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Antonella Vastola

Editor

The Sustainability of

Agro-Food and Natural

Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean

Basin

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The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural

Resource Systems in the Mediterranean Basin

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ThiS is a FM Blank Page

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Antonella Vastola

Editor

The Sustainability of Agro-

Food and Natural Resource

Systems in the Mediterranean

Basin

URU, Alm.del - 2020-21 - Bilag 67: Henvendelse af 3/12-20 fra Martin Toft vedr. foretræde om chia frø

Editor

Antonella Vastola

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and

Environmental Science (SAFE)

University of Basilicata

Potenza, Italy

ISBN 978-3-319-16356-7

ISBN 978-3-319-16357-4

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015937597

(eBook)

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

The Editor(s) (if applicable) and the Author(s) 2015. The book is published with open access at

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Preface

This book focuses on the challenges to implement sustainability in diverse contexts

such as agribusiness, natural resource systems and new technologies. The project

arose from the editor’s experience during the International Edamus M.Sc. course on

“economics of quality for sustainable development”—the School of Agricultural,

Forestry, Food and Environmental Science (SAFE), University of Basilicata, is a

partner of the Edamus Mundus Programme. The exchange of ideas and the expe-

rience with students from all continents led to the idea to gather in one volume the

experiences of researchers at the SAFE of the University of Basilicata in Southern

Italy.

Basilicata’s production system is mainly based on the agricultural sector and

exploitation of natural resources. However, in recent years, it has witnessed indus-

trial development driven by the discovery of oilﬁelds. SAFE research took up the

challenge posed by market competition to create value through the sustainable use

of the region’s renewable and non-renewable resources. Moreover, due to its unique

geographical position in the middle of the Mediterranean basin, Basilicata is an

excellent ﬁeld laboratory for testing sustainable solutions adaptable to other Med-

iterranean areas.

The book offers a broad, multidisciplinary approach to identifying and testing

different solutions tailored to the economic, social and environmental characteris-

tics of the region and the surrounding areas. The volume is a collection of multidis-

ciplinary case studies involving SAFE researchers and their scientiﬁc partners. It is

intended as a stimulating contribution to the debate on the development of sustain-

able techniques, methods and applications for the Mediterranean regions. Last, but

not least, a global event like Expo 2015 represents a unique opportunity to present

the volume.

The book consists of three parts, with agro-food systems examined in Part I,

natural resource systems and the environment in Part II and new technologies in

Part III.

The ﬁrst part includes the case studies related to experiences in the agro-food

system. The ﬁrst article addresses food security in the southern Mediterranean,

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Preface

providing readers with an overview of important factors to achieve more inclusive,

integrated and efﬁcient food systems. Thus, after setting the scene, the next two

articles deal with crop production from the twin angles of sustainability and healthy

food production. The next ﬁve articles are case studies related to livestock produc-

tion typical of the Mediterranean including goats, sheep but also buffaloes and

Podolian cattle. The focus is on a more sustainable rearing method but also on

enhancing the products obtained from the milk of these species; the last article in

this group describes the innovative uses of donkey milk. This is followed by two

studies dealing with sustainable agricultural practices in protecting traditional crops

in southern Italy from disease: the cherry tomato and the PGI-labelled Sarconi bean.

To follow, there is the experience of the Turkish Cypriot community’s adoption of

pomegranate farming. Last, but not least, is a contribution on the role of women in

the wine industry.

The second part explores issues relevant to the sustainability of natural resource

systems and the environment. The ﬁrst four case studies analyse the effects of

climate change and the use of non-renewable resources in relation to the region of

Basilicata. Of considerable interest is the case study on the allocation of oil

royalties from the presence of oilﬁelds that have to coexist with the extensive

agricultural and forestry resources of the region. The next article addresses the

role of soil variability on potential groundwater pollution and recharge in a Med-

iterranean agricultural watershed. The last three articles discuss biodiversity from

original standpoints such as the use of native grasses for turfgrass, hypogeous fungi

and the role of grazing for biodiversity conservation on a Nature 2000 network site.

The third part pools experiences in the use of new technologies such as geo-

graphical information systems as a tool for landscape modelling and three-

dimensional analysis; satellite technologies to apply precision farming; technolo-

gies for extending the shelf life of fresh fruit and vegetables; cost-effective and

non-invasive geophysical techniques for near-surface investigation; the use of

electrolysed water as the disinfecting agent in the food industry.

I wish to thank my colleagues Michele Perniola and Severino Romano, as former

and current SAFE Head, who believed in and supported the idea and its execution. I

would like also to thank all the authors, with special thanks going to Aysen and

Fabio who joined the team despite everything. Finally, I would like to express my

gratitude to Fabio Massimo and Nicolo for their unwavering encouragement and for

sharing the “sunny and cloudy” moments during the realisation of this book.

Potenza, Italy

January, 2015

Antonella Vastola

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Introduction

Sustainability and Sustainable Development:

The Background and the Current Perspectives

The roots of the concept of sustainability can be found, according to various

scholars, in two contributions, both published in 1972: a book by Meadows et al.,

namely

The Limits to Growth,

which modelled the dynamics of the human presence

on the planet, and an article by Goldsmith et al.,

A Blueprint for Survival,

which

forecast “the

breakdown of society and the irreversible disruption of the life-

support systems on this planet”

without profound social changes. Both agreed

that “if

current trends are allowed to persist”

(Goldsmith et al. ibidem) the actual

growth model is bound to collapse within a century and that a consensus has to be

found at the global level involving governments, the private sector and public

opinion leaders. Such statements underline the fact that sustainability, deﬁned

literally as the ability to maintain or support and, more broadly, as the ability to

continue a certain behaviour indeﬁnitely, can be used as a key concept for the

deﬁnition of development models to be pursued.

