aniline as listed in Oeko-Tex Annex 5: Total 100
mg/kg
Test reports or Oeko-Tex 100 class I certificate showing
fulfilment of the requirement
There is no specific dyes list but criterion O34. Prohibition of
CMR substances refers to carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic
to reproduction substances in general.
Declaration from the chemical producer that the
requirement has been fulfilled.
There is no specific dyes list but criterion O33. Classification
of chemical products refers to sensitising on inhalation or
skin contact substances.
Declaration from the chemical producer that the
requirement has been fulfilled.
Blue Angel
The same 25 dyes listed
limitation: 20 mg/kg for each amine
Test results: EN 14362-1 and 3.
Azo dyes that may cleave to one of the
aromatic amines must not exceed a limit value
of 20 mg/kg.
20 mg/kg for each dye
Test results by the test method DIN EN 14362-
1 and, DIN EN 14362-3 (for arylamine), and DIN
54231 (for dispersion dyes).
Extended list of prohibited dyes
List of dyes
that
may
cleave
to
carcinogenic
aromatic
amines
Dyes
that
are
carcinogenic,
mutagenic or
toxic
to
reproduction
Disperse
dyes
that
are
potentially
sensitising
Verification
List of prohibited dyes
Requirement
Prohibited. Declaration of non-use from the
chemical supplier
supported by SDS.
List of prohibited dyes
Prohibited. Declaration of non-use from the
chemical supplier supported by SDS.
Verification
Requirement
Declaration from the chemical producer that
the requirement is fulfilled and test results by
the test method DIN EN 14362-1 and DIN EN
14362-3 (for arylamine)
Extended list of prohibited dyes
Declaration from the chemical producer that
the requirement is fulfilled and test results by
the test method DIN EN 14362-1 and DIN EN
14362-3 (for arylamine)+
Verification
6950
6951
6952
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6953
6954
6955
10.8 Supporting information about public procurement
10.8.1 The Common Procurement Vocabulary (CPV) codes for products in the scope
Table 114.
The Common Procurement Vocabulary (CPV) codes for products in the scope
Product category
Common Procurement Vocabulary (CPV) code
18000000-9*: Clothing, footwear, luggage articles and accessories
18300000-2*: Garments
18318400-5: Vests
18330000-1*: T-shirts and shirts
18331000-8: T-shirts
18235400-9: Waistcoats
18400000-3*: Special clothing and accessories
18410000-6*: Special clothing
18411000-3*: Baby clothing
18000000-9*: Clothing, footwear, luggage articles and accessories
18300000-2*: Garments
18318000-1*: Nightwear
18318100-2: Nightshirts
18318200-3: Dressing gowns
18318300-4*: Pyjamas
18318500-6: Nightdresses
18330000-1*: T-shirts and shirts
18332000-5: Shirts
18333000-2: Polo shirts
18400000-3*: Special clothing and accessories
18410000-6*: Special clothing
18411000-3*: Baby clothing
18000000-9*: Clothing, footwear, luggage articles and accessories
18235000-5: Pullovers, cardigans and similar articles
18235100-6: Pullovers
18235200-7: Cardigans
18235300-8: Sweatshirts
18300000-2*: Garments
18400000-3*: Special clothing and accessories
18410000-6*: Special clothing
18411000-3*: Baby clothing
18000000-9*: Clothing, footwear, luggage articles and accessories
18200000-1: Outerwear
18210000-4: Coats
18211000-1: Capes
18212000-8: Cloaks
18213000-5: Wind jackets
18220000-7: Weatherproof clothing
18221000-4: Waterproof clothing
18221100-5: Waterproof capes
18221200-6: Anoraks
18221300-7: Raincoat
18223000-8: Jackets and blazers
18223100-9: Blazers
18223200-0: Jackets
18224000-5: Clothing made of coated or impregnated textile fabrics
18230000-0: Miscellaneous outerwear
18300000-2*: Garments
18400000-3*: Special clothing and accessories
18410000-6*: Special clothing
18411000-3*: Baby clothing
18000000-9*: Clothing, footwear, luggage articles and accessories
18233000-1: Shorts
18234000-8: Trousers
18300000-2*: Garments
18318000-1*: Nightwear
18318300-4*: Pyjamas
18400000-3*: Special clothing and accessories
18410000-6*: Special clothing
18411000-3*: Baby clothing
T-shirts
Shirts and blouses
Sweaters and mid-layers
Jackets and coats
Pants and shorts
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6956
6957
6958
Common Procurement Vocabulary (CPV) code
18000000-9*: Clothing, footwear, luggage articles and accessories
18222100-2: Suits
18222200-3: Ensembles
18231000-7: Dresses
Dresses: Skirts and jumpsuits
18232000-4: Skirts
18300000-2*: Garments
18400000-3*: Special clothing and accessories
18410000-6*: Special clothing
18411000-3*: Baby clothing
18315000-0: Stockings
Leggings: Stockings: Tights and socks 18316000-7: Tights
18317000-4: Socks
18310000-5: Underwear
18311000-2: Slips
18312000-9: Underpants
18313000-6: Panties
Underwear
18320000-8: Brassieres, corsets, suspenders and similar articles
18321000-5: Brassieres
18322000-2: Corsets
18323000-9: Suspenders
Swimwear
18412800-8: Swimwear
18421000: Handkerchiefs
18422000: Scarves
Accessories
18423000: Ties
18424000: Gloves
18425000: Belts
* These CPV codes were assigned to more than one product category
Source: own elaboration based on CPV description provided by BIP Solutions
(
213
)
Product category
213
BIP Solutions. CPV codes. Available at
this link.
Last accessed on 12 January 2024.
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6959
6960
10.8.2 Number of Contract Award procuring apparel in EU
Table 115.
Number of Contracts Award procuring apparel in EU Member States in 2015
Country
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czechia
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Total per CPV
code
CPV
181
2
10
31
2
NA
5
4
NA
3
93
17
1
1
NA
8
3
8
NA
NA
3
18
7
2
5
5
13
241
CPV
182
NA
1
1
4
1
5
NA
2
NA
6
10
NA
NA
NA
7
NA
1
NA
1
4
13
1
1
1
2
NA
NA
61
CPV
183
NA
9
NA
1
NA
2
NA
1
4
11
11
NA
NA
NA
2
NA
3
NA
NA
1
9
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
2
57
CPV
184
3
4
NA
2
NA
11
6
3
4
11
19
NA
NA
NA
3
2
5
NA
NA
4
21
NA
4
5
NA
1
2
110
CPV
351
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
1
NA
3
3
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2
NA
NA
1
3
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
14
CPV
358
NA
1
4
7
1
5
NA
NA
NA
5
17
NA
NA
NA
3
NA
5
NA
NA
1
11
NA
2
NA
3
1
NA
66
CPV
374
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
1
NA
2
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2
7
Total in the
country
5
25
36
16
2
30
10
8
11
131
78
1
1
0
23
5
24
0
1
14
75
8
8
8
10
7
19
556
6961
6962
6963
6964
6965
6966
6967
6968
6969
6970
CPV 181: CPV 181XXXXX-X Occupational clothing, special workwear and accessories;
CPV 182: CPV 182XXXXX-X Outerwear;
CPV 183: CPV 183XXXXX-X Garments;
CPV 184: CPV 184XXXXX-X Special clothing and accessories;
CPV 351: CPV 351134XX-X Protective and safety clothing;
CPV 358: CPV 3581XXXX-X Individual and support equipment;
CPV 374: CPV 3741XXXX-X Sport goods and equipment.
Source: own elaboration based on Tenders Electronic Daily (TED) (csv subset)
–
public procurement notices (
129
).
Table 116.
Number of Contracts Award procuring apparel in EU Member States in 2016
Country
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czechia
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
CPV
181
6
11
23
4
NA
5
4
2
7
106
25
1
1
NA
5
1
CPV
182
NA
4
1
1
NA
9
NA
NA
NA
9
10
NA
NA
NA
6
NA
CPV
183
4
2
NA
1
1
2
3
1
2
11
10
NA
NA
NA
6
1
CPV
184
1
3
1
NA
NA
6
1
1
1
7
4
NA
1
2
1
NA
CPV
351
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
2
1
NA
NA
11
6
NA
NA
NA
2
NA
CPV
358
1
3
16
4
1
7
2
1
1
10
17
NA
4
NA
10
2
CPV
374
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
NA
3
NA
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
Total in the
country
13
23
41
11
2
31
12
5
11
157
72
1
7
2
30
4
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6971
6972
6973
6974
6975
6976
6977
6978
6979
6980
Country
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Total per CPV
code
CPV
181
3
1
1
9
14
9
2
2
11
NA
32
285
CPV
182
2
NA
NA
6
11
NA
NA
6
3
NA
NA
68
CPV
183
4
NA
NA
1
4
NA
2
2
NA
NA
3
60
CPV
184
9
NA
NA
1
7
NA
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
47
CPV
351
2
NA
NA
1
9
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
1
37
CPV
358
5
NA
NA
1
12
1
2
NA
7
1
NA
108
CPV
374
1
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
3
11
Total in the
country
26
1
1
19
58
10
6
11
22
1
39
616
CPV 181: CPV 181XXXXX-X Occupational clothing, special workwear and accessories;
CPV 182: CPV 182XXXXX-X Outerwear;
CPV 183: CPV 183XXXXX-X Garments;
CPV 184: CPV 184XXXXX-X Special clothing and accessories;
CPV 351: CPV 351134XX-X Protective and safety clothing;
CPV 358: CPV 3581XXXX-X Individual and support equipment;
CPV 374: CPV 3741XXXX-X Sport goods and equipment.
Source: own elaboration based on Tenders Electronic Daily (TED) (csv subset)
–
public procurement notices (
129
).
Table 117.
Number of Contracts Award procuring apparel in EU Member States in 2017
Country
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czechia
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Total per CPV
code
CPV
181
5
13
25
5
NA
16
6
2
9
126
37
NA
5
1
9
3
5
NA
1
10
19
NA
1
5
23
5
29
360
CPV
182
1
1
1
4
NA
32
1
NA
NA
7
16
NA
NA
NA
4
NA
NA
NA
1
4
16
NA
NA
3
2
NA
NA
93
CPV
183
1
NA
2
NA
NA
24
2
3
1
14
8
1
NA
NA
2
NA
2
NA
2
2
16
NA
1
4
NA
NA
3
88
CPV
184
2
NA
5
2
1
12
4
2
NA
12
5
NA
2
NA
3
4
8
NA
NA
3
19
NA
3
2
8
NA
NA
97
CPV
351
1
1
2
NA
NA
2
NA
NA
NA
12
4
NA
1
NA
4
NA
2
NA
NA
2
13
1
NA
1
2
NA
2
50
CPV
358
1
3
22
5
NA
21
1
NA
1
6
16
1
4
NA
8
5
3
NA
1
4
18
NA
2
1
6
NA
4
133
CPV
374
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
1
NA
NA
2
2
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
8
Total in the
country
12
18
57
16
1
108
15
7
11
179
88
2
12
1
30
12
20
0
5
25
102
1
7
16
41
5
38
829
6981
6982
6983
6984
6985
6986
6987
6988
CPV 181: CPV 181XXXXX-X Occupational clothing, special workwear and accessories;
CPV 182: CPV 182XXXXX-X Outerwear;
CPV 183: CPV 183XXXXX-X Garments;
CPV 184: CPV 184XXXXX-X Special clothing and accessories;
CPV 351: CPV 351134XX-X Protective and safety clothing;
CPV 358: CPV 3581XXXX-X Individual and support equipment;
CPV 374: CPV 3741XXXX-X Sport goods and equipment.
Source: own elaboration based on Tenders Electronic Daily (TED) (csv subset)
–
public procurement notices (
129
).
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6989
6990
Table 118.
Number of Contracts Award procuring apparel in EU Member States in 2018
Country
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czechia
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Total per CPV
code
CPV
181
5
26
28
3
NA
17
13
4
3
108
33
2
10
NA
22
3
12
1
1
8
39
NA
21
5
21
1
45
431
CPV
182
5
NA
5
3
NA
31
1
3
3
4
10
1
NA
NA
2
NA
2
NA
1
5
10
NA
2
2
1
NA
2
93
CPV
183
4
4
3
2
NA
20
NA
6
NA
14
10
NA
NA
NA
4
4
4
NA
NA
1
15
NA
4
2
NA
NA
2
99
CPV
184
NA
2
2
1
NA
18
6
4
2
7
4
NA
1
1
4
9
4
NA
NA
3
26
NA
NA
4
10
NA
3
111
CPV
351
NA
1
4
NA
NA
10
2
1
NA
15
7
NA
NA
NA
2
NA
2
NA
NA
5
12
1
NA
1
5
1
NA
69
CPV
358
NA
NA
25
4
NA
22
2
4
1
9
6
1
9
NA
6
18
6
NA
2
1
22
NA
9
NA
10
NA
1
158
CPV
374
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2
NA
NA
NA
3
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
3
10
Total in the
country
14
33
67
13
NA
120
24
22
9
160
70
4
20
1
40
34
32
1
4
23
124
1
36
14
47
2
56
971
6991
6992
6993
6994
6995
6996
6997
6998
6999
7000
CPV 181: CPV 181XXXXX-X Occupational clothing, special workwear and accessories;
CPV 182: CPV 182XXXXX-X Outerwear;
CPV 183: CPV 183XXXXX-X Garments;
CPV 184: CPV 184XXXXX-X Special clothing and accessories;
CPV 351: CPV 351134XX-X Protective and safety clothing;
CPV 358: CPV 3581XXXX-X Individual and support equipment;
CPV 374: CPV 3741XXXX-X Sport goods and equipment.
Source: own elaboration based on Tenders Electronic Daily (TED) (csv subset)
–
public procurement notices (
129
).
Table 119.