Since the 1980s the term

sustainability

has been applied to the human capacity to

live on the planet. It was the energy crisis in the 1970s which underlined the

fragility of global economic development, after which awareness of sustainability

issues began to grow slowly. In 1987, the UN World Commission on Environment

and Development (WCED), commonly known as the Brundtland Commission,

gave in its report

Our Common Future

the ﬁrst—and most widely quoted—ofﬁcial

deﬁnition of sustainable development, which “.

. .

is development that meets the

needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet

their own needs”.

This broader deﬁnition emphasises the importance of people’s

aspirations for a better life, of global preservation and the essential relevance of

future generations to the goals of current actions.

From this deﬁnition there emerged the widely accepted idea that sustainable

development is based on three pillars: economic, social and environmental.

vii

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viii

Introduction

Economic sustainability concerns the capacity of an economy to support a certain

level of economic production. Environmental sustainability is the ability of the

environment to support a certain level of natural resource extraction rates. Finally,

social sustainability is related to the ability of a social context to function at a

certain level of social well-being and harmony.

At this point, a ﬁnal remark has to be made to clear the ﬁeld for all the following

considerations that will be based, directly or indirectly, on the concept of sustain-

able development. Indeed, as many scholars have noted, the Brundtland Commis-

sion did not deﬁne sustainability but stated a deﬁnition of sustainable development

as the “solution” to the problem of sustainability.

In 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, the UN Conference on Environment and Development

deﬁned the so-called Agenda 21, which is a broad action plan to implement

sustainable development on a global, national and local level with the widest

involvement of local stakeholders. Agenda 21 included 40 separate chapters, setting

out actions related to the social and economic dimensions of sustainable develop-

ment (e.g. poverty, health, demographics), conservation and management of natural

resources (e.g. air, forest, water, chemicals), strengthening the role of major groups

(e.g. women, young people, the elderly, NGOs, farmers) and means of implemen-

tation (e.g. information, training, international cooperation, ﬁnance).

In 2001, the UNESCO’s Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity added a

fourth pillar: culture, as an element that shapes economic development and people’s

behaviour. The UNESCO initiative is twofold: one side focuses on the development

of the cultural sector itself (e.g. creativity, cultural tourism, heritage), while the

other deals with the proactive role that culture should have in shaping public

policies—ﬁrst of all, those regarding education followed by the environment,

science and so forth.

In more recent years, due in particular to the ﬁnancial crisis that has had global

repercussions, albeit of different intensity between countries and industries, the

concept of sustainable development as well as the set of tools to approach it has

changed. In 2005, the UN World Summit which led to the deﬁnition of the

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) restated that development is a central

goal in itself and that sustainable development calls for a convergence between the

three pillars of economic development, social equity and environmental protection.

The driving principles are: reducing poverty and hunger, improving health and

well-being and creating sustainable production and consumption patterns.

The literature underpinning the MDGs identiﬁed a series of requirements for

sustainable development: equity, poverty alleviation, a better use of non-renewable

resources and integrating economic, environmental and social issues in decision

making. Finally, a last but not least consideration—while the challenge of sustain-

able development is a shared one, countries have to adopt different strategies to

advance sustainable development goals.

Given that the MDGs are only valid until 2015, in 2012 the Rio+20 Conference

with the report

The Future We Want

proposed a set of sustainable development

goals (SDGs) that updated MDGs to the 2015–2030 scenario.

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Introduction

Box 1. Sustainable Development Goals—The

Future We Want

Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and

promote sustainable agriculture.

Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-

long learning opportunities for all.

Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanita-

tion for all.

Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy

for all.

Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full

and productive employment and decent work for all.

Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable

industrialisation and foster innovation.

Goal 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.

Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and

sustainable.

Goal 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

Goal 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources

for sustainable development.

Goal 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosys-

tems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertiﬁcation and halt and

reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.

Goal 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable develop-

ment, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and

inclusive institutions at all levels.

Goal 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global

partnership for sustainable development.

Recent years have witnessed a rising global alert due to the steady increase of

global warming, mainly caused by increases in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

generated by production systems as well as lifestyle models with too high an impact

on the environment. Rio+20 reafﬁrmed that the ultimate objective under the United

Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is to stabilise GHG concen-

trations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic

interference with the climate system.

The stable functioning of earth systems is a precondition for a decent level of

global development. This means that for the SDGs to be feasible, they have to take

into account the effects of increasing human pressure on the planet (the human

population is expected to top nine billion by 2050), like water shortages, extreme

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Introduction

weather, deteriorating conditions for food production, ecosystem loss, ocean acid-

iﬁcation and sea level rise. These are real dangers that could threaten development

and trigger humanitarian crises across the globe (Griggs et al. 2013).

A criticism of the system proposed by SDGs is the large number of goals, rising

from six MDGs to 17 SDGs. This would not appear to simplify the framework of

measures adoptable. This consideration holds especially if one thinks of the set of

indicators that must be put in place. Indeed, another criticism levelled at the

MDG/SDG complex is the appropriateness of indicators measuring actions and

hence the assessment of their effectiveness. Managing the sustainable development

process requires a much strengthened evidence base and the development and

systematic use of robust sets of indicators and new ways of measuring progress.

Taking into account these considerations, Griggs and colleagues (2013) proposed to

set a medium-term horizon and some provisional targets (less ambitious than the

SDGs) to accomplish. Results achieved with respect to these targets should be

quantiﬁed in order to review them and to achieve the expected results in 2030.

It seems that the latest UN Secretary-General’s synthesis report

The Road to Dignity

by 2030

(2014) is going in the above-mentioned direction. In presenting the vision for

the post-2015 sustainable development agenda, the 17 goals have been rearranged in a

focused and concise manner that enhances the necessary global awareness and allows

implementation at the country level. The report proposes a set of six essential elements

underpinned by rights, with people and the planet at the centre.

Box 2. Sustainable Development Goals—The

Road to Dignity by 2030

1. Dignity: to end poverty and ﬁght inequality.

2. People: to ensure healthy lives, knowledge and the inclusion of women and

children.

3. Prosperity: to grow a strong, inclusive and transformative economy.

4. Planet: to protect our ecosystems for all societies and our children.

5. Justice: to promote safe and peaceful societies and strong institutions.

6. Partnership: to catalyse global solidarity for sustainable development.

Given this scenario, the basic commitment is related to the capacity to act with

solutions that lead to an inclusive growth for all countries and all communities.

Particular attention is given to planetary needs in terms of climate stability,

biodiversity loss and unsustainable land use. This means that, to implement a

sustainable agenda, ﬁnance, technology, science and investments in capacities

should be included, while to monitor and review implementation, the report pro-

poses the use of new and non-traditional data sources, enhancing data capacity,

availability, disaggregation, literacy and sharing.

Since the beginning of the new millennium, as evidenced by the above framework,

the concept of sustainable development has been closely linked to that of well-being.

In the last decade the economic crisis has affected all countries, albeit to a varying

degree. This has shown that the measurement of welfare or well-being cannot be

reduced to a single indicator such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Many scholars

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Introduction

and international organisations have been involved in drawing up a measure that does

not use only economic performance to assess the wealth and social progress of a

country. Although this issue lies somewhat beyond the scope of this analysis, it is

instructive to see that it is closely linked to sustainability. In its ﬁnal remarks, the

Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress

(CMEPSP)—generally referred to as the Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi Commission (created

in 2008 on the French government’s initiative)—did not identify a new indicator but,

on the contrary, drafted a set of 12 recommendations (Stiglitz et al. 2009), three of

which deal with sustainability: (1) GDP is “an inadequate metric to gauge well-being

over time particularly in its economic, environmental and social dimensions, some

aspects of which are often referred to as

sustainability”

(ibidem, p. 8); (2) environ-

mental sustainability—including the destruction of resources and the risks of climate

change—is a component of growth; (3) well-being has a multidimensional nature

which involves material living standards (income, consumption and wealth) but also

health, education, the quality of governance, social networks, the environment (pre-

sent and future conditions) and insecurity (economic and physical aspects).

Sustainability in the Agro-Food System

Agriculture has a vital role to play as the planet’s food provider, but it also uses a

wealth of non-renewable resources. This makes it one of the best ﬁelds to study the

application of sustainable development.

Given the current high levels of hunger and malnutrition—805 million chroni-

cally hungry people in the period 2012/2014—and increasing food demand—over

nine billion people will have to be nourished in 2050—the challenge for agricul-

tural production coincides with the goals of sustainable development. Food security

is achieved “when

all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic

access to sufﬁcient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and

food preferences for an active and healthy life”

(FAO 1996).

The linkage between the goal of food security and the path towards a sustainable

development model is evident: in order to achieve a decent level of nutrition for all

people, responsible environmental stewardship is required as well as greater equity

in food management. This applies to agricultural and food systems at global,

national and local levels.

A recent FAO report states “sustainable

agriculture must nurture healthy ecosys-

tems and support the sustainable management of land, water and natural resources,

while ensuring world food security. To be sustainable, agriculture must meet the

needs of present and future generations for its products and services, while ensuring

proﬁtability, environmental health and social and economic equity. The global

transition to sustainable food and agriculture will require major improvements in

the efﬁciency of resource use, in environmental protection and in systems resilience”

(FAO 2014). The above-mentioned report sets out ﬁve key principles that balance the

social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability: (1) improving

efﬁciency in the use of resources; (2) conserving, protecting and enhancing natural

ecosystems; (3) protecting and improving rural livelihoods and social well-being;

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xii

Introduction

(4) enhancing the resilience of people, communities and ecosystems and (5) promot-

ing good governance of both natural and human systems.

As emphasised in the FAO reports and by several other international institutions,

the different components of sustainability cannot be considered separately because

they are strongly interrelated and need to be analysed using an integrated, holistic

approach given the complexity of agro-food systems. This means considering the

close interdependence of different aspects of food production and consumption.

A review of different reports about the sustainable path of agro-food systems

suggests that, regardless of the perspective of the analysis, the main goals of a

sustainable agro-food system concern: (a) sustainable production systems;

(b) sustainable consumption guidelines; (c) biodiversity protection; (d) combating

climate change; (e) developing local economies and small-scale production. Last

but not least, each goal must be set and pursued as part of an overall strategy that

takes all the other elements into account simultaneously.