Number of Contracts Award procuring apparel in EU Member States in 2019
Country
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czechia
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
CPV
181
4
13
20
2
NA
26
9
3
6
156
50
6
8
NA
15
6
23
CPV
182
NA
2
4
4
1
35
1
3
NA
11
14
1
NA
1
7
1
2
CPV
183
6
NA
2
NA
NA
41
4
5
3
10
18
2
NA
NA
7
NA
6
CPV
184
NA
1
3
NA
1
22
1
2
1
14
12
1
1
NA
5
20
13
CPV
351
NA
5
4
NA
NA
16
1
NA
NA
15
8
2
2
1
4
1
2
CPV
358
1
2
38
3
1
34
1
1
2
6
18
2
2
NA
10
3
7
CPV
374
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
8
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Total in the
country
11
24
71
9
3
174
17
14
12
220
120
15
13
2
48
31
53
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7001
7002
7003
7004
7005
7006
7007
7008
7009
7010
7011
Country
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Total per CPV
code
CPV
181
NA
NA
7
62
1
48
2
18
3
45
533
CPV
182
NA
NA
10
15
NA
11
NA
NA
NA
1
124
CPV
183
NA
1
1
16
NA
6
4
2
NA
4
138
CPV
184
NA
NA
2
17
NA
9
4
8
NA
5
142
CPV
351
NA
NA
3
27
NA
1
NA
5
NA
6
103
CPV
358
NA
NA
3
28
NA
36
NA
8
NA
NA
206
CPV
374
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
NA
NA
NA
4
15
Total in the
country
0
1
26
165
1
112
10
41
3
65
1261
CPV 181: CPV 181XXXXX-X Occupational clothing, special workwear and accessories;
CPV 182: CPV 182XXXXX-X Outerwear;
CPV 183: CPV 183XXXXX-X Garments;
CPV 184: CPV 184XXXXX-X Special clothing and accessories;
CPV 351: CPV 351134XX-X Protective and safety clothing;
CPV 358: CPV 3581XXXX-X Individual and support equipment;
CPV 374: CPV 3741XXXX-X Sport goods and equipment.
Source: own elaboration based on Tenders Electronic Daily (TED) (csv subset)
–
public procurement notices (
129
).
10.8.3 Contributions to the initial questionnaire
Table 120.
Type of respondents that contributed to the section on EU GPP during the initial questionnaire
Type of respondent
University or research institute
Certified laboratory
Government (local, regional, or national)
Non-governmental organisation
–
Environment
Non-governmental organisation
–
Consumers
Industry
–
manufacturing
Industry
–
manufacturing - association
Industry
–
waste collection, sorting and treatment
Industry
–
waste collection, sorting and treatment - association
Distributer/Retailer
Distributer/Retailer association
Other
TOTAL
Source: own elaboration
7012
7013
7014
7015
7016
7017
7018
7019
7020
7021
7022
7023
7024
7025
7026
7027
Number
1
1
12
3
0
6
2
1
1
0
1
6
34
Percentage compared to the total (%)
3
3
35
9
0
18
6
3
3
0
3
18
100
10.9 Supporting information on relevant aspects
10.9.1 Qualitative assessment based on technical, socioeconomic and environmental
dimensions
In this section, a qualitative assessment is carried out, focusing on three dimensions, with information collected
via literature review. Only those aspects that are considered relevant after the assessment based on key guiding
questions
are evaluated (therefore, every aspect except ‘possibility of recovery of materials’ is evaluated in this
section).
10.9.1.1 Durability
Durability is the ability of a product to maintain over time its function and performance under specified
conditions of use, maintenance and repair. In the context of textile apparel, durability can be classified as
intrinsic and extrinsic (emotional).
Intrinsic durability refers to physical and measurable characteristics of products, such as fabric strength,
abrasion resistance, pilling, wrinkling, colour fastness, dimensional changes, seam slippage, etc. Intrinsic
durability is often related with product quality, as described in Piippo et al., (2022).
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7028
7029
7030
7031
7032
7033
7034
7035
7036
7037
7038
7039
7040
7041
7042
7043
7044
7045
7046
7047
7048
7049
7050
7051
7052
7053
7054
7055
7056
7057
7058
7059
7060
7061
7062
7063
7064
7065
7066
7067
7068
7069
7070
7071
7072
7073
7074
7075
7076
7077
7078
7079
Quality is a fundamental aspect of the durability and usability of clothing, and thus plays a role on its lifespan
(Aakko and Niinimäki, 2021). Extrinsic durability refers to subjective and perception aspects of products, such
as emotional attachment by users. This section focuses only on the intrinsic durability of textile apparel because
it best corresponds to the durability definition provided by the ESPR.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
Durability is directly related with product lifespan. It must be noted that the lifetimes of textile apparel are, to
a degree, subjective (Cooper and Claxton, 2022c). In fact, there is no common approach to assess or guarantee
the physical durability of textile apparel; nor are there legislative standards that apply directly to textile apparel,
other than the general
requirement under consumer legislation that goods are ‘fit for purpose’
(Cooper and
Claxton, 2022c).
Literature review suggests that there is room for improvement in the average durability of textile apparel. In
the current market, many products are well made and have lifetimes that would generally be considered
satisfactory. However, the lifetime of many other products is unduly short due to inadequate performance, in
part due to pressure to meet predetermined price points (Cooper and Claxton, 2022c). It is possible to influence
the intrinsic durability of products with many factors, which include the use of different fibres: for instance, in
the manufacturing of denim products, the utilization of synthetic fibres, linen and hemp -rather than 100%
cotton- can help to produce high-durability denim products particularly with respect to tensile and abrasion
resistance (Elmogahzy, 2020).
The most common physical failures in textile apparel are related to colour fading (particularly for jersey and
woven fabrics) and pilling of knitwear and jersey items. Fabric breakdown (fraying or thinning around the hems)
and wear round the crotch of trousers and jeans, and accidental damage due to stains, tears and rips, are also
common. Other failures include loss of dimensional stability, logo failure, discolouration, holes in seams and
trim failure (Cooper and Claxton, 2022c). Even though they are not the main cause for physical failures, priority
parts such as zippers, buttons, etc., may also have a relevance in product durability.
Environmental
Extending the lifetime of textile apparel has been highlighted as the most effective method of reducing the
impact of the industry on the environment. For instance, extending the average life of clothes by 3 months’
usage per item could reduce carbon, water and waste footprints by 5-10% (Goworek, Lynn Oxborrow, et al.,
2020). Extending the average life of clothes by nine months of active use per item would typically lead to a
reduction in the carbon, water and waste footprints of 27%, 33% and 22%, respectively (Cooper and Claxton,
2022c).
Moreover, almost all life-cycle stages of textile apparel entail significant energy consumption (as described in
Section 3.3.2). Some processes, such as the extraction of raw materials or production processes -such as
spinning, knitting and weaving- are highly energy demanding. The longer the products are in active use by
consumers (the more durable the products), the more likely it is to offset the manufacturing of new products,
thus reducing the industry’s impacts related to energy.
Socioeconomic
Durability in the context of textile apparel collides with one of the prevalent business models, based on fast
trend turnovers and short production times. This business model does not offer space for developments to
improve durability of products, as it focuses on short times between design and product availability, and aims
to low pricing obtained with production of large volumes manufactured in specific locations and conditions (Dan
and Ostergaard, 2021). Therefore, an increase in the durability of products may affect negatively manufacturers
whose strategy is based on such business models, since the prevailing commercial drive is to save costs
(Goworek et al., 2020); whereas it could affect positively manufacturers which are already focusing on the
durability of products.
An increase in the durability of textile apparel could stimulate the establishment of other product-related
businesses. Increasing textile apparel durability could be supported by an increase in the number of companies
providing clothing repair services. Moreover, products with enhanced durability seem a necessary condition for
the existence of businesses based on product renting or sharing. These businesses could extend the use of
products and potentially reduce the purchase of new items if they do not incentivise overconsumption.
It is worth noting where the socioeconomic changes of product durability would be perceived. Whereas any
changes in product manufacturing would mostly take place outside the EU (which is where most manufacturing
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7080
7081
7082
7083
7084
7085
7086
7087
7088
7089
7090
7091
7092
7093
7094
7095
7096
7097
7098
7099
7100
7101
7102
7103
7104
7105
7106
7107
7108
7109
7110
7111
7112
7113
7114
7115
7116
7117
7118
7119
7120
7121
7122
7123
7124
7125
7126
7127
7128
7129
7130
takes place today) (Section 5.1), the effects related with repair, renting and sharing services would be
experienced within the EU.
Consumers are increasingly interested in textile products with enhanced durability: around 90% of consumers
think that apparel should be made to last longer (European Commission, 2019). There are consumers in
different age groups and markets who consider durability, in connection with quality, when making fashion
purchases, even if sustainability is not their main motivation (Goworek et al., 2020).
Durability has been highlighted as one of the top three aspects to influence the decision to purchase apparel
such as coats or jackets (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive Agency. et al., 2018). Around 43%
of consumers in some Member States express a willingness to buy long-lasting apparel despite the price (AK
Wienn and Greenpeace, 2023b).
It is also worth noting that design for physical durability involves the development and testing of yarns, fabrics
and textile apparel to meet specified performance standards that can withstand prolonged wear (Claxton and
Kent, 2020b), which could have an effect on product purchase price.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, durability is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile apparel.
10.9.1.2 Reliability
Reliability is the probability that a product functions as required under given conditions for a given duration
without an occurrence which results in a primary or secondary function of the product no longer being
performed.
In the context of textile apparel, reliability can be understood as the ability of a product to retain the physical
characteristics that allow its use. Therefore, reliability is directly linked with the intrinsic durability of products.
Ensuring that textile apparel are durable inherently makes them more reliable. Reliability of textile apparel can
be interpreted as the ability of a product to avoid or delay damages related with colour fading, discolouring,
pilling, wear and tear, dimensional stability or seam defects, among others.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
Most of the rationale provided for durability in section 10.9.1.1 is applicable for reliability. There is room for
improvement in the reliability of textile apparel: many products in the market have lifetimes that would
generally be considered satisfactory, whereas in other products, lifetime is unduly short due to inadequate
performance. The choice of fibres and the way they are processed can have an influence on the reliability of
products: for instance, in the manufacturing of denim products, the utilization of synthetic fibres, linen and
hemp -rather than 100% cotton- can help to produce denim products with higher tensile and abrasion resistance
(Elmogahzy, 2020). It must be noted that, on occasions this can affect negatively the recyclability of the product.
As in the case of durability, even though priority parts are not the main cause for physical failures, they may
also have a relevance in product reliability.
Environment
Enhancing the reliability of textile apparel can contribute to lifetime extension. Textile lifespan extension is
essential to avoid virgin natural resources withdrawals, either energy or material technologies (Amicarelli et al.,
2022). Moreover, it can be concluded that the longer the products are in active use by consumers, the more
likely it is to offset the manufacturing
of new products, thus reducing the industry’s impacts related to energy.
Socioeconomic
Reliability in the context of textile apparel is not aligned with business models based on fast trend turnovers
and short production times. As a textile apparel manufacturer expressed it in (Goworek et al., 2020),
“product
longevity loses sales”. Therefore, enhancing the reliability of products may affect negatively those
manufacturers whose strategy is based on fast trend turnovers and short production times; whereas it could
affect positively manufacturers which are already focusing on the reliability of products.
An increase in the durability of textile apparel could stimulate the establishment of other product-related
businesses. For instance, products with enhanced reliability seem one of the necessary conditions for the
existence of businesses based on product renting or sharing (a more reliable product is more likely to withstand
the more intensive use within such business models). Quality considered as durability is a crucial aspect of
textile apparel in the second hand markets, which enable extending the textile apparel use times after the initial
user (Aakko and Niinimäki, 2021).
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7131
7132
7133
7134
7135
7136
7137
7138
7139
7140
7141
7142
7143
7144
7145
7146
7147
7148
7149
7150
7151
7152
7153
7154
7155
7156
7157
7158
7159
7160
7161
7162
7163
7164
7165
7166
7167
7168
7169
7170
7171
7172
7173
7174
7175
7176
7177
7178
7179
7180
7181
As in the case of durability, whereas any changes in product manufacturing to enhance the reliability of products
would mostly take place outside the EU (Section 5.1), the effects related with renting and sharing services would
be experienced within the EU.
Most of the rationale provided for durability in section 10.9.1.1 is applicable for reliability. Around 90% of
consumers think that apparel should be made to last longer (European Commission, 2019), therefore would be
interested in more reliable products.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, reliability is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile apparel.
10.9.1.3 Reusability
Reusability is the ability of a product or component that is not waste to be used again for the same purpose for
which it was conceived.
In the context of textile apparel, reusability can have different interpretations. For instance, it can refer to
extending the lifetime of products (for instance via repair) so that the same owner can continue using the
product. It can also refer to transferring products to a new owner via donating to charity or second hand shops,
renting, inheriting, trading, swapping and borrowing (Shirvanimoghaddam et al., 2020).
Characteristics of the products in the scope
Reusability and durability are also intertwined (as it happened between reliability and durability). Enhancing the
performance of textile apparel increases durability, and thus enables increased use times (Aakko and Niinimäki,
2021).
There is a great potential to further increase reuse, as clothing items typically are disposed of long before the
end of their technical service life (Sandin and Peters, 2018). Many products in the market have lifetimes that
would generally be considered satisfactory, whereas in other products, lifetime is unduly short due to
inadequate performances. As stated for reliability, the choice of fibres and the way they are processed can have
an influence on the reusability of products: textile apparel with higher tensile and abrasion resistance are more
likely to be reused. As in the case of durability, even though priority parts are not the main cause for physical
failures, they may also have a relevance in product reusability.
An aspect related with textile product reusability is the discrepancy between technical lifetime (how long the
product is designed to last) and average real use time by consumers. In Section 5.8, it has been highlighted that
textile products nowadays remain in use for shorter periods, with an ever decreasing trend (some authors
estimate that t-shirts are used for an average of 22 days in total). It appears that many textile products are
currently underused during their initial lifetime, it can be expected that reusability strategies can counteract the
negative effects of this product underuse.
Environment
Enhancing the reusability of textile apparel can contribute to lifetime extension, which is essential to avoid virgin
natural resources withdrawals (Amicarelli et al., 2022). Moreover, it can be concluded that the longer the
products are in active use by consumers, the more likely it is to offset the manufacturing of new products, thus
reducing the industry’s impacts
related with energy. If the average life of textile apparel is extended by 3 years
(for instance, via reuse), the carbon and water footprint and waste generation can be reduced by 5-10%
(Shirvanimoghaddam et al., 2020).
Socioeconomic
Reusability in the context of textile apparel is also in opposition with business models based on fast trend
turnovers and short production times. Therefore, enhancing the reusability of products may affect negatively
those manufacturers whose strategy is based on such business models; whereas it could affect positively
manufacturers which are already focusing on the reusability of products (some companies claim that their
products are not designed or made for use by only one user, but many users (Piippo et al., 2022b).
Textile apparel reuse has been related with collaborative consumption. Increase product reuse could boost
product-service systems, commercial sharing systems and access-based consumption (Shirvanimoghaddam et
al., 2020). These business models can contribute to intensifying their use and reducing the purchase of new
items. In this context, the relationship between performances and durability arises again: high technical
performance enables textile apparel to be used for a longer time and enables further uses through, for example,
renting, leasing and second-hand markets (Piippo et al., 2022b). However, it must be noted that, although reuse
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7182
7183
7184
7185
7186
7187
7188
7189
7190
7191
7192
7193
7194
7195
7196
7197
7198
7199
7200
7201
7202
7203
7204
7205
7206
7207
7208
7209
7210
7211
7212
7213
7214
7215
7216
7217
7218
7219
7220
7221
7222
7223
7224
7225
7226
7227
7228
7229
of textile apparel takes place today, supply exceeds demand and many wearable items end up either exported
(Cooper and Claxton, 2022c) or in landfills (Goworek et al., 2020).