Without exploring every single goal in depth, it would be useful to highlight

some of their aspects. Given that the food production model concerns both indus-

trial production as well as small and medium-scale production systems, sustainable

food production is facing a challenge that can be summarised with the statement “in

order to grow, agriculture must learn to save”

(FAO 2013a). This means that, given

the increasing food demand, the effects of climate change and the competition for

resources such as land water and energy, farmers around the world have to look at a

new paradigm: sustainable crop production intensiﬁcation (SCPI) which “produces

more from the same area of land while conserving resources, reducing negative

impacts on the environment and enhancing natural capital and the ﬂow of ecosys-

tem services”

(FAO ibidem). An example of this paradigm is conservation agricul-

ture, which minimises tillage, protects the soil surface and sows crops in rotations

that enrich the soil; moreover, it helps to reduce water needs by 30 % and energy

costs by up to 60 %. With regarding to water management, the SCPI paradigm

requires the use of precision technologies for irrigation and farming practices that

use ecosystem approaches to conserve water. To increase crop productivity, a best

practice is minimisation of chemical fertilisers, given the impact that nitrates and

phosphates have in terms of GHGs.

Today more than ever the paradox of food is increasingly evident: on the one

hand, there are people who are overweight or obese—2.1 billion across the world—

and whose social cost is $2 trillion each year, and on the other there are one billion

people suffering from hunger and another two billion suffering from micronutrient

deﬁciencies. In all countries, especially in the developed world, and in those that are

experiencing new conditions of well-being, a sustainable consumption model must

be developed from the concept of sustainable diets.

Box 3. Sustainable Diets

Sustainable diets are those diets with low environmental impacts, which

contribute to food and nutrition security and to healthy lives for present and

(continued)

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Introduction

xiii

future generations. Sustainable diets are protective and respectful of biodi-

versity and ecosystems, culturally acceptable, accessible, economically fair

and affordable; nutritionally adequate, safe and healthy, while optimising

natural and human resources (FAO 2010).

The spread of a food model that is based on sustainable diets allows the

conservation of biodiversity to be enhanced through the raw materials that are

used as ingredients. Moreover, it can provide nutrient recommendations to con-

sumers and have positive effects on their awareness vis--vis the positive repercus-

sions of an environmentally sustainable food chain.

The last, but not the least, effect of the above-mentioned food paradox is the

increasing phenomenon of food losses and waste. Recent estimates indicate that

each year approximately one-third of all food produced for human consumption in

the world is lost or wasted (FAO 2013b). The phenomenon occurs in both high- and

low-income countries. In the ﬁrst case, the food is largely wasted at the consump-

tion stage while in low-income countries, it is lost mostly during the early and

middle stages of the food supply chain.

Food waste represents an evident inefﬁciency and a missed opportunity to

improve global food security, but also to mitigate environmental impacts and

resource use. Given that the food and agriculture sectors together generate 30 %

of total GHGs, appropriate solutions have to be found. In developed countries,

programmes are under way to increase consumer awareness of food waste and

energy use in food products, as well as regulations mandating reductions in organic

waste management. In low-income countries, options include promoting low-cost

farm storage facilities as well as upgrading transport and processing facilities

(FAO 2011).

The search for better food chain efﬁciency is another key element of the

sustainable development model. The importance of logistics systems, their man-

agement and how they can improve sustainability lies at the heart of the recent

concept of green logistics. The premise is that optimisation of logistic operations

across the supply chain has positive results in terms of: reduction of post-harvest

losses, savings in energy, reduction of the environmental footprint and more

competitive market positioning. In order to remain competitive, agro-food agents

need rapid access to emerging technologies and, in addition, to be proﬁtable their

activities have to meet environmental standards and regulations, as well as deal,

directly or indirectly, with consumers.

To deﬁne the elements of sustainability and a framework for assessing trade-offs

and synergies among all dimensions of sustainability, an international reference

tool has been developed, the Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture

system (SAFA). SAFA is an assessment of economical, environmental, social and

governance sustainability. The ﬁeld of application is the entire food supply chain

from the site of primary production (agriculture, ﬁsheries, forestry) to the retail

outlet. Its main purpose is to support effective sustainability management of a

company or production site.

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xiv

Introduction

The SAFA framework identiﬁes four dimensions of sustainability: good gover-

nance, environmental integrity, economic resilience and social well-being. For each

of these four dimensions, SAFA outlines essential elements of sustainability

through 21 high level themes (Fig. 1). These are applicable at any level of

development, for instance at the national level, or commodity-speciﬁc. The themes

are further divided into 58 sub-themes that are tailored to food and agriculture

supply chains and thus are not well suited for policy development (FAO 2013c).

Fig. 1

SAFA sustainability pillars and themes (FAO 2013)

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Introduction

The different types of indicators within the SAFA system have varying weight in

terms of their likelihood to fulﬁl the sub-theme objective. The SAFA system has a

ﬁve-scale rating for the performance of indicators to which colours are attributed:

red/orange/yellow/green/dark green are used, respectively, for unacceptable/lim-

ited/moderate/good/best levels of performance, corresponding to percentage scores

from: 0–20/20–40/40–60/60–80/80–100. The SAFA sustainability performance

ratings of a company are represented by the polygon (the thick black line) that

connects theme performance following a trafﬁc light colour code: best/good

(green), needs improvement (yellow/orange) or unacceptable (red) as illustrated

in Fig. 2.

The SAFA methodology is partly rooted in international metrics such as ISO

14040 (2006), the standard for Life Cycle Assessment (ISO 2009), and the ISEAL

Code of Good Practice. The SAFA system provides a framework for improving the

understanding of what a sustainability claim covers in practice and for comparing

different production systems. It is also a useful quality assessment tool to identify

performance of hotspots related to all aspects of sustainability within a company.