Reusability can also be associated with take-back services and second-hand shops. In such schemes, companies
maintain and sell the products again, enabling a new life for the product with a new consumer (Piippo et al.,
2022b).
For some consumers, buying high-quality second-hand clothes (in other words, reusing textile apparel)
represents ethical consumption, since it enables prolonging the lifespan of existing products and avoiding the
traditional fashion production chain (Aakko and Niinimäki, 2021). Moreover, in section 6.2.5 it has been
mentioned that second-hand textile apparel are experiencing fast growth. Around 37% of the population
actively engages in buying second-hand apparel (D&B, 2020b). It must be noted, however, that reusability does
not change overconsumption and overproduction patterns.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, reusability is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile apparel.
10.9.1.4 Upgradability
Upgradability is the ability of a product to be accessible for implementing actions to enhance its functionality,
performance, capacity, safety or aesthetics of a product.
In the context of textile apparel, upgradability can also be considered a factor that contributes to the overall
durability of a product. An item of textile apparel that is upgradeable will have more chances to extend its
lifetime, and therefore be more durable.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
An upgradable item of textile apparel may be one with modular components
–such
as detachable or
interchangeable parts- that allow for updates and style changes without replacing the entire item. Although
some upgradable products and designs may exist today, these type of modular designs are innovative, but not
yet part of the mainstream market. Despite this lower relevance in the market today, upgradability is one of
the possible strategies that can contribute to product lifetime extension. Upgradability is mostly associated with
products made of physically durable fabrics.
Environment
Possibly due to the lower relevance in the market today, the authors have not found any study that highlights
the potential environmental benefits of increasing the upgradability of textile products. In any case, if it is
assumed that upgradability can contribute to extend the lifetime of textile apparel, it could also be concluded
that upgrading products may have environmental benefits similar to the ones reported in section 10.9.1.1 on
durability.
Socioeconomic
Although upgradable textile products can still be considered to be a niche in the market today, it can be
concluded that they are also in opposition to business models based on fast trend turnovers and short
production times. Modular products that can be upgraded will last longer and therefore prevent the sales of
new products. Therefore, promoting the upgradability of products may affect negatively those manufacturers
whose strategy is based on such business models; whereas it could affect positively manufacturers which focus
on their upgradability.
There is currently no evidence that suggests that increasing the upgradability of products may stimulate the
creation of alternative business models based on renting or sharing. It could contribute to the creation of jobs
on the clothing repair sector, which could undertake some of the activities related with product upgrade that
cannot be carried out by consumers (replacing older by upgraded modules, for instance).
Possibly due to the lower relevance in the market today, the authors have not found any evidence on the
willingness of consumers to purchase upgradable textile products. The price to upgrade a product, compared
with the price of a new product, may also be a factor for the willingness of consumers to upgrade textile apparel.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, upgradability is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile apparel.
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7230
7231
7232
7233
7234
7235
7236
7237
7238
7239
7240
7241
7242
7243
7244
7245
7246
7247
7248
7249
7250
7251
7252
7253
7254
7255
7256
7257
7258
7259
7260
7261
7262
7263
7264
7265
7266
7267
7268
7269
7270
7271
7272
7273
7274
7275
7276
7277
7278
7279
7280
7281
10.9.1.5 Repairability
Repairability is the ability of a defective product or waste object to return to a condition where it fulfils its
intended use. In the context of textile apparel, repairability is directly linked with durability. One of the factors
that makes a product more durable is its potential to be repaired. Repair makes it possible to increase product
lifespans as well as value creation (Laitala and Klepp, 2021b). Either as an activity carried out by the consumer
or as a service provided by a company, repair is another way in which to extend use-time of textile apparel
(Piippo et al., 2022b).
Characteristics of the products in the scope
The repairability of textile apparel can be influenced at the design stage, for instance, considering their ease of
disassembly, ensuring that products can be taken apart to replace worn or damaged components (Cooper and
Claxton, 2022c).
The presence of priority parts has been mentioned in previous sections on durability and reliability. Priority parts
are particularly relevant for repairability, since these are the components with the highest frequency of failure
and functional relevance. In the case of textile apparel, a possible list of priority parts (non-exhaustive)
comprises fabrics, zips, buttons and embellishments such as sequins, gems and beads. It is worth noting that
relatively few pieces of textile apparel with these components have failures, which suggests that the relevance
of repairability is lower than, for instance, the relevance of reliability. Missing buttons and broken zips are the
main problems, followed by missing embellishments (Cooper and Claxton, 2022c).
Environment
Repair of textile apparel has environmental benefits. As highlighted in (Luo et al., 2023c), the frequent use of a
product will cause wear and tear and shorten its service life, while the repair process will extend the service life
of the product and consequently reduce the purchase of new products and excessive waste of resources. It
must be noted that providing spare parts for repairability increases the environmental impact of the product, if
such parts are finally not used.
Socioeconomic
Currently, the professional services used for repair of clothing are companies mostly independent of the
production and sales of clothes (Laitala and Klepp, 2021b). A rise in the availability of more reparable clothing
could stimulate the creation of business related with clothing repair.
Repair could also be stimulated by the same product manufacturers, either providing clothing repair as a service,
or providing information to consumers on how to carry out simple repairs. Some brands offer more service-
oriented solutions, such as repair and alterations, while others are designing modular or more adaptable clothing
(Goworek et al., 2020).
In fact, the number of repairs conducted privately is at least three times more frequent than professional
repairs, since minor mending of textiles often only requires needle and thread, a limited amount of time and
only rather basic skills (Laitala and Klepp, 2021b).
Repair of clothing carried out by consumers is diminishing, due to the current low skills of consumers, influenced
by the scarcity of available time to carry out repairs, the lack of appropriate equipment and price (Finnish
Ministry of the Environment, 2023b). Therefore, only 11% of consumers consider repairability to be important
when purchasing apparel items such as coats and jackets (Consumers, Health, Agriculture and Food Executive
Agency. et al., 2018).
The price of repair is a fundamental factor in the case of textile apparel. The price of repairing clothes depends
a lot on the type of textile apparel and repair needed. A general trend observed is that consumers are not willing
to pay much for the repair of textile apparel, and especially not for low-priced textile apparel. Consumers
compare the price to a new textile apparel, which often is the same or even lower than repair or adjustments
done by the tailor (Laitala and Klepp, 2021b). The authors have not found specific data regarding the willingness
of consumers to pay for the repair of textile apparel. Using as a reference values from other product groups,
the willingness to pay for repairs of small electronics is between 20% and 40% of the replacement cost
(Cordella, Sanfelix, et al., 2019; Svensson-Hoglund et al., 2021).
In essence, clothes would be worn longer if repair services were cheaper (or products more expensive): 27% of
consumers agree that they would wear their textile apparel longer if they were better at repairing them (Laitala
and Klepp, 2021b). For those few consumers that do carry out repairs, it is worth noting that textile apparel has
a much higher share of successful repairs than other products such as electrical appliances.
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Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, repairability is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile apparel.
10.9.1.6 Possibility of maintenance
The possibility of maintenance is the ability of a product to be kept in a condition where it is able to fulfil its
intended purpose through one or more actions. In the context of textile apparel, it consists of the set of activities
that a consumer carries out, fundamentally during the use phase of the product, in order to maintain it in a
condition that satisfies all their needs associated to the product. This can include activities such as washing,
drying, ironing, folding, storing, wearing in specific environments and conditions, etc.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
Washing is potentially the most relevant maintenance activity for textile apparel, which are prone to getting
dirty or soiled. The ability to remove dirt and stains can be influenced by design, for instance by the choice of
materials. Inherent fibre properties affect the soiling characteristics of textile apparel. Cotton gets dirty easily,
but can be washed efficiently and thus cleaned. In contrast, wool resists staining and develops less odour, but
stains are difficult to remove (Laitala and Klepp, 2018b). Similar trade-offs can be expected for other
maintenance activities such as drying or ironing.
Environment
Textile apparel maintenance activities, because they are repeated often and by all people in the world,
constitutes a significant environmental impact. Washing, drying and wrinkle removal are repeated on a regular
basis. The longer an item of textile apparel is used, the more important this phase will be for the overall
environmental impact of the textile apparel (Laitala and Klepp, 2018b).
Maintenance can contribute to extend the lifetime of products and therefore reduce their environmental impact.
It is important for keeping products in use and for motivating consumers to repair them when needed (Laitala
and Klepp, 2021b). Extending textile apparel lifetimes should also take into account how more durable textile
apparel items can be cared for sustainably by consumers, for example by avoiding dry-clean only fabrics
(Goworek, Lynn Oxborrow, et al., 2020).
Socioeconomic
Manufacturers of textile apparel emphasize that optimal care and maintenance is a significant factor for
extending product life. For them, it is important to determine which products customers need, but also how they
use and care for these products. Since it is often the customers who care for the products, it is important for
companies to share information on correct maintenance (Piippo et al., 2022b).
The possibility of maintenance can also be a factor in take-back services. In such schemes, companies maintain
the products they sold, in order to sell them again, enabling a new life for the product with a new consumer
(Piippo et al., 2022b).
Similarly to previous product aspects, the possibility of maintenance is in opposition with business models based
on fast trend turnovers and short production times. A product which is easier to be maintained will delay the
sale of new products, delaying their replacement. Therefore, promoting the possibility of maintenance of
products may affect negatively those manufacturers whose strategy is based on such business models;
whereas it could affect positively manufacturers which focus on product maintenance.
Maintenance of textile products relies mostly on users. Most of the laundering and storing of textiles is carried
out by the owner of the apparel. Manufacturers already provide maintenance instructions to users on how to
wash and take care of textile products, on a voluntary basis. As pointed out in Section 6.3.2, a significant
percentage of users follow these care instructions, but the adherence diminishes after the initial wash.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, possibility of maintenance is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile
apparel.
10.9.1.7 Possibility of refurbishment
The possibility of refurbishment is the ability of a product or a discarded product to be prepared, cleaned, tested,
serviced and, where necessary repaired to restore its performance or functionality within the intended use and
range of performance originally conceived at the design stage at the time of the placing of the product on the
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market. In the context of textile apparel, it can be interpreted as a very similar
–or
equivalent- aspect to
repairability. In essence, when a product is repaired, it may also follow the steps described in the definition of
possibility of refurbishment (preparing, cleaning, testing, servicing and repairing). As in the case of repair, the
possibility of refurbishing is directly linked with durability.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
As in the case of repairability, the possibility of refurbishing of textile apparel can be influenced at the design
stage, for instance, considering their ease of disassembly, ensuring that products can be taken apart to replace
worn or damaged components (Claxton and Kent, 2020). The presence of priority parts has been mentioned in
previous sections on durability, reliability and repairability. Priority parts are also particularly relevant for the
possibility of refurbishing, since these are the components with the highest frequency of failure and functional
relevance, and therefore the parts which more likely may need to be substituted in a potential refurbishing
activity. Refurbishment is strictly connected to the physical durability of priority parts and the price related to
refurbish a used product or waste rather than manufacturing a new one.
Environment
Possibly due to the similarities with product repair, the authors have not found scientific literature highlighting
the potential environmental benefits of textile apparel refurbishing.
Socioeconomic
Similarly to the case of previous product aspects, the possibility of refurbishment is in contrast with the business
models based on fast trend turnovers and short production times. A product that can be refurbished will reduce
the opportunity of selling new items. Therefore, promoting the possibility of maintenance and refurbishment of
products may affect negatively those manufacturers whose strategy is based on such business models;
whereas it could affect positively manufacturers which focus on product maintenance and refurbishment.
A rise in the availability of products which are easier to be refurbished could stimulate the creation of business
related with textile apparel repair.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, possibility of refurbishment is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile
apparel.
10.9.1.8 Presence of substances of concern
The presence of substances of concern should be understood as the existence of chemicals in products that for
reasons of their intrinsic hazards pose risks to human health or the environment, or that otherwise negatively
affects the reuse and recycling of materials in the product in which they are present. This may bring about the
need to consider regulatory action, improved management and/or substitution with safer alternatives, whenever
feasible. ESPR specifically requires to track the presence of these substances in products.
In ESPR, a substance of concern means a substance that:
(a) meets the criteria laid down in Article 57 of Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 and is identified
in accordance with Article 59(1) of that Regulation;
(b) is classified in Part 3 of Annex VI to Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 in one of the following
hazard classes or hazard categories:
i. carcinogenicity categories 1 and 2;
ii. germ cell mutagenicity categories 1 and 2;
iii. reproductive toxicity categories 1 and 2;
iv. endocrine disruption for human health categories 1 and 2;
v. endocrine disruption for the environment categories 1 and 2;
vi. persistent, mobile and toxic or very persistent, very mobile properties;
vii. persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic or very persistent, very bioaccumulative
properties;
viii. respiratory sensitisation category 1;
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ix. skin sensitisation category 1;
x. hazardous to the aquatic environment
—
categories chronic 1 to 4;
xi. hazardous to the ozone layer;
xii. specific target organ toxicity
—
repeated exposure categories 1 and 2;
xiii. specific target organ toxicity
—
single exposure categories 1 and 2;
(c) is regulated under Regulation (EU) 2019/1021; or
(d) negatively affects the reuse and recycling of materials in the product in which it is present;
Characteristics of the products in the scope
As already pointed out in Section 3.3.2, the raw materials extraction and manufacturing of textile apparel involve
the use of a wide variety of chemical substances and mixtures, which includes pesticides, solvents, surfactants,
dyes, pigments, stain repellents, flame retardants or biocides, among others, as well as water. The demand of
chemical compounds by the textile industry is estimated to use around 25% of global chemical production (Raj
et al., 2022). Many of the chemicals used during textile manufacturing are associated with spinning and weaving
and wet processing. A single European textile-finishing company uses over 466 g of chemicals per 1 kg of
textile (Niinimäki et al., 2020).
Chemicals are used in the manufacturing of textile apparel with a specific purpose, such as providing a certain
level of resistance to abrasion, adding colour, waterproofing, etc. The presence of substances of concern can be
influenced at the design stage, via substitutions by safer alternatives (often with trade-offs) (Zhang and Hale,
2022).
Environment
Chemicals have an influence in almost all lifecycle stages of a textile product. Chemicals used during
manufacturing are often discharged or results in releases and get in direct contact with soil and water bodies.
Consumers are directly exposed to chemicals in the textile during the use phase. Chemicals may also have an
influence at end-of-life, either hindering processes such as recycling or being released to the environment if
apparel is landfilled or incinerated.
Eliminating or reducing the presence of substances of concern has been highlighted as one of the key areas
with potential of improvement regarding ecodesign (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017; Bauer, Watson, Gylling,
Remmen, Lysemose, Catharina Hohenthal, et al., 2018; Niinimäki et al., 2020). For instance, natural cotton fabric
dyeing using dyes of plant origin (white onion) can reduce the impacts on human health and ecosystems
(Amicarelli et al., 2022).
Socioeconomic
Companies in the textile apparel sector aim to reduce production costs through manufacturing in locations with
lower production costs and where often environmental regulation is laxer or pollution-mitigating technologies
are not legally required. This approach to manufacturing often leads not only to high environmental impacts
from use of chemicals but increased health risks for factory workers, cotton farmers and fashion consumers
(Niinimäki et al., 2020).
Despite being in direct contact with chemicals when wearing apparel, 60% of respondents to a survey in the EU
perceived chemicals in apparel fabrics as representing a minimal risk (European Commission, 2019).
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, presence of substances of concern is considered a relevant product aspect in the context
of textile apparel.
10.9.1.9 Energy use and energy efficiency
Energy use can be defined as the total use of energy in all lifecycle stages of a product. Energy efficiency is
the ratio of output of performance, service, goods or energy to input of energy.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
Almost all life-cycle stages of apparel have significant energy consumption, particularly the extraction of fibres
such as silk; production processes such as spinning, knitting and weaving; or thermal treatments during
production (see Section 3.3.1). Although manufacturing covers about 70-80% of total lifecycle energy
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consumption (Sandin, Roos, Spak, et al., 2019; Quantis, 2021), energy is also consumed in the use phase for
laundering, ironing and drying.
There is a wide range of materials available for manufacturers, with different performance in terms of energy
use and energy efficiency. Considering the manufacturing stage, some fibres are less energy intensive than
others. However, reductions in energy use may come with trade-offs in other properties of the fibre (Niinimäki
et al., 2020).
Considering the use phase, the electricity consumed during domestic washing amounts to 2% of household
usage, while tumble drying accounts for 4.5% (Zhang et al., 2022). There are also examples of energy efficiency
improvement potential areas in the use phase, described in (Zhang et al., 2022). For instance, products made
from hygroscopic fibres require higher energy in tumble drying than their hydrophobic fast-drying synthetic
counterparts (Zhang et al., 2022). Reductions in the number of launderings can also be achieved by
manufacturing clothes with odour reduction thanks to fabrics enabled with silver, which has antimicrobial
properties (Amicarelli et al., 2022). Some fibres require lower temperatures for laundering than others (less
energy use). Some materials require ironing to achieve a minimum aesthetic performance, whereas others do
not need to be ironed. However, different fibres will provide different performance and aesthetics. Design
strategies tend to be aimed at reducing rather than eliminating the negative impacts of the use phase, typically
in the design of clothes for less frequent washing and use of lower laundering temperatures to prolong textile
apparel life (Claxton and Kent, 2020b)
There is room for improvement in the energy efficiency of textiles manufacturing as well. In (Zhang et al., 2022),
several examples are provided: low-twist spinning technology introduces false twisters between the front roller
and the yarn guide, and can achieve a twist reduction of 20-40%; significant energy saving in air humidification
can be achieved by using energy-efficient nozzles and variable-frequency drives based on the real-time
humidity conditions in the spinning and weaving process; or high-volume, low-pressure nozzles can save up to
26% of energy thanks to their optimized nozzle geometry (Zhang et al., 2022). In the case of denim apparel,
the industry is transitioning from stonewashed denim to more energy-efficient methods such as enzyme
treatment, mechanical abrasion, ozone fading, water jet fading and laser treatment (Elmogahzy, 2020). It is
worth noting that, in the context of the Industrial Emissions Directive, the Reference Document for the Textiles
Industry (Roth et al., 2023) addresses energy use for installations located in the EU and points out the Best
Available Techniques.
Environmental
As pointed out in Section 5.4.3, considering the manufacturing stage, the energy consumption in the global
textile industry was estimated to be 2% of the global energy consumption. Section 3.3.1 reports that almost all
stages of the textile apparel value chain are energy demanding. Indirectly related with energy, the apparel
industry is reported to be responsible for about 6.5% of global GHG emissions (Niinimäki et al., 2020).
The substantial consumption of electricity in the use stage of textiles was also revealed to have a significant
impact on the environment due to repeated use and care operations, in some cases even exceeding the
contribution of the production stage (Luo et al., 2023c).
Socioeconomic
As mentioned in Section 5.4.3, the cost of energy plays an important role in the textile industry. In fact, the
increase of the cost of energy in the EU in 2022 negatively affected the EU textile production. Moreover, the
national energy strategies influence the establishment of textile industry focussing on specific stages of the
value chain.
Textile apparel are generally not perceived by consumers as energy-related products. Possibly because of that,
the authors have not found any evidence on the willingness of consumers to purchase energy efficient textile
products.
Users can have an influence on the energy consumed during the lifecycle of apparel, mostly in the laundering,
ironing and drying activities. Following the instructions available in labelling in terms of water temperature can
help to reduce energy consumption. Reducing the frequency of ironing may also save energy. Substituting the
use of tumble driers by air-drying (when possible) can also have a positive effect.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, energy use and energy efficiency is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of
textile apparel.
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10.9.1.10 Water use and water efficiency
Water use is the use of water in all lifecycle stages of a product. Water efficiency is the ratio of output of
performance, service, goods to input of water.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
Apparel manufacturing requires enormous volumes of water in fabric production (Jia et al., 2020). Typically,
70-250 l of water are used for every kilogram of finished textiles (Zhang et al., 2022). Water is also consumed
during the use phase in laundering activities.
There is a wide range of materials available for manufacturers, with different performance in terms of water
use and water efficiency. Cotton and hemp are the most water-demanding among textile fibres, whereas
polyester and polypropylene need the least amount of water. However, reductions in water use may come with
trade-offs in other properties of the fibre (Niinimäki et al., 2020).
There is room for improvement in the water efficiency of textiles manufacturing. In (Zhang et al., 2022), several
examples are provided: a foam-laying technique has been studied as a replacement for the wet-laying non-
woven process, using 20% of the water and saving energy simultaneously; for synthetic fibres, colourless
polymers can be structurally coloured with nano-sized pigment inclusions via spin dyeing, achieving 50% water
savings; recycling wastewater generated from spent dyeing and rinsing baths through catalytic ozonation with
carbon aerogel is a method to minimize water consumption.
There are also examples of water efficiency improvement potential areas in the use phase (for laundering),
described in (Zhang et al., 2022). For instance, products made from hygroscopic fibres require more water than
their hydrophobic fast-drying synthetic counterparts. It is worth noting that, in the context of the Industrial
Emissions Directive, the Reference Document for the Textiles Industry (Roth et al., 2023) addresses water use
for installations located in the EU and points out the Best Available Techniques.
Environmental
Considering the initial stages of textile apparel production, water consumption for materials extraction and
manufacturing is estimated to account for 4% of global freshwater extraction (Ellen MacArthur Foundation,
2017). Just cotton is estimated to account for 2.5% of water consumed globally every year (Amicarelli et al.,
2022). In the EU, the production of textile apparel, footwear and household textiles purchased in 2020 was
around 4 000 million m
3
of blue water
(
214
).
Considering the use stage of textile apparel, the substantial consumption of water in the use stage of textiles
was revealed to have a significant impact on the environment due to repeated use and care operations, in some
cases even exceeding the contribution of the production stage (Luo et al., 2023c).
Socioeconomic
As described in Section 5.7, the global value chain of textile apparel causes most of its environmental impacts
in the production stages, and most of these stages occur outside of the EU. In particular, in countries that allow
production at lower costs (due to poor labour conditions and less stringent measures on environmental
protection). This is particularly relevant for water consumption, an aspect which is directly related with the
specific location. For instance, cotton has the highest water footprint of any fashion fibre (Niinimäki et al., 2020).
For making a cotton t-shirt, 2 700 litres of water are used (Shirvanimoghaddam et al., 2020).
Textile apparel are generally not perceived by consumers as water-related products. Possibly because of that,
the authors have not found any evidence on the willingness of consumers to purchase water efficient textile
products. However, water is also consumed during the use phase in laundering activities, which are mostly
influenced by the users. As highlighted in previous sections, different washing habits are observed across
countries, with factors such as age and societal norms also having an influence. User perceptions about hygiene
and convenience may impact washing frequency, influencing the consumption of water during the use phase.
There is also a relevant interaction with laundry detergents (some of them might require more water than
others to achieve the same level of cleanliness).
Qualitative assessment of relevance
214
Blue water refers to fresh surface and groundwater
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Based on the above, water use and water efficiency is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of
textile apparel.
10.9.1.11 Resource use and resource efficiency
Resource use is the use of raw materials, mainly abiotic (minerals, metals, fossil fuels), in all lifecycle stages.
It can also include biotic resources such as land, air, ecosystems. The use of natural resources can be accounted
for as the volumes of resources consumed (materials) or used (land, air, ecosystems), or the impacts derived
from the use of resources. Water and energy are not considered within resources under the scope of ESPR given
these are addressed as separate product aspects. Resource efficiency is the ratio of output of performance,
service, goods to input of resources, raw materials, air, land, soil and ecosystem services.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
The textile apparel industry is resource-intensive (Piippo et al., 2022b). Most of these resources are consumed
in the raw material extraction and manufacturing stages. This product aspect is therefore related with product
parameters, reported in Annex I to ESPR, such as ‘use or content of sustainable renewable materials’ and
‘reduction of materials consumption’, among others.
Considering textile manufacturing, there are a wide variety of techniques, each of them with a different level
of resource efficiency. Taking cotton as an example, it may be produced following organic farming, conventional
farming or regenerative agriculture and using different quantities of land, water, chemicals and energy
according to the climate and the ecosystem where it is cultivated. Each specific cultivation practice in a given
location has a specific crop yield (or efficiency in the use of resources). Similarly, manmade cellulosic fibres can
be produced using cellulose from recycled wood, agricultural waste, virgin wood coming from sustainably
managed forests, virgin wood coming from deforestation-free forests or from unknown sources, etc. All these
options use different resources and affect different ecosystems.
Resource efficiency can also be linked with the process of reducing the weight of products to improve their
environmental performance. This practice, aimed at decreasing material use throughout the product lifecycle,
it is also known as lightweighting. Denim fabrics, for instance, can be made in many weights. Light denim will
be suitable for dresses or shirts where drape, softness and flexibility are required. Heavy denims are typically
used for blue jeans trousers and skirts (Elmogahzy, 2020). Although light weights use less material, they also
provide different properties to textile apparel. Heavier weight fabrics are generally more durable and less
susceptible to abrasion and wear, while fabrics with a tighter, more compact construction are also more
resistant to damage (Cooper and Claxton, 2022c). Therefore, the authors consider that lightweighting is not a
relevant product parameter for textile apparel.
Environmental
The textile industry is the fifth industrial sector for primary use of materials, mainly related to the extensive
production of natural origin fibres and man-made cellulosic fibres. The estimates of textile fibre production
were around 116-124 million tonnes in 2022 (Textile Exchange, 2022b).
Socioeconomic
Similarly to energy efficiency and water efficiency, resource efficiency does not appear to be a relevant aspect
influencing the behaviour of consumers when purchasing textile apparel.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, resource use and resource efficiency is considered a relevant product aspect in the context
of textile apparel.
10.9.1.12 Recycled content
Recycled content is the proportion, by mass, of recycled material, from pre- and post-consumer waste, in a
product or packaging. In the case of textile apparel, it is generally expressed with reference to the amount of
fibres, which are at least 80% of the weight of the product.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
The possibility to use recycled material in textile apparel has been mentioned in some studies as a relevant
product aspect to consider (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017; Bauer, Watson, Gylling, Remmen, Lysemose,
Catharina Hohenthal, et al., 2018; Niinimäki et al., 2020).
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When considering the possibility of having recycled content in a product, a key aspect is the availability of
recycled material in the market. In the case of textile apparel, as pointed out in Section 3.3.2, there is enough
post-consumer waste from which material could be recycled and reintroduced in the manufacturing process of
textile apparel. In Section 5.4.1, it has also been mentioned that a 30% increase in textile waste is expected for
2030-2035, so the supply of feedstock for recycled material seems guaranteed for the coming years.
However, when designing a product with recycled content it must be taken into account that, depending on the
recycling technology, recycled fibres tend to be of lower performance than their virgin equivalents and are
normally limited to single fibre content fabrics (Claxton and Kent, 2020b). For instance, a maximum of 20%
post-consumer mechanically recovered cotton fibres can be blended with virgin cotton before strength is
compromised (Niinimäki et al., 2020).
There is room for improvement to increase the recycled content in textile apparel. For instance, chemical
recycling works by breaking down fibres through a chemical dissolution process to the level of a polymer and
is suitable for cellulose fibres. The process preserves fibres better than the mechanical recycling and is,
therefore, anticipated to enable textile apparel to be produced with higher percentages of recycled fibres
(Niinimäki et al., 2020).
Environmental
Some studies highlight that the use of recycled materials in textile apparel reduces their environmental impact.
For instance, by using recycled cotton for spinning it is possible to decrease 60% of the emitted CO
2
eq, reduce
the consumption of oil equivalent by 11% and water by almost 80%. Similarly, the use of recycled cotton fibre
has a huge potential to reduce environmental impacts, since it is possible to avoid the production of virgin
cotton, with a reduction of up to 98% in water use. Substituting primary by secondary materials in a polyester
jacket shows a reduction in impacts between 50%-80% in the categories of photochemical smog formation,
human toxicity and water scarcity (Amicarelli et al., 2022).
Socioeconomic
Increasing the content of recycled material in textile apparel could contribute to job creation in different areas.
For instance, in the collection and sorting of textiles, as well as in transport and recycling operations. The
increase in recycled content might also incentivise the recycling of end-of-life waste material.
In contrast with other aspects such as durability or repairability, consumers give little importance to the use of
recycled materials in apparel (11%, as highlighted in Section 6.2.7).
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, recycled content is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile apparel.
10.9.1.13 Possibility of remanufacturing
The possibility of remanufacturing is the possibility of producing through actions a new product from objects
that are waste, products or components and through which at least one change is made that may affect the
performance, purpose or type of the product.
In the context of textile apparel, it must be noted that product attributes that make it fit for repair (such as
ease of disassembly) also make it fit for remanufacturing.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
As in the case of repairability, the possibility of remanufacturing of textile apparel can be influenced in the
design stage, for instance, considering their ease of disassembly, ensuring that products can be taken apart to
replace worn or damaged components (Claxton and Kent, 2020b).