Fig. 2

SAFA sustainability polygon (FAO 2013)

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xvi

Introduction

Some ﬁnal considerations have to be made on the cost of shifting to a more

sustainable production model. As experienced in recent decades, the trade-offs

between achieving a certain level of well-being, food security goal and environ-

mental objectives often result in a negative-sum game, because of inappropriate

policies and inadequate governance systems. On the production side, major costs

are those including investments and operating expenses, but also opportunity costs

related to income loss during the transition phase. The problem of delayed returns

on investments is a signiﬁcant barrier to achieving sustainability across all sectors.

Risk and transaction costs are other signiﬁcant elements during the transition to

more sustainable systems. Transaction costs are those related to each stage of the

business—e.g. transportation, communication and coordination activities. Various

studies have reported that sustainable production systems require more coordina-

tion activities, for example in managing common-property natural resources, or in

coordinating post-harvest, processing, storage and marketing activities. Natural

market risks—e.g. volatility, the prices of raw materials, the supply of energy

resources, sudden and catastrophic climate events—impact on most of the variables

that affect the path towards sustainability.

The consumption system is facing a similar set of costs. The cost concerning the

uncertainty of the quality of the goods purchased is of particular importance. Often

the communication of sustainability features of the good is not effective and is

made less efﬁcient by the large number of claims that emphasise the “greening” of

many products and which often deceive the consumer. A dietary model that

considers the cradle-to-grave scenario has to be linked to the investment costs for

the technology for disposal or re-use but also the cost of public action in terms of

information. Finally, the effects of these behaviours are veriﬁable only in the

medium-long run, which may cause a degree of disaffection of the consumer/citizen

in continuing with equitable action.

Antonella Vastola

School of Agricultural, Forestry

Food and Environmental Science

University of Basilicata

Potenza, Italy

References

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FAO (2010) Report of international scientiﬁc symposium on biodiversity and

sustainable diets, Rome, 3–5 Nov 2010

FAO (2013a) Towards sustainable food systems: multistakeholder engagement for

action

FAO (2013b) Food wastage footprint. Impacts on natural resources

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Introduction

xvii

FAO (2013c) SAFA—sustainability assessment of food and agriculture systems.

Guidelines version 3.0

FAO (2014) Post 2015 and SDGs—nourishing people, nurturing the planet. Issue

papers. 14 Themes, Dec 2014

Goldsmith E, Allen R, Allaby M et al (1972) A blueprint of survival. Ecologist

2 (1):1–43

Griggs D et al (2013) Sustainable development goals for people and planet. Nature

495, 305–307

Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U, van Otterdijk R, Meybeck A (2011)

Global food losses and food waste, extent, causes and prevention. FAO, Rome

Meadows DH, Meadows DL, Randers J et al (1972) The limits to growth. Universe

Books, New York, NY

Stiglitz JE, Sen A, Fitoussi JP (2009) Report by the commission on the measure-

ment of economic performance and social progress

United Nations (2005) World summit outcome—resolution adopted by the general

assembly A/RES/60/1

United Nations General Assembly (2014) The road to dignity by 2030: ending

poverty, transforming all lives and protecting the planet—synthesis report of the

secretary-general on the post-2015 sustainable development agenda. A/69/700

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ThiS is a FM Blank Page

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Contents

Part I

Agro-Food Systems

Food Security in the Southern Mediterranean/North Africa

. . . . . . . . .

Aysen Tanyeri-Abur

Sustainability in Cereal Crop Production in Mediterranean

Environments

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Michele Perniola, Stella Lovelli, Margherita Arcieri, and Mariana Amato

Innovative Crop Productions for Healthy Food: The Case of Chia

(Salvia

hispanica

L.)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rocco Bochicchio, Tim D. Philips, Stella Lovelli, Rosanna Labella,

Fernanda Galgano, Antonio Di Marisco, Michele Perniola, and

Mariana Amato

The Hidden Costs of Livestock Environmental Sustainability:

The Case of Podolian Cattle

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ada Braghieri, Corrado Pacelli, Andrea Bragaglio, Emilio Sabia,

and Fabio Napolitano

Feeding, Nutrition and Sustainability in Dairy Enterprises:

The Case of Mediterranean Buffaloes (Bubalus

bubalis)

. . . . . . . . . . . .

Emilio Sabia, Fabio Napolitano, Salvatore Claps, Ada Braghieri,

Nicoletta Piazzolla, and Corrado Pacelli

Sustainability of Sheep and Goat Production Systems

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mariangela Caroprese, Marzia Albenzio, and Agostino Sevi

The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products

as a Tool for Sustainability and Safeguard of the Mediterranean

Environment

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Adriana Di Trana, Lucia Sepe, Paola Di Gregorio, Maria A. Di Napoli,

Daniela Giorgio, Anna R. Caputo, and Salvatore Claps

xix

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Contents

Innovative Use of Jenny Milk from Sustainable Rearing

. . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Carlo Cosentino, Rosanna Paolino, Mauro Musto, and Pierangelo Freschi

Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Disease Defence of Traditional

Crops in Southern Italy: The Case Study of Tomato Cherry

Protected by

Trichoderma harzianum

T-22 Against

Cucumber

Mosaic Virus

(CMV)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Antonella Vitti, Adriano Sofo, Antonio Scopa, and Maria Nuzzaci

Development of Integrated Disease Control Measures for the

Valorisation of Traditional Crops in Southern Italy:

The Case Study of

Fagioli di Sarconi

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Pietro Lo Cantore, Annalisa Giorgio, Bruno Campion,

and Nicola Sante Iacobellis

Sustainable Climate Change Adaptations in Developing Countries:

A Case Study of the Turkish Cypriot Community’s Adoption of

Pomegranate Farming

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Clare M. Finnegan and Omer Gokcekus

The Role of Women in the Sustainability of the Wine Industry:

Two Case Studies in Italy

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Graziella Benedetto and Gian Luigi Corinto

Part II

Natural Resource Systems and Environment

The Effects of Climate Change on the Multifunctional Role

of Basilicata’s Forests: The Effects Induced on Yield and CO

Absorption

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Severino Romano, Luigi Fanelli, Mauro Viccaro, Francesco Di Napoli,

and Mario Cozzi

Wildlife Agriculture Interactions, Spatial Analysis and Trade-Off

Between Environmental Sustainability and Risk of Economic

Damage

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Mario Cozzi, Severino Romano, Mauro Viccaro, Carmelina Prete,

and Giovanni Persiani

The Sustainability of Non-renewable Resources Use at Regional Level:

A Case Study on Allocation of Oil Royalties

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Mauro Viccaro, Benedetto Rocchi, Mario Cozzi, and Severino Romano

Land Use Sector Involvement in Mitigation Policies Across Carbon

Markets

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Severino Romano, Simone Targetti Ferri, Gennaro Ventura,

Francesco Di Napoli, and Mario Cozzi

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Contents

xxi

Evaluating the Role of Soil Variability on Potential Groundwater

Pollution and Recharge in a Mediterranean Agricultural Watershed

. . . 255

Antonio Coppola, Alessandro Comegna, G. Dragonetti,

and Lorenzo De Simone

Grazing and Biodiversity Conservation: Highlights on a Natura 2000

Network Site

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Pierangelo Freschi, Mauro Musto, Rosanna Paolino, and Carlo Cosentino

Evaluation of Native Grasses for Sustainable Turfgrass in the

Bioclimatic Mediterranean Region

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Simonetta Fascetti, Giovanna Potenza, Vincenzo Candido,

Donato Castronuovo, Leonardo Rosati, Michele Perniola, Stella Lovelli,

Roberto Viggiani, and Vito Marchione

Biodiversity of Hypogeous Fungi in Basilicata

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Gian Luigi Rana, Stefania Mirela Mang, and Ippolito Camele

Part III

New Technologies

New Technologies for the Sustainable Management and Planning

of Rural Land and Environment

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

Pietro Picuno, Carmela Sica, Alexandra Dimitrijevic, Alfonso Tortora,

Rocco Luigi Capobianco, and Dina Statuto

Processing Plants and Technologies for a Sustainable Mediterranean

Food Chain

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Francesco Genovese, Giuseppe Altieri, Naouel Admane, Ivan Salamon, and

Giovanni Carlo Di Renzo

Geophysical Techniques for Plant, Soil, and Root Research Related

to Sustainability

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

Giovanni Bitella, Roberta Rossi, Antonio Loperte, Antonio Satriani,

Vincenzo Lapenna, Michele Perniola, and Mariana Amato

Satellite Technologies to Support the Sustainability of Agricultural

Production

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

P D’Antonio, C D’Antonio, V Doddato, and M Mangano

Electrolysed Water in the Food Industry as Supporting

of Environmental Sustainability

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Maria Antonietta Colangelo, Marisa C. Caruso, Fabio Favati, Teresa Scarpa,

Nicola Condelli, and Fernanda Galgano

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List of Contributors

Naouel Admane

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza (PZ), Italy

CIHEAM – Istituto Agronomico Mediterraneo di Bari (IAMB), Valenzano (BA),

Italy

Marzia Albenzio

Department of the Sciences of Agriculture, Food and Environ-

ment (SAFE), University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

Giuseppe Altieri

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza (PZ), Italy

Mariana Amato

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza (PZ), Italy

Margherita Arcieri

School of Agriculture, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Science, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Graziella Benedetto

Department of Science for Nature and Environmental

Resources, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy

Giovanni Bitella

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza (PZ), Italy

Rocco Bochicchio

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza, Italy

Andrea Bragaglio

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed

Ambientali, Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Ada Braghieri

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali,

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Ippolito Camele

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

xxiii

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xxiv

List of Contributors

Bruno Campion

CRA, Unita di Ricerca per l’Orticoltura, Montanaso Lombardo,

LO, Italy

Vincenzo Candido

School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Pietro Lo Cantore

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed

Ambientali, Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Rocco L. Capobianco

Province of Matera, Matera, Italy

Anna R. Caputo

CRA-ZOE, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in

Agricoltura, Unita di Ricerca per la Zootecnia Estensiva, Muro Lucano, Potenza,

Italy

Mariangela Caroprese

Department of the Sciences of Agriculture, Food and

Environment (SAFE), University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

Marisa C. Caruso

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Donato Castronuovo

School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Salvatore Claps

CRA-ZOE, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in

Agricoltura, Unita di Ricerca per la Zootecnia Estensiva, Muro Lucano, Potenza,

Italy

Maria Antonietta Colangelo

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Envi-

ronmental Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Alessandro Comegna

School of Agricultural Forestry Food and Environmental

Sciences (SAFE), University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Nicola Condelli

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Antonio Coppola

Department of European and Mediterranean Cultures-

Architecture, Environment, Cultural Heritage (DiCEM), Hydraulics and Hydrology

Division, University of Basilicata, Matera, Italy

Gian Luigi Corinto

Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism,

University of Macerata, Macerata, Italy

Carlo Cosentino

School of Agricultural, Forest, Food, and Environmental

Sciences (SAFE), University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Mario Cozzi