The presence of priority parts has been mentioned in previous sections on durability, reliability, repairability and
possibility of refurbishing. Priority parts are also particularly relevant for the possibility of remanufacturing,
since these are the components with the highest frequency of failure and functional relevance, and therefore
the parts which more likely may need to be substituted in a potential remanufacturing activity.
Environment
Possibly due to the similarities with product repair, the authors have not found scientific literature highlighting
the potential environmental benefits of textile apparel remanufacturing.
Socioeconomic
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Similarly with previous product aspects, the possibility of remanufacturing is in opposition with business models
based on fast trend turnovers and short production times. A product which is easier to be remanufactured will
reduce the opportunity of selling new items. Therefore, promoting the possibility of remanufacturing of products
may affect negatively those manufacturers whose strategy is based on such business models; whereas it could
affect positively manufacturers which focus on product remanufacturing.
A rise in the availability of products which are easier to be remanufactured could stimulate the creation of
business related with textile apparel repair. The cost of remanufacturing may also be a significant factor for
the expansion of this activity.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, possibility of remanufacturing is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of
textile apparel.
10.9.1.14 Recyclability
Recyclability is the ability of waste materials originating from products to be reprocessed into products,
materials or substances whether for the original or other purposes. It includes the reprocessing of organic
material but does not include energy recovery and the reprocessing into materials that are to be used as fuels
or for backfilling operations.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
It is possible to recycle textile apparel, either via mechanical, chemical or enzymatic technologies. However, due
to different fibre material combinations, auxiliaries such as buttons and zippers, and various thermal
treatments, fibre to fibre recycling is a complex and hardly practiced treatment (Eppinger et al., 2022). In fact,
chemical and enzymatic recycling do not seem to be ready for industrial scale application, where the automatic
sorting of collected textile products is crucial to effectively identifying fibre type and determining the
appropriate recycling method (Zhang et al., 2022). Mechanical recycling is therefore the most common recycling
technology nowadays.
Recycling may be closed loop (when materials are recycled back into the same or similar products) or open loop
(when materials are converted into different types of products). In the case of textile apparel, most of the
recycling processes today are open loop. As the length of the fibres and the constituent molecules are reduced
by wear and laundry, fabric and fibre recycling typically yields materials of lower performances than materials
made from virgin fibres (Sandin and Peters, 2018). For instance, materials recycled via mechanical recycling
can be used to produce insulating materials for cars and buildings, fibre-reinforced composites and disposable
non-woven products such as sanitary wipes, napkins and diapers (Zhang et al., 2022). Moreover, there are many
opportunities to use cotton and textile waste for various applications including composites, microbial fuel cell,
potassium-ion exchange, biochar applications, sound absorbents, thermal insulation, EMI shielding, etc.
(Shirvanimoghaddam et al., 2020).
Mechanically recycled fibres generally show weakened properties (Zhang et al., 2022). This process gives the
best results when the material still has some level of performance. If very poor (high wear and tear) material
is mechanically recycled, up to 30-50% of virgin material needs to be added so that the performance of the
material becomes sufficient (Piippo et al., 2022b). This can also be observed in the case of denim products. The
common approach to recycle denim products is through fabric shredding into fibres, which can be used in many
applications. The success will primarily depend on the characteristics of fibres obtained from the recycling
process (Elmogahzy, 2020).
There is room for improvement in the possibilities of recycling textile apparel and this may be influenced at the
design stage. For instance, most apparel products currently in use are fibre blends of multiple polymers.
Recycling is complicated by textile apparel being constructed of fibre blends, which require separation (Niinimäki
et al., 2020). Mono-materiality in textiles has long been recognized for its great recycling efficiency without
need for disassembly, making it one of the most effective design strategies for proactive material recovery and
perhaps the basis for a new textile paradigm (Zhang et al., 2022).
Environmental
Some studies highlight that the use of recycled materials in textile products decreases their environmental
impact (Cai and Choi, 2020; Niinimäki et al., 2020; Amicarelli et al., 2022). The environmental analysis of section
10.9.1.12 on recycled content provides some insight on the benefits of recycling textile apparel. Upcycling textile
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waste into new products or even recycling textile waste in another sector (e.g. as part of composite material in
the automotive industry) is an important approach in a circular economy (Piippo et al., 2022b).
Socioeconomic
In Section 5.4.1, a summary was provided in terms of availability of textile recycling plants. Europe, Asia and
North America host 50%, 33% and 11% of global textile recycling plants, respectively. Most of these plants are
able to process textile products made of many textile fibres. Increasing the recyclability in textile products could
contribute to job creation in different areas: textile collection, sorting, transport and recycling.
However, at global level, only 12% of textile materials are currently recycled (Zhang et al., 2022). Only 15% of
post-consumer textile waste was collected separately for recycling purposes in 2015, and less than 1% of total
production was recycled in closed loop. Most of the recycled textiles were recycled into other, lower-value
applications, such as insulation material, wiping cloths and mattress stuffing (Niinimäki et al., 2020).
In Solis et al (2024), the authors investigated the socioeconomic impacts of different waste management
scenarios for textiles. They concluded that mechanical recycling of cotton, polyester, polycotton and polyamide
achieved lower costs than incineration. However, if other recycling pathways (such as mechanical recycling of
viscose, open-loop recycling, chemical recycling of cotton, polyester and polycotton) are to be competitive from
the socio-economic perspective relative to incineration, technology costs need to decrease significantly.
In terms of employment, preparing for reuse and recycling create significantly more jobs than incineration and
landfilling (Solis et al., 2024).
Recyclability does not seem a relevant aspect for consumers when purchasing textile apparel.
It has been mentioned above that fibre blends make the process of recycling more complex. To overcome this,
mono-material apparel and footwear engineered for mechanical recycling may be manufactured from
thermoplastic materials via a combination of existing machinery and processes. However, the huge variation in
consumer preference is not easily satisfied by a single material (Zhang et al., 2022).
The recyclability of textile apparel can also be influenced by increasing their collection at end of life, an aspect
where consumers also have an influence. Moreover, the Waste Framework Directive requires Member States to
set up separate collection for textiles by 1 January 2025. It also promotes the establishment of Extended
Producer Responsibility Schemes for textile products in several Member States.
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, recyclability is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile apparel.
10.9.1.15 Environmental impacts
Environmental impacts refer to any change to the environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially
resulting from a product during its life cycle.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
Textile apparel include a wide variety of products, including t-shirts, shirts and blouses, sweaters, jackets, pants,
dresses and accessories, among others. These products have different applications and therefore a very diverse
range of performance requirements. Related with the variety of products and applications, a wide variety of
possible materials and manufacturing processes arise, each one providing different characteristics to textile
apparel.
This wide variety of possibilities in terms of products, materials and manufacturing processes causes that the
nature of the environmental impacts is also wide. Some materials and processes might have a larger impact
due to energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, whereas other have a larger impact due to water use, resource
use, release of chemicals or generation of waste.
Environmental aspects
As highlighted in Section 3.3.2, textile apparel has relevant effects on the environment throughout its lifecycle,
on different areas. For instance:
—
The textile industry's water consumption is estimated to account for 4% of global freshwater
extraction (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017).
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—
In 2004, the energy consumption in the global textile industry was estimated to be equal to 2%
of the global energy consumption. Additionally, the production of 1 kg of generic textile product
was estimated to require about 126 MJ (about 35 kWh) of energy (Muthu, 2015).
—
Numerous life-cycle stages of textile apparel involve the use of chemical substances and mixtures.
Some of them are pesticides, solvents, surfactants, dyes and pigments, water and stain repellents,
flame retardants, biocides and many more (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017) .
—
In 2019, the EU generated about 12.6 Mt of textile waste, including post-industrial, pre-consumer
and post-consumer waste, representing 11%, 3% and 86% of the total, respectively.
—
The European Environment Agency estimated that textile consumption in the EU in 2020 emitted
121 million tonnes of greenhouse gases. Around 75% of the emissions occurred outside Europe,
specifically in Asian countries (EEA et al., 2022).
—
Textile fragmentation is also a relevant aspect for the environmental impacts of textile apparel. It
has been reported that one of the leading sources of microplastics pollution is the fragmentation
of synthetic textiles (Boucher and Friot, 2017). Current patterns indicate that emissions of
microplastics from textiles are projected to rise by approximately 22% by the year 2030 (DG ENV,
2023).
—
The BREF on textiles (Roth et al., 2023) identifies and addresses the main pollutants during the
manufacturing process of textile apparel, such as COD, SOx, NOx, energy consumption and water
consumption.
Socioeconomic
Many of the impacts mentioned above occur outside the EU. Third countries producing textiles often have less
stringent environmental and labour requirements. This allows manufacturers to reduce costs and offer final
products at a lower purchase price than EU production, at the expense of environmental degradation and health
issues of the workers and the communities working around the manufacturing plants. Promoting products with
a lower environmental impact would contribute to the reduction of impacts across the whole value chain.
As pointed out in Section 6.2.2,
most of EU consumers argue that environmental impact of products is ‘very’ or
‘rather important’ in their purchasing decisions
(European Commission. Directorate General for Environment.,
2023). Information is a key aspect to convey messages on the environmental performance of products: around
82% of consumers believe there is insufficient information available on environmental aspects associated with
apparel (European Commission, 2019).
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, environmental impact is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of textile
apparel.
10.9.1.16 Expected generation of waste
The expected generation of waste is the generation of any substance, or object that the holder discards or
intends or is required to discard.
Characteristics of the products in the scope
Waste is generated in different lifecycle stages of textile apparel. Depending on that, waste can be classified
as (Huygens et al., 2023):
•
•
•
Post-industrial waste: waste generated during the manufacturing of textile products and their
precursors.
Pre-consumer waste: waste generated at retail stages (e.g. unsold textiles).
Post-consumer waste: textiles that have been disposed of after consumption and use by the
citizen or end-users of commercial and industrial activities (hotel, healthcare, etc.), commonly
referred to as household and commercial post-consumer textile waste, respectively.
Therefore, waste is relevant in different stages of the textile product value chain. There seems to be room for
improvement in the expected generation of waste. In terms of post-industrial waste, methods have been
developed to design textile apparel that minimises cutting waste and puts nearly all offcuts into production
(Niinimäki et al., 2020). Most of the leftover material from textile apparel manufacturing (post-industrial waste)
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ends up dumped or burned (Aus et al., 2021). It is technically feasible to increase the separate collection of
textile products, especially those with highly valuable materials. Directive 2008/98/EC requires Member States
to ensure the separate collection of textiles by 2025. Moreover, a proposal for a targeted revision of this
Directive is currently in co-decision and is expected to introduce more detailed collection and sorting
requirements and the establishment of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for certain textile and footwear
products in Member States.
Environmental aspects
The impacts from the fashion industry include over 92 million tonnes of waste produced per year, accounting
for up to 22% of mixed waste worldwide (Niinimäki et al., 2020). As mentioned in Section 3.3.2, the EU
generated in 2019 around 12.6 Mt of textile waste. Around 86% of that waste is post-consumer waste. The
current management of textile waste is considered suboptimal, as landfilling and incineration are the
predominant treatment methods (Solis et al., 2024), releasing harmful substances and contributing to global
warming, among other environmental impacts.
In Europe, on average 37% of textiles waste are separately collected (Amicarelli et al., 2022). The majority of
post-consumer waste that is separately collected is sent outside the EU as used products intended for re-use.
However due to the saturation of the global market for such used products many items are instead discarded
in third countries causing negative environmental and social impacts (Huygens et al., 2023).
Strategies aiming at reducing the amount of waste generated, or at increasing the amount of textile waste
collected and sorted at end of life, would have a significant benefit on the environment.
Socioeconomic
As pointed out in Section 5.6, the exports of used textiles from the EU reached 1 700 000 tonnes in 2019.
Usually, these products are exported to Africa for a first screening in local markets, then down-cycled into
industrial rags or filling, or re-exported to Asia for recycling. A significant amount of this waste ends up in Asian
and South American landfills.
Reducing the amount of waste that is sent to landfill could also stimulate the creation of jobs, related to the
collection, sorting and recycling of textiles.
The expected generation of waste is directly related with consumers. The apparent consumption of textile
apparel has doubled after the opening of the EU market to products coming from China, as explained in section
5.2. Section 6.4.1 already highlighted the main factors influencing disposal decisions (perceived quality being
one of the key aspects). Material defects, inappropriate size, loss of shape, or not liking the item, are also
important factors (Kleinhückelkotten et al., 2018b). Sharing with social circles, donating or swapping are
common ways to dispose of apparel no longer being used. Throwing away usable apparel is generally perceived
as a socially reproachable behaviour (despite this, large amounts of textile waste are still generated nowadays,
as pointed out above).
Qualitative assessment of relevance
Based on the above, expected generation of waste is considered a relevant product aspect in the context of
textile apparel.
10.9.2 Supporting information on parameters affecting the physical durability
Table 121
reports the main fibre characteristics playing a role in the physical durability of textile apparel.
Additionally,
Table 122
and
Table 123
report definitions of yarn and fabric characteristics and main process
parameters, respectively. This information supports the description of interlinks among several factors in the
textile apparel production.
Table 124
reports the influence of fibre characteristics on yarn and fabric characteristics.
Fibre length
influences the strength, smoothness, and uniformity of the fabric, with longer fibres enhancing the physical
performance of yarns and fabrics.
Fibre strength
is critical to the physical durability of the yarn and has a
direct impact on the ability of the textile apparel to withstand wear and tear.
Fibre fineness
is important for
producing finer yarns, which are essential for creating smoother, softer and more uniform products, enhancing
the texture, comfort and appearance of textile apparel.
Fibre elasticity,
which is the ability of fibres to return
to their original shape after stretching, is vital for the resilience and shape retention of the fabric. Additionally,
the type of fibre, whether natural or chemical, plays a significant role. More details are reported in
Table 124
.
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Fibre characteristics are largely influenced by various external factors.
Environmental conditions
such as
climate and soil characteristics significantly affect natural fibres, while the diet and health of animals impact
the characteristics of fibres like wool and silk.
Chemical exposures,
including pesticides and pollutants, can
degrade fibre characteristics. Additionally, the mechanical and chemical processing techniques used during fibre
production can alter their strength, elasticity, and overall integrity. Finally,
moisture and temperature during
the storage
of fibres plays a crucial role in preventing damage like mould growth or material degradation,
ensuring fibres maintain their desired properties (Hearle and Morton, 2008) (Mishra, 2000) (Rahman et al.,
2023).