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

C. D’Antonio

School of Agricultural, Forestry and Environmental Sciences,

University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

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List of Contributors

xxv

P. D’Antonio

School of Agricultural, Forestry and Environmental Sciences,

University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Lorenzo De Simone

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control

(ECDC), Surveillance and Response Unit (SRS), Solna, Sweden

Paola Di Gregorio

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed

Ambientali (SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Antonio Di Marisco

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed

Ambientali (SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza,

Italy

Francesco Di Napoli

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Maria A. Di Napoli

CRA-ZOE, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in

Agricoltura, Unita di Ricerca per la Zootecnia Estensiva, Muro Lucano, Potenza,

Italy

Giovanni Carlo Di Renzo

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed

Ambientali (SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza

(PZ), Italy

Adriana Di Trana

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Alexandra Dimitrijevic

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Beograd

– Zemun, Serbia

V. Doddato

School of Agricultural, Forestry and Environmental Sciences,

University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

G. Dragonetti

Land and Water Division, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute,

IAMB, Bari, Italy

Luigi Fanelli

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Simonetta Fascetti

School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Fabio Favati

Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy

Simone Targetti Ferri

Universita degli studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Clare M. Finnegan

School of Diplomacy and International Relations, Seton Hall

University, South Orange, NJ, USA

Pierangelo Freschi

School of Agricultural, Forest, Food, and Environmental

Sciences (SAFE), University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Fernanda Galgano

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed

Ambientali (SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza,

Italy

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xxvi

List of Contributors

Francesco Genovese

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed

Ambientali (SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza

(PZ), Italy

Annalisa Giorgio

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali,

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Daniela Giorgio

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Omer Gokcekus

School of Diplomacy and International Relations, Seton Hall

University, South Orange, NJ, USA

Nicola Sante Iacobellis

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed

Ambientali, Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Rosanna Labella

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza, Italy

Vincenzo Lapenna

CNR-IMAA Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. Istituto di

Metodologie per l‘Analisi Ambientale, Potenza, Italy

Antonio Loperte

CNR-IMAA Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. Istituto di

Metodologie per l‘Analisi Ambientale, Potenza, Italy

Stella Lovelli

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza, Italy

Stefania Mirela Mang

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

M. Mangano

School of Agricultural, Forestry and Environmental Sciences,

University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Vito Marchione

Department of Agricultural and Environmental Science, Univer-

sity of Bari, Bari, Italy

Mauro Musto

School of Agricultural, Forest, Food, and Environmental Sciences

(SAFE), University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Fabio Napolitano

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali,

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Maria Nuzzaci

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Corrado Pacelli

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali,

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Rosanna Paolino

School of Agricultural, Forest, Food, and Environmental

Sciences (SAFE), University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

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List of Contributors

xxvii

Michele Perniola

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali

(SAFE), Universita degli Studi della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Potenza, Italy

Giovanni Persiani

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Tim D. Philips

Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky,

Lexington, KY, USA

Nicoletta Piazzolla

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed

Ambientali, Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Pietro Picuno

SAFE School of Agriculture, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Freschi Pierangelo

School of Agricultural, Forest, Food, and Environmental

Sciences (SAFE), University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Giovanna Potenza

School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Carmelina Prete

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Gian Luigi Rana

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Benedetto Rocchi

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Severino Romano

Universita degli studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Paolino Rosanna

School of Agricultural, Forest, Food, and Environmental

Sciences (SAFE), University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Leonardo Rosati

School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Roberta Rossi

CRA-SCA Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l’analisi

dell’economia agraria – Unita di Ricerca per i sistemi colturali degli ambienti

caldo-aridi, Bari, Italy

Emilio Sabia

Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Unita

di Ricerca per la Zootecnia Estensiva (CRA-ZOE), Muro Lucano, Potenza, Italy

Ivan Salamon

Faculty of Humanities and Natural Sciences, Department of

Ecology, University of Presov, Presov, Slovak Republic

Antonio Satriani

CNR-IMAA Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. Istituto di

Metodologie per l‘Analisi Ambientale, Potenza, Italy

Teresa Scarpa

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Antonio Scopa

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental Sci-

ences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

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xxviii

List of Contributors

Lucia Sepe

CRA-ZOE, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in

Agricoltura, Unita di Ricerca per la Zootecnia Estensiva, Muro Lucano, Potenza,

Italy

Agostino Sevi

Department of the Sciences of Agriculture, Food and Environment

(SAFE), University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

Carmela Sica

SAFE School of Agriculture, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Adriano Sofo

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Dina Statuto

SAFE School of Agriculture, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Aysen Tanyeri-Abur

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome,

Italy

Alfonso Tortora

SAFE School of Agriculture, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Gennaro Ventura

Universita degli studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Mauro Viccaro

Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Roberto Viggiani

School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

Antonella Vitti

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental

Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

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Part I

Agro-Food Systems

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Food Security in the Southern

Mediterranean/North Africa

Aysen Tanyeri-Abur

Abstract

The Southern Mediterranean, comprising the ﬁve countries of North

Africa, has become increasingly dependent on food imports over the past few

decades. High levels of population growth, a variable and arid climate along with

scarce and fragile resources are contributing factors. Volatile food prices and

political changes in the past few years have exacerbated the problems related to

food import dependence, threatening food security. Addressing food security will

require sustainable improvement of productivity, better management of natural

resources, improved allocation of private and public resources to agriculture, and

actions to achieve more inclusive, integrated, and efﬁcient food systems.