Understanding the influence of fibre characteristics on yarn, processing and fabric is essential for optimizing
manufacturing processes and achieving desired textile performance and aesthetics.
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Table 121.
Description of the main fibre characteristics
Fibre
characteristic
Definition
The length of the individual
staple fibre
215
Description of natural fibres
Natural fibre lengths are generally categorised into:
Short (S)
–
Less than 25mm; Medium (M)
–
25-30mm; Long
(L)
–
30-37mm; and Extra Long Staple (ELS)
–
Over 37mm.
Description of chemical fibres
Chemical fibre lengths can be considered
continuous
Source
https://textileexchange.org/glossary/fibre-
length/
https://www.textilecoach.net/post/cotton-
fibre#:~:text=Short%20staple%20cotton%3A
%20%3E22mm%20and,staple%20cotton%3
A%20%E2%89%A534%20mm
https://www.fao.org/natural-fibres-
2009/about/15-natural-fibres/en/
Fibre length
The strength of an individual
fibre
Specific natural fibre lengths:
Silk
(continuous): 50 000 to 1 500 000 cm
Hemp:
average 182.88 cm
Flax:
up to 90 cm
Wool:
•
Fine wool: 3.8 to 12.7 cm
•
Medium wool 6.35 to 15.24 cm
•
Courser or long 12.7 to 38.1 cm
Cotton:
•
Very short-staple
cotton: ≤2.1 cm
•
Short staple cotton: >2.2 cm and
˂2.5
cm
•
Medium Staple cotton: >2.6 cm and
˂
2.8 cm
•
Ordinary long-staple cotton: >2.9 cm and
˂
3.4
cm
•
Extra-long
staple cotton: ≥3.4 cm
It is generally measured by tenacity, defined as the breaking force of the fibre divided by the weight of 1000
m of fibre (e.g. cN/tex
216
).
Minimum fibre strength =6 cN/tex is technically acceptable for spinning processes.
(Lamb, 2009)
https://textilelearner.net/properties-of-silk-
fibre/#:~:text=Tenacity%3A,Silk%20loses%20strength%
20on%20wetting.
https://omnexus.specialchem.com/polymer-
property/strength-at-break-tensile
(Rahman Khan et al., 2011)
Fibre strength
https://cmdgroup.in/physical-properties-of-fibres.php
https://old.swicofil.com/products/223polyamideimide.ht
ml
https://www.tp-industrial.com/files/specs-polyamide-
1.pdf
Significant breaking strengths of most used natural fibres
for textile apparel:
Hemp:
65.5-72.5 cN/tex
Silk:
29.1-42.3 cN/tex
Cotton:
15-40 cN/tex
Wool:
12-18 cN/tex
Flax:
7.37 cN/tex
Significant breaking strengths of most used
chemical fibres for textile apparel:
Polyamide:
65-82 cN/tex
Polyester:
35-60 cN/tex
Acrylic:
19.6-29.4 cN/tex
Viscose:
19.6 cN/tex
Acetate:
12.7 cN/tex
215
216
Considering that man-made fibres are assigned infinite length.
cN/tex= centi Newton / Tex is a unit allowing to qualify the elastic capacity of a textile or a yarn
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Fibre
characteristic
Definition
Refers to the degree of fibre
contamination
with
217
impurities
Description of natural fibres
Description of chemical fibres
Source
http://www.definetextile.com/
2013/04/fibre-
cleanliness.html
Fibre cleanliness
Impurities are classified into ranges and according to the impurities grade and are mainly common in natural
fibres, but they can appear in chemical fibres due to the treatment agents such as lubricants and oils in
chemical fibres production.
Range of impurities:
•
≥7 %-
Very dirty
•
4-7 %- Dirty
•
2-4%- Medium
•
1.2-2- Clean
•
≤1.2-
Very clean
Impurities grade (AFIS
218
):
•
≤15
µm-
Breathable dust
•
15-50
µm-
Micro dust
•
50-500
µm-
Dust
•
≥500
µm-Trash
Measures units of mass per unit of length to assess linear density (e.g. dtex
219
)
According to the classification of Sekhri
(Sekhri, 2016), fibre fineness can be classified as it follows:
•
Thick fibres >7 dtex
•
Semi-fine fibres: 7-2.4 dtex
•
Fine fibres: 2.4-1 dtex
•
Microfibres: 1-0.3 dtex
•
Super microfibres <0.3 dtex
The minimum fineness that the raw material
Hemp:
48.1–186.9 dtex
and technology permits obtaining for the
Wool:
3.5 dtex
conventional applications is presented below,
Flax:
1.39- 1.7 dtex
considering that the fineness can be increased
Cotton:
1.6 dtex
depending on the application:
Silk:
0.95-1.6 dtex
Polyester:
0.8-3 dtex (ultrafine or microfibre
0.55 dtex)
Polyamide:
minimum 1 dtex
Acrylic:
minimum 0.9 dtex
Viscose:
minimum 1.2 dtex
Acetate:
minimum 1.5 dtex
Determines the number of
fibres that can made up the
cross-section of a yarn with a
specific thickness.
http://www.definetextile.com/
2013/04/fibre-fineness.html
Fibre fineness
(Ramey,
2018)
(Fibre
Fineness - an overview |
ScienceDirect Topics, n.d.)
(Rahman Khan et al., 2011)
(Banale, 2017)
(Chapter 3. Fibre fineness and
transverse dimensions, 2008)
(Goudar and Kulloli, 2022)
217
218
219
The impurities may be natural from the cultivation process, but also generated by processing. Generally, impurities must be eliminated via a cleaning process.
AFIS (Advanced Fibre Information System)
dtex (deci-tex): Grams per 10.000 metres of yarn
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Fibre
characteristic
Fibre colour
Definition
The colour of the fibre affects
the ability of a yarn or fabric
to be to dyed or bleached.
Fibre stiffness refers to the
ability of a fibre to resist
deformation or bending when
subjected to a load
Description of natural fibres
Description of chemical fibres
Source
https://www.fao.org/natural-
fibres-2009/about/15-natural-
fibres/en/
Fibre stiffness
7834
7835
The performance of yarn during dyeing or bleaching is This does not apply to chemical fibres.
influenced by the natural colour of the fibre. This
characteristic is mainly relevant to natural fibres. The colour
of man-made fibres can be controlled during the production
process.
Commonly measured using parameters like Young's modulus or bending modulus, which characterise the
material resistance to deformation.
It depends on the fibre substance and the relationship between fibre length and fibre fineness:
•
The length of the fibre is proportional to the bending modulus.
The following relationship can be indicated:
•
Thick fibres are generally stiff, firm and wrinkle-resistant.
Fine fibres are soft, flexible and generate good drape.
(Ferrándiz et al., 2021)
Source: own knowledge and sources indicated in the table
Table 122.
Definitions of yarn and fabric characteristics
Intermediate
textile
product
Yarn
Characteristic
Definition
Source
Evenness
Hairiness
Strength
Appearance
Fabric
Handle
Lustre
Strength
Appearance
Drape
Smoothness
Softness
Breathability
Insulation
Anti-wrinkle
Yarn evenness refers to the uniformity of the yarn in terms of thickness and weight along its length.
Yarn hairiness refers to the presence and extent of fibre ends and loops protruding from the main body of the yarn.
Yarn strength refers to the ability of a yarn to withstand tensile forces without breaking.
Yarn appearance refers to the visual and physical characteristics of yarn, including diameter, hairiness, and defects, which
affect its performance and the physical durability of the final fabric.
Fabric handle refers to the tactile qualities of a fabric, encompassing its softness, smoothness, flexibility, and overall sensation
when touched, which contribute to its comfort and user experience
The visual aspect of a fabric or yarn that reflects light in a way that creates a shiny or glossy appearance.
Fabric strength can be defined as the ability of a fabric to withstand various forces and stresses without breaking or deforming
Fabric appearance encompasses the overall look and visual appeal of the fabric, which is influenced by factors such as weave
structure, yarn compactness, and finishing processes.
Fabric drape refers to how the fabric hangs in three dimensions, retaining its shape from when it is laid flat or adapting to
new contours.
Fabric smoothness refers to the fabric surface resistance to a sliding tangential force applied.
Fabric softness refers to the tactile sensation or comfort level experienced when touching or wearing a fabric.
Breathability in fabrics is the ability of water vapours to successfully permeate through that fabric via diffusion and,
henceforth, facilitate cooling via evaporation.
Fabric insulation refers to a fabric's ability to retain heat and provide warmth by reducing the transfer of heat from the body
to the surrounding environment.
Anti-wrinkle is a finishing method for textiles that prevents creases and wrinkles, enhancing the appearance of the articles.
(Elmogahzy, 2019)
(Elmogahzy, 2019)
(Elmogahzy, 2019)
(Tahvildar et al., 2019; Li et
al., 2020)
(Tahvildar et al., 2019; Li et
al., 2020)
(Kim et al., 2004)
(Mobarak Hossain, 2016)
(Tahvildar et al., 2019)
(Choudhary and Bansal,
2017)
(Mao et al., 2016)
(Ferrándiz et al., 2021)
(İnovenso Teknoloji Ltd.Şti
and Mustafa, 2023)
(Matusiak Malgorzata and
Sikorski Renata, 2011)
(Van den Bergen and Parker,
2023)
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Intermediate
textile
product
Characteristic
Definition
Source
Resistance
to
stains and water
7836
7837
Resistance to stains refers to the ability of a fabric to repel or prevent the absorption of various staining substances, thereby
maintaining its appearance and cleanliness over time.
Resistance to water, also known as water repellency, describes the capacity of a fabric to prevent water from penetrating its
surface, thus keeping the material dry and maintaining its structural integrity.
(Rowen and Gagliardi, 1947)
(Roy Choudhury, 2017)
Source:
AITEX’s knowledge and references reported in the last column
Table 123.
Definitions of main process parameters
Process parameter
Spinning method
Definition
The spinning method encompasses various techniques used to transform raw fibres into yarn. These methods involve processes that
draw out and twist the fibres, creating a continuous strand of yarn. For detailed descriptions of different spinners, refer to section 10.2.2.
The spinning limit defines the range of yarn counts achievable from a given fibre using a specific spinning system. It depends on the
number and thickness of individual fibres (for natural fibres) or filaments (for chemical fibres) twisted together.
Spinning productivity can be defined as the production of the finest yarn count from a given fibre ensuring acceptable performance and
minimising end breakage rates.
Twist level is defined by the number of turns per unit length (per inch or per meter) in a spun yarn. It describes yarn density.
The twist number quantifies the number of turns about its axis per unit length of a yarn or textile strand. It is expressed as turns per inch
(TPI), turns per meter (TPM), or turns per centimetre (TPCM).
Spinning tension represents the resistance or force applied to the yarn during the spinning process.
The speed of spinning defines the rate at which fibres are converted into yarn during spinning.
These fundamental movements in spinning:
Rolling: Rotation of fibres to align them,
Revolving: Circular motion of the spindle,
Twisting: Imparting twists to the fibres, resulting in yarn formation
Encompasses the life cycle stage for converting raw fibres into yarn.
It involves moistening the yarn using saturated steam or wet steam.
The spinning twist limit defines the upper range of yarn count achievable for a given fibre and spinning system, determining the maximum
fineness of yarn produced.
Maintaining optimal temperature and humidity levels is crucial. High humidity improves yarn properties, while excessive moisture can
lead to issues.
Dyeing involves applying colour to yarn or fabric.
The characteristics of components and machinery directly affects yarn production. Well-maintained, precise equipment ensures
consistent yarn properties.
Defect control focuses on minimising flaws in yarn, such as knots or irregularities, enhancing yarn desired performances, and reducing
waste.
Thread count refers to the number of yarns (threads) per unit length in woven fabrics, and it affects fabric density and texture.
The weight of fabric is determined by the total mass of yarn used per unit area, influencing fabric thickness and durability.
Sources
(Elmogahzy, 2019)
(Sinha
and
Chattopadhyay,
2007)
(Mahmoudi, 2010)
(Tyagi, 2010)
(Mobarak Hossain,
2016)
(Rahman et al.,
2023)
Spinning limit
Spinning Productivity
Twist level
Twists number
Spinning tension
Speed of spinning
Rolling, revolving, and
twisting movements
Yarn
manufacturing
process development
Conditioning (steaming)
Spinning twist limit
Temperature
humidity control
Dyeing process
Characteristics
components
machinery
Defects control
Thread count
Weight of fabric
and
of
and
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7838
7839
Process parameter
Weave pattern
Definition
The weave pattern describes how warp and weft yarns interlace to form fabric
Sources
Source: AITEX’s knowledge and references reported in the last column
Table 124
Influence of the fibre characteristics on yarn and fabric characteristics and parameters of manufacturing processes
Characteristic or parameter
Fibre length (
1
)
Yarn
evenness
increases
during
220
drafting
proportionally with
the fibre length.
Yarn
hairiness
decreases with the
increase of fibre
length.
Yarn
strength
increases
proportionally with
fibre length increase.
Fibre strength
Yarn
evenness
increases
proportionally with
the increase of fibre
strength
(smaller
extent).
Yarn
hairiness
decreases with the
increase of fibre
strength.
Fibre cleanliness
Fibre fineness
Yarn
evenness
increases
proportionally with
the increase of fibre
fineness. (
5
)
Yarn
hairiness
increases with the
increase of fibre
fineness. (
5
)
Fibre colour
Fibre stiffness (
2
)
Evenness
Hairiness (
3
)
Yarn characteristics
Strength
Appearance
Yarn
appearance
improves
with
the
increase
of
fibre
cleanliness. (
4
)
Twist limit decreases
with the increase of
fibre fineness, after
the optimal working
range.
Spinning
limit
increases
proportionally with
the increase of fibre
fineness.
Spinning productivity
increases with the
increase of fibre
fineness.
Twist limit
Spinning
limit
increases
proportionally with
the increase of fibre
length.
Spinning productivity
increases with the
increase of fibre
length.
Spinning
limit
increases
proportionally with
the increase of fibre
strength.
Spinning productivity
increases with the
increase of fibre
strength.
Yarn
manufacturing
(spinning) parameters
Spinning limit
Spinning
productivity
220
Drafting is the process of reducing the thickness of fibres to achieve specific fineness and strength for yarns (Rahman et al., 2023).
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Characteristic or parameter
Rolling,
revolving, and
twisting
movements
Spinning
process
development
Finishing
processes
parameters
Dyeing
Fibre length (
1
)
Fibre strength
Fibre cleanliness
Fibre fineness
Fibre colour
Fibre stiffness (
2
)
Spinning
process
improves
with
the
increase
of
fibre
cleanliness. (
4
)
Dyeing
process
efficiency decreases
with the increase of
fibre natural colour. (
6
)
Fabric
increases
increase
length.
Fabric
increases
increase
length.
softness
with the
of fibre
shininess
with the
of fibre
Fabric resistance to
tear
strength
increases with the
increase of fibre
strength.
Fabric
appearance
improves
with
the
increase
of
fibre
cleanliness. (
4
)
Fabric
drape
improves with the
increase of fibre
fineness.
Fabric
increases
increase
fineness.
Fabric
increases
increase
fineness.
softness
with the
of fibre
shininess
with the
of fibre
Spinning
worsens
increase
stiffness.
process
with
the
of
fibre
Handle
Luster
Fabric characteristics
Strength
Appearance
Drape
7840
7841
7842
7843
7844
7845
7846
7847
7848
(
1
) Most commonly related to natural fibres and mechanically recycled synthetic or other man-made fibres. It defines the spinnability of the fibre.
(
2
) A fibre that is too stiff has difficulty in adapting to process movements. The lower the springiness generates more creation of neps (entangled and knotted fibres generated by increased stiffness).
(
3
) Unwanted parameter
(
4
) Impurities generate a bad yarn drying, with broken ends increased, generating a worse appearance. Additionally, impurities interfere with the process development affecting the strength of the material to be
processed. Finally, impacts the appearance and physical characteristics of the fabric and finished product.
(
5
) A finer the fibre allows a multitude of fibres/filaments in the cross-section, allowing a better distribution in the yarn. Fibre fineness decreases after the optimal working range and yarn hairiness will increase.
(
6
) The intrinsic colour of the fibre interferes with the dyeing process.
Source: AITEX’s knowledge and
Figure 21
Yarn manufacturing,
the spinning process combining rolling, revolving and twisting movements, is defined by parameters that influence the final yarn characteristics.
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7849
7850
7851
7852
7853
7854
7855
7856
7857
Table 125
reports the effect of main process parameters on the characteristics of the yarn. The selection of the spinning method influences the evenness, softness and
strength of the yarns. Nevertheless, the twist level and number impact the strength and softness of the yarns. Controlling optimal spinning tension and speed is important
due to the impact on the strength of the yarn. Proper yarn conditioning has the potential to enhance characteristics such as flexibility, strength and evenness. Manufacturing
process parameters such as temperature and humidity control and the characteristics of components and machinery, completed with performance control, influence overall
the mechanical-related strength of the yarns.
Understanding and controlling these processing parameters enables manufacturers to customise yarn characteristics for precise end applications, like textiles for fashion
such as underwear, jackets, or accessories. Adjustments in these parameters can result in notable differences in yarn physical performance and durability, demonstrating
the importance of precise control and monitoring during the spinning process.
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7858
Table 125.
Influence of spinning parameters on yarn characteristics
Yarn
characteristics
Spinning
method
Air-Jet
Spinning
→
highly
uniform
yarns
Air-Jet
Spinning
→
highly
smooth
yarns
Ring
Spinning→
very high-
strength and
finer yarns
Rotor (Open-
End)
Spinning
→
bulkier yarns
with
reduced
strength
Air-Jet
Spinning
→
less durable
yarns
Twist level
Twists
number
Spinning
tension (
2
)
Constant
tension: uniform
yarn
Speed
spinning
of
Conditioning
(steaming)
Temperature and
humidity control
Characteristics
of components
and machinery
Defects control
Yarn evenness
Enhances
evenness
Enhances
flexibility
Yarn elasticity
Low Twist:
softer yarns
Yarn softness
Yarn strength
High Twist:
stronger
yarns
Yarn strength
increases with
twist to a peak
(
1
),
then
decreases.
Uneven Tension:
can
cause
breakages
during
subsequent
processing
Proper
humidity
prevents
static
electricity,
material
processing issues,
equipment
damage,
and
fabric shrinkage.
Higher Speeds:
can
cause
breakages
Enhances strength
High quality of the
machinery
produces
consistent yarns.
Ensures improved
efficiency, safety,
productivity, and
product
performance
Critical
for
maintaining high-
performance
standards
and
preventing
imperfections
in
yarn and fabric
7859
7860
7861
7862
7863
7864
7865
7866
(
1
) Optimal twist depends on fibre length, fineness, strength, and friction.
(
2
) Spinning tension: Essential for evaluating ring spinning machine performance.
Source: AITEX’s knowledge and
Figure 21
In the
fabric manufacturing,
the industry opts for either weaving or knitting techniques, depending on the intended use of the final products. The parameters involved in
weaving significantly impact the characteristics of the fabric. These are the yarn count, weight of fabric, and weave pattern, among others.
Table 126
reports the influence
of the main weaving parameters on the fabric characteristics. A higher thread count defines smoother, softer, and more breathable fabrics. Meanwhile, the weight of the
fabric improves the resistance to tear but decreases breathability and drape. Finally, the selection of the weave pattern impacts the resistance to tear and is done according
to the desired functionality, such as smoothness, anti-wrinkle, and resistance to stains and water.
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7867
Table 126.
Influence of weaving parameters on fabric characteristics
Fabric characteristic
Parameter
Type
Higher
number
threads
Heavier fabric
Plain
(eg.
Chiffon, organza)
Weave
(
3
)
pattern
Diagonal
twill)
Satin
(eg.
Increases fabric
smoothness
Increases fabric
smoothness
the
of
Smoothness
Increases fabric
smoothness
Softness
Increases fabric
softness
Breathability
Decreases fabric
breathability
Decreases fabric
breathability
Increases fabric
breathability
Increases
resistance to tear
Decreases fabric
resistance to tear
Increases fabric
anti-wrinkle
capacity
Increases fabric
resistance to
stains and water
Increases
resistance to tear
Increases
fabric
insulation
properties
Decreases
fabric
drape
Tear strength
Insulation
Anti-wrinkle
Resistance to
stains
and
water
Drape
Thread count (
1
)
Weight of fabric
(
2
)
7868
7869
7870
7871
7872
7873
7874
7875
7876
7877
(
1
) Generally, more important for fabrics intended to be used in contact with the skin (e.g. beddings, textile apparel). The optimal thread count can vary depending on the desired fabric use and feel, and sometimes
higher thread counts are achieved by using multiple-ply yarns, which can affect the fabric differently.
2
( ) The weight is influenced by the yarn's thickness and the tightness of the weave or knit. Generally more important for fabrics such as upholstery or drapery.
The fabric construction parameters, including weave pattern, yarn count, fabric thickness, and compaction, influence tear strength. Fabrics with denser weaves, higher yarn counts, and thicker constructions tend to
exhibit higher tear resistance.
The weight or mass of the fabric per unit area is indicative of fibre concentration and arrangement. Heavier fabrics with higher yarn density typically offer better tear strength. The denser packing of fibres in the
fabric structure increases resistance to tearing forces.
(
3
) Each weaving pattern offers unique characteristics that can be leveraged for specific applications, impacting not only the aesthetics of the fabric but also its performance in various uses
Source:
AITEX’s knowledge and
Figure 21
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7878
7879
7880
7881
7882
7883
7884
7885
7886
7887
7888
Table 127
reports the influence of finishing processes on fabric characteristics.
Fabric finishing
is a crucial
stage in manufacturing that imparts specific aesthetic and technical functionalities to the fabric.
Dyeing
plays
a significant role, as the choice of dye and dyeing technique can greatly influence colour fastness
(
221
),
hand
feel, colour depth, and evenness.
Table 65
reports information on the relationship between fibre type and dye
affinity.
Printing
affects the vibrancy of colours and the handle of the fabric.
Chemical finishing
imparts
various properties to the fabric, such as improved handle and repellency to water, oil, and stains, thereby
enhancing its physical durability. Mechanical finishing alters the fabric's physical properties, contributing to
smoothness or improving the handle, such as adding fluffiness.
Coating and laminating
processes are used
to enhance fabric performance by adding waterproofing capabilities and increasing breathability or resistance
to abrasion (Rahman et al., 2023).
Table 127.
Influence of finishing processes on fabric characteristics
Finishing process type
Dyeing
Printing
Chemical Finishing
Mechanical Finishing
Coating and Laminating
Primary
influence
on
fabric
characteristics
Colour depth, evenness, and fastness
Pattern precision, vibrancy, and hand feel
Functional properties like softness,
repellence
Physical properties like smoothness,
plushness
Protective and performance-enhancing
characteristics such as waterproofing,
breathability
7889
7890
7891
7892
7893
7894
7895
7896
7897
7898
Source: AITEX’s knowledge and
Figure 21
Three main components affect the physical durability during
confectioning
of the textile apparel: the sewing
physical characteristics, precision of cuts, and seam strength.
Sewing physical characteristics
include the
straightness of seams, consistency of stitch length, and the absence of skipped stitches. These affect both the
appearance and physical durability of the textile apparel. The
strength and type of seams
used in fabric
assembly determine the physical durability of the textile apparel and its ability to endure wear and stress.
Inadequately constructed seams may result in rapid deterioration.
Precise cutting
following patterns is
essential for ensuring that the textile apparel fits properly. Mistakes in cutting can result in poorly fitting textile
apparel, directly affecting consumer satisfaction (Rahman et al., 2023) (Elhawary, 2015b).
221
Colour fastness refers to the resistance of a fabric's colour to fading or running when exposed to various conditions, such as washing,
sunlight, rubbing, and perspiration
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7899
7900
10.9.3 Supporting information on test methods to describe the physical durability
Table 128.
Description of standardised test methods to assess key parameters of physical durability
Parameter
Abrasion
resistance
Testing method
ISO 12947-2:2016
222
Textiles
—
Determination of the
abrasion resistance of fabrics by
the Martindale method
Part 2: Determination of specimen
breakdown
ISO 13938-2:2019
223
(50cm
2
)
Textiles
—
Bursting properties of
fabrics. Part 2: Pneumatic method
for determination of bursting
strength and bursting distension
ISO 105-E03:2010
224
Textiles - Tests for colour
fastness - Part E03: Colour
fastness to chlorinated water
(swimming-pool water) (ISO 105-
E03:2010)
Short description of the scope of the test
It specifies a method for determining the abrasion resistance of textile fabrics using
the Martindale method, by determining when a textile fabric reaches breakdown by
inspecting it at regular intervals. It applies to all textile fabrics, including nonwovens,
except for fabrics with a specified low abrasion wear life.
These results help to determine the durability and longevity of the fabric when
subjected to repetitive friction.
It specifies a method for determining the bursting strength and expansion of textile
fabrics using a pneumatic method. When tested using a specimen size of 50 cm².
These measurements provide critical information about the fabric's resistance to
pressure and its ability to stretch before failing.
It specifies a method for determining the resistance of textile colours, on fabrics, to
active chlorine, like the concentrations used in swimming pool water for disinfection.
These grades indicate how well a fabric's colour resists fading and staining when
exposed to chlorinated water, which is crucial for textiles used in swimwear and
other water-related applications.
Type of result obtained
Number of rubs or cycles
The results are typically expressed as the Number of
Rubs or Cycles, which indicates the number of abrasion
cycles the fabric can withstand before showing
significant wear or damage.
Kilopascals (kPa)
The results are typically expressed as kilopascals (kPa),
indicating the pressure required to burst the fabric.
Grading scale
The results obtained from this test are typically
expressed as Colour Fastness Grade: This is assessed
using the Grey Scale for Colour Change and the Grey
Scale for Staining, which range from 1 to 5, where:
Grade 1: Very poor colour fastness.
Grade 2: Poor colour fastness.
Grade 3: Moderate colour fastness.
Grade 4: Good colour fastness.
Grade 5: Excellent colour fastness.
Percentage (%)
This percentage reflects the dimensional change, such
as shrinkage or stretching of the fabric after washing or
dry cleaning. The percentage change is calculated based
on the difference between the original and the post-
treatment dimensions.
Percentage (%)
When tested after one minute, the results are typically
expressed as extension at specified load: Measured in
Bursting
resistance
Colour fastness
to chlorinated
water
Dimensional
change
Elasticity
fabric
of
ISO 3759:2011
225
Textiles
—
Preparation, marking
and
measuring
of
fabric
specimens and textile apparel in
tests for determination of
dimensional change
ISO 20932-3:2018
226
Provides a method for preparing, marking, and measuring textile fabrics, textile
apparel, and fabric assemblies to test how they change in size after treatments like
washing, dry cleaning, soaking, or steaming. These treatments must follow
procedures from specific ISOs. It applies to woven and knitted fabrics and finished
textile articles but does not apply to certain upholstery coverings.
It specifies a method for determining the elasticity of textile fabrics using a cyclic
testing procedure. These results help to assess the fabric's ability to recover its
222
223
224
225
226
ISO 12947-2:2016 Textiles
—
Determination of the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method Part 2: Determination of specimen breakdown. Available at this
link.
ISO 13938-2:2019 Textiles
—
Bursting properties of fabrics Part 2: Pneumatic method for determination of bursting strength and bursting distension. Available at this
link.
ISO 105-E03:2010 Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness Part E03: Colour fastness to chlorinated water (swimming-pool water). Available at this
link.
ISO 3759:2011 Preparation, marking and measuring of fabric specimens and textile apparel in tests for determination of dimensional change. Available at this
link.
ISO 20932-3:2018 Textiles
—
Determination of the elasticity of fabrics Part 3: Narrow fabrics. Available at this
link.
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Parameter
Colour fastness
to artificial light
Testing method
Textiles
—
Determination of the
elasticity of fabrics Part 3: Narrow
fabrics
ISO 105-B02: 2014
227
Textiles
—
Tests for colour
fastness
Part B02: Colour fastness to
artificial light: Xenon arc fading
lamp test
Short description of the scope of the test
original shape after being stretched, which is important for applications where
elasticity and shape retention are critical.
It specifies a method for determining the colour fastness of textile fabrics to
artificial light: the Xenon arc fading lamp test, outlining a method for testing how
the colour of textiles, including white or bleached fabrics, reacts to artificial light
similar to natural daylight (D65). It allows the use of two different sets of blue wool
references, though the results from these references may vary.
These grades indicate how well a fabric's colour resists fading when exposed to
artificial light, which is crucial for maintaining textiles' appearance over time.
Pilling
resistance
ISO 12945-2:2020
228
(2000
cycles)
Textiles
—
Determination of fabric
propensity to surface pilling,
fuzzing or matting
Part 2: Modified Martindale
method
Tests of textiles' pilling resistance are typically expressed as pilling grade. This is a
visual assessment of the fabric surface after it has been subjected to 2000 cycles
of abrasion.
Colour fastness
to sea water
ISO 105-E02:2013
229
Textiles
—
Tests for colour
fastness
Part E02: Colour fastness to sea
water
It specifies a method for determining the colour fastness of textiles to sea water.
These grades indicate how well a fabric's colour resists fading and staining when
exposed to sea water, providing important information for textiles intended for
marine or coastal use.
Type of result obtained
percentage (%), this indicates the amount of stretch or
elongation that occurs when a specified load is applied
to the fabric.
Grading scale
The results are typically expressed as Colour Fastness
Grade: This is assessed using the Blue Wool Scale, which
ranges from 1 to 8, where:
Grade 1: Very poor light fastness.
Grade 2: Poor light fastness.
Grade 3: Moderate light fastness.
Grade 4: Fair light fastness.
Grade 5: Good light fastness.
Grade 6: Very good light fastness.
Grade 7: Excellent light fastness.
Grade 8: Outstanding light fastness.
Grading scale
The grading scale usually ranges from 1 to 5, where 1
indicates severe pilling and 5 indicates no pilling.
Grade 1: Severe pilling with dense pilling covering the
entire fabric surface.
Grade 2: Pronounced pilling with significant pilling
affecting a large area of the fabric.
Grade 3: Moderate pilling with noticeable pilling over a
moderate area of the fabric.
Grade 4: Slight pilling with some pilling visible but not
extensive.
Grade 5: No pilling with no visible pilling on the fabric
surface.
Grading scale
The results obtained from this test are typically
expressed as Colour Fastness Grade: This is assessed
using the Grey Scale for Colour Change and the Grey
Scale for Staining, which range from 1 to 5, where:
Grade 1: Very poor colour fastness.
Grade 2: Poor colour fastness.
Grade 3: Moderate colour fastness.
Grade 4: Good colour fastness.
227
228
229
ISO 105-B02:2014 Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness Part B02: Colour fastness to artificial light: Xenon arc fading lamp test. Available at this
link.
ISO 12945-2:2020 Textiles
—
Determination of fabric propensity to surface pilling, fuzzing or matting Part 2: Modified Martindale method. Available at this
link.
ISO 105-E02:2013 Textiles
—
Tests for colour fastness Part E02: Colour fastness to sea water). Available at this
link.
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Parameter
Seam
resistance
Testing method
ISO 13935-2:2014
230
Textiles
—
Seam
tensile
properties of fabrics and made-up
textile articles
Part
2:
Determination
of
maximum force to seam rupture
using the grab method
ISO 13934-1:2014
231
Textiles
—
Tensile properties of
fabrics
Part
1:
Determination
of
maximum force and elongation at
maximum force using the strip
method
ISO 15487:2018
232
Textiles
—
Method for assessing appearance
of apparel and other textile end
products after domestic washing
and drying
Short description of the scope of the test
It specifies a method for determining the seam strength of textile fabrics by using
the grab method, indicating methods for determining the maximum force of sewn
seams when force is applied perpendicularly, using the grab test. It primarily applies
to woven fabrics, including those with stretch characteristics, but may also apply to
other fabric types.
These measurements provide critical information about the strength of textile
fabrics, which is essential for ensuring the durability and performance of sewn
products.
This specifies a method for determining the maximum force and elongation at the
maximum force of textile fabrics using a strip method. It mainly applies to woven
fabrics, including those with stretch properties from elastomeric fibres, and
mechanical or chemical treatments.
Type of result obtained
Grade 5: Excellent colour fastness.
Newtons (N)
The results are typically expressed as Seam-Breaking
Force measured in Newtons (N); this indicates the force
required to break the seam.
Tensile strength
Newtons (N)
This value reflects the maximum force, which indicates
the highest force the fabric can withstand before
breaking.
Visual
inspection for:
(1)
Colour
change
(2) Pilling
(3) Trimmings
aspect
(4)
Self-
staining
It specifies a method for assessing the appearance of apparel and textile products
after one or more cleaning cycles. The evaluation includes factors such as colour
change, pilling, fuzzing, matting, fabric smoothness, seam appearance, retention of
pressed-increases, and damage to components like buttons or fasteners. It applies
to any washable textile product, regardless of fabric construction, as supplied by the
manufacturer.
7901
Grading scale
The grading scale usually ranges from 1 to 5, where 1
indicates severe distortion or damage, and 5 indicates
no visible distortion or damage.
Grade 1: Severe distortion or damage, significant loss
of fabric integrity.
Grade 2: Pronounced distortion or damage, noticeable
but not severe.
Grade 3: Moderate distortion or damage, visible but not
significantly affecting the fabric's usability.
Grade 4: Slight distortion or damage, minimal and only
noticeable upon close inspection.
Grade 5: No visible distortion or damage, fabric
maintains its original appearance.
Source: cited standards
230
231
232
ISO 13935-2:2014 Textiles
—
Seam tensile properties of fabrics and made-up textile articles Part 2: Determination of maximum force to seam rupture using the grab method. Available at this
link.
ISO 13934-1: 2014 Textiles - Tensile properties of fabrics - Part 2: Determination of maximum force using the grab method. Available at this
link.
ISO 15487:2018 Textiles
—
Method for assessing appearance of apparel and other textile end products after domestic washing and drying. Available at this
link.
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7902
7903
10.9.4 Supporting information on maintenance
Table 129.
Comparison of international labelling systems
Characteristic
International
Care Labelling
System
(Ginetex)
233
GINETEX
ASTM Care
Labelling
System
234
ASTM
International
United States
Washing,
Bleaching, Drying,
Ironing,
Professional Care
Fahrenheit (with
some symbols
using Celsius)
Text required
alongside
symbols
Tumble drying
symbols with
specific
temperature
settings
Canadian Care
Labelling
System
235
Canadian General
Standards Board
(CGSB)
Canada
Washing, Bleaching,
Drying,
Ironing, Professional
Care
Celsius and
Fahrenheit
Text required
alongside symbols
(bilingual: English
and French)
Tumble and natural
drying symbols
British Care
Labelling
System
236
British
Standards
Institution (BSI)
United Kingdom
Washing,
Bleaching,
Drying, Ironing,
Professional
Care
Celsius
No text required
Japanese Care
Labelling
System
237
Japanese Industrial
Standards (JIS)
Japan
Washing, Bleaching,
Drying,
Ironing, Professional
Care
Celsius
Text is often
included for clarity
Unique symbols for
indoor/outdoor and
natural drying
Australian
Care Labelling
System
238
Standards
Australia and
ACCC
Australia
Washing,
Bleaching,
Drying, Ironing,
Professional
Care
Celsius
Text required
alongside
symbols
Tumble and line
drying symbols
China Care
Labelling System
239
ISO Care
Labelling
System
240
International
Organization for
Standardization
(ISO)
Global (especially
for export
procedures)
Washing,
Bleaching, Drying,
Ironing,
Professional Care
Celsius (with some
flexibility for
export)
No text required,
but can include text
for clarity
Similar to GINETEX;
focuses on export
needs
Governing Body
China National Textile
and Apparel Council
(CNTAC)
China
Washing, Bleaching,
Drying, Ironing,
Professional Care
Celsius
Text required
alongside symbols
(Chinese characters)
Symbols for tumble
drying and line drying,
with specific
instructions for
sunlight exposure
Region
Primary Symbols
Global
Washing,
Bleaching, Drying,
Ironing,
Professional Care
Celsius
No text required
Temperature
Units
Text
Requirement
Drying Symbols
Includes natural
and tumble drying
symbols
Natural and
tumble drying
symbols
233
234
Complete information about International Care Labelling System (Ginetex) available
here.
Complete information about ASTM Care Labelling System available
here.
235
Complete information about Canadian Care Labelling System available
here.
236
Complete information about British Care Labelling System available
here.
237
Complete information about Japanese Care Labelling System available
here.
238
Complete information about Australian Care Labelling System available
here.
239
Complete information about Chinese Care Labelling System available
here.
240
Complete information about ISO Care Labelling System available
here.
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Characteristic
Bleaching
Symbols
Ironing Symbols
International
Care Labelling
System
(Ginetex)
233
Basic symbols for
chlorine and non-
chlorine bleach
Dots indicating
heat level
Basic dry cleaning
and wet cleaning
symbols
Universal symbols
for easy
understanding
Voluntary but
widely adopted
ASTM Care
Labelling
System
234
Detailed symbols
for bleach types
Dots indicating
heat level
Detailed symbols
for professional
care
Text and symbols
for detailed
instructions
Mandatory
compliance with
FTC regulations
Canadian Care
Labelling
System
235
Specific symbols for
non-chlorine bleach
Dots indicating heat
level
Basic symbols for
dry and wet cleaning
Symbols with
bilingual text
(English/French)
Mandatory under the
Canadian Textile
Labelling Act
British Care
Labelling
System
236
Similar to
GINETEX
Dots indicating
heat level
Similar to
GINETEX
Universal
symbols to
minimize
language
barriers
Voluntary but
widely followed
in Europe
Japanese Care
Labelling
System
237
Specific symbols for
bleach types,
including traditional
care
Dots with additional
instructions
Detailed symbols
including specific
letters for different
cleaning methods
Uses both symbols
and text, considering
Japanese consumers
Mandatory for
domestic
manufacturers
Australian
Care Labelling
System
238
Similar to
GINETEX
Dots indicating
heat level
Similar to
GINETEX
Uses both
symbols and
text
Mandatory
compliance with
Australian
Standards
China Care
Labelling System
239
ISO Care
Labelling
System
240
Basic symbols for
chlorine and non-
chlorine bleach
Dots indicating
heat level
Basic dry cleaning
and wet cleaning
symbols
Universal symbols
for global
understanding
Voluntary for
global
standardization
Professional
Care Symbols
Language and
Accessibility
Specific symbols for
chlorine and non-
chlorine bleach, with
detailed instructions
Dots indicating heat
level, with additional
instructions on steam
use
Detailed symbols
including specific
letters for different
cleaning methods
Symbols with
accompanying text in
Chinese for clarity
Mandatory compliance
under Chinese
standards
Legal
Requirements
7904
7905
7906
Source: own production
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7907
7908
7909
7910
7911
7912
7913
10.9.5 Supporting information on repairability
This section reports a simple analysis of professional repair prices against the prices of the new items of textile
apparel.
Table 130
reports the interval of the relative repair price in EU, which takes into account the price
intervals of some repair operations carried out by professional repairers and the price intervals of some new
items. The analysis shows that repairing an item of textile apparel could be many times more expensive than
buying a new item.
Table 130.
Comparison between price of professional repair operations and price of new items of textile apparel
Priority
part
Fabric
Failure type
Repair price
(EUR)
Min
Max
3
8
9
24
Items of textile apparel
New item price
(EUR)
Min
Max
3
2
6
7
1
3
3
3
8
3
2
6
7
1
3
3
3
8
3
2
6
7
1
3
3
3
8
3
2
6
7
1
3
22
41
90
589
19
66
90
85
74
22
41
90
589
19
66
90
85
74
22
41
90
589
19
66
90
85
74
22
41
90
589
19
66
Relative repair
price (%)
Min
Max
14
20
9
1
42
12
9
9
11
36
7
3
1
16
5
3
4
4
14
7
3
1
16
5
3
4
4
14
2
1
0
5
2
300
1 200
400
343
2 400
800
800
800
300
800
2 550
850
729
5 100
1 700
1 700
1 700
638
1 700
1 600
533
457
3 200
1 067
1 067
1 067
400
1067
400
133
114
800
267
Fabric
breakdown
Pilling
T-Shirts
Apparel accessories
Dresses, Skirts & Jumpsuits
Jackets & Coats
Leggins, stockings, tights
and socks
Pants & Shorts
Shirts & Blouses
Sweaters and midlayers
Swimsuits
T-Shirts
Stains
3
51
Apparel accessories
Dresses, Skirts & Jumpsuits
Jackets & Coats
Leggins, stockings, tights
and socks
Pants & Shorts
Shirts & Blouses
Sweaters and midlayers
Swimsuits
T-Shirts
Seam
Hole(s) in
seams
3
32
Apparel accessories
Dresses, Skirts & Jumpsuits
Jackets & Coats
Leggins, stockings, tights
and socks
Pants & Shorts
Shirts & Blouses
Sweaters and midlayers
Swimsuits
T-Shirts
Trim
Buttons
1
8
Apparel accessories
Dresses, Skirts & Jumpsuits
Jackets & Coats
Leggins, stockings, tights
and socks
Pants & Shorts
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Priority
part
Failure type
Repair price
(EUR)
Min
Max
Items of textile apparel
New item price
(EUR)
Min
Max
3
3
8
3
2
6
7
1
3
3
3
8
3
90
85
74
22
41
90
589
19
66
90
85
74
22
Relative repair
price (%)
Min
Max
1
1
1
5
15
7
1
32
9
7
7
8
27
267
267
100
267
1 600
533
457
3 200
1 067
1 067
1 067
400
1 067
Shirts & Blouses
Sweaters and midlayers
Swimsuits
T-Shirts
Zips
6
32
Apparel accessories
Dresses, Skirts & Jumpsuits
Jackets & Coats
Leggins, stockings, tights
and socks
Pants & Shorts
Shirts & Blouses
Sweaters and midlayers
Swimsuits
T-Shirts
7914
7915
7916
7917
Prices are reported without VAT. Repair price were sourced from websites reported in
Table 131
.
�������������������������������� ������������������������ �������������������� (%) =
�������������������� �������� ������������������������
�������������������� �������� ������������ ���������������������������� ����������������������������
∗ 100
Source: own elaboration based on (Cooper and Claxton, 2022c) and Statista (
241
).
Table 131.
Repair shops and dry cleaners consulted for the analysis reported in
Table 130
Type
Repair shop
Country
Spain
Romania
Link
https://arreglosderopabarcelona.es/tarifas-precios-arreglos-ropa/
https://www.pepevera.com/lista_precios
https://www.croitoriepentrutoti.ro/preturi/
https://www.urbanwash.ro/images/lista-croitorie-arad.pdf
https://atelierdecroitorie.ro/servicii-si-preturi
https://www.atelier-croitorie.com/lista-preturi-croitorie-retus
https://paulhenrytailoring.ie/alterations-dublin
https://www.masterarnes.se/skr%C3%A4dderi.html
https://www.jeansverket.se/en/jeans/repairs/
https://secondsunrise.se/pages/repairs
https://endelea.it/pages/wear-again-textile apparel-restoration-hub
https://tintoreriasronsel.es/tienda/precios-tarifas-y-promociones-de-
tintoreria/
https://ecoclean.ro/preturi/
https://www.elisse.ro/preturi-spalatorie-haine.html
https://www.extraclean.ro/preturi-curatatorie-spalatorie-calcatorie-haine-
bucuresti/
Ireland
Sweden
Italy
Spain
Romania
Dry cleaners
7918
7919
Source: reported websites
241
Statista. Available at
this link.
Last accessed 8 August 2024.
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7920
Final blank page
369