1 Introduction

Throughout history, the southern Mediterranean has been a major food producing

region, and during the ﬁrst and second centuries, the region is said to have provided

a large portion of the food consumption in Rome (Kehoe

1988;

Rickman

1980).

During the sixteenth century, grains, rice, and legumes such as fava beans and

chickpeas were exported from Egypt through the Nile across the Mediterranean.

The Mediterranean has never been a region of abundance and glut, but it has

adapted skillfully to circumvent its deﬁciencies in production (Braudel

1990).

Over time, a combination of climatic and environmental changes, population

growth and changes in the political and economic environment have transformed

the region into one that is highly dependent on imports to satisfy its basic food

needs, particularly in cereals.

The ﬁve countries of the Southern Mediterranean

(hereafter SM) cover an area

of 5.8 million km

—almost 68 % of the total area of the Mediterranean basin

The views expressed in this chapter are those of the author and do not necessarily reﬂect the views

or policies of FAO.

For more on the environmental history of the region, see Davis

2007

(pp. 1–15).

Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia.

A. Tanyeri-Abur (

)

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_1

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Table 1

Population (in millions) in the Mediterranean (1960–2012)

2012

Total

Mediterranean basin (total)

Northern and eastern Mediterranean

Southern Mediterranean (North Africa)

486.1

317.4

168.7

1960

Total

249.8

192.6

57.3

A. Tanyeri-Abur

Rural

164.3

87.9

76.4

Rural

130.4

92.8

37.6

Change

1960–2012 (%)

Total

Rural

À6

Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) (2014)

(which includes 23 countries

)—and have a population of nearly 169 million

(2012), a third of the total population of the Mediterranean region (see Table

1).

The SM comprises three large countries, Algeria (alone almost four times the size

of France), Egypt, and Libya. Egypt has the highest population followed by Algeria

and Morocco, with high concentrations in urban/coastal areas (or along the Nile in

the case of Egypt

), in higher altitudes, and in areas with favorable climate.

Economic inequalities persist between the regions within countries due to past

policies with a strong urban bias and historical concentration of wealth in economic

centers located in coastal areas. Signiﬁcant differences in economic and natural

resources exist across the countries in the subregion. Algeria and Libya rely on rich

oil and mineral endowments, while the other three countries are more dependent on

agriculture.

The subregion is characterized by an arid climate with highly variable agricul-

tural production. It has strong trade linkages with the Northern and Eastern Med-

iterranean, but investment in agriculture remains low, with lower productivity and

capital intensity compared to Northern Mediterranean countries. This chapter pro-

vides a brief overview of the economic and demographic characteristics of the SM

region, identiﬁes the major challenges for food security and related problems, and

proposes areas of priority action to tackle food insecurity.

2 The Southern Mediterranean/North Africa

2.1

General Characteristics

The countries of North Africa are all considered middle income countries with GDP

per capita varying from about US$6,000 in Libya to US$3,000 in Morocco. The

percentage of the total population living in rural areas has increased in absolute

Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy,

Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia,

Turkey, West Bank, and Gaza.

95 % of Egypt’s population lives within 12 km of the Nile and half of the population lives in the

Nile delta (UNDP

2009).

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Food Security in the Southern Mediterranean/North Africa

Table 2

Evolution of total and rural population in North African countries

1960

Algeria

Total population

Rural population

Egypt

Total population

Rural population

Libya

Total population

Rural population

Morocco

Total population

Rural population

Tunisia

Total population

Rural population

Total

Total population

Rural population

Source: FAOSTAT

11.3

7.8

27.9

17.4

1.4

1.0

12.4

8.7

4.21

2.6

57.3

37.6

1960 Rural population

(% of total)

2012

38.5

12.0

80.7

46.1

6.2

1.3

32.5

13.4

10.8

3.6

168.7

76.4

2012 Rural population

(% of total)

69 %

31 %

62 %

57 %

71 %

21 %

70 %

41 %

62 %

34 %

65.7 %

45 %

Table 3

Economic and demographic indicators (2012)

Population

(total)

2012

(million)

Algeria

Egypt

Libya

Morocco

Tunisia

Total

38.5

80.7

6.2

32.5

10.8

168.7

Population

(rural)

2012 (%

of total)

31.1

56.9

22.1

41.3

33.7

44.1

Annual

pop

growth

rate 2012

(%)

1.9

1.6

0.8

1.5

% female of

economically

active

population in

agriculture

52.6

40.6

73.3

48.7

32.9

45.1

GDP/cap

(current

US$)

5,272

2,973

5,685

3,044

4,305

Agriculture

value-added

(% GDP)

9.9

14.5

n/a

14.4

9.2

11.8

Employment

in agriculture

(% of total)

25.7

29.2

n/a

39.8

16.2

Source: FAOSTAT and World Development Indicators (WDI) (2014)

numbers but has decreased considerably in recent decades in terms of percentage of

total population. Population living in rural areas represents nearly a third of total

population on average with the exception of Egypt where more than half of the

population lives in rural areas (Table

2).

The majority of the rural population of

North Africa is engaged in agriculture and farming involved directly or indirectly.

Agriculture is an important economic and social plan in the subregion employing

more than a quarter of the population in the countries of the region, with a high

concentration of females (Table

3).

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Table 4

Migrant remittances

(receipts), US$ current

(millions)

1989–1991

Algeria

Libya

Morocco

Tunisia

310

–

1778

509

1999–2001

750

9.5

2453

828

A. Tanyeri-Abur

2009–2011

2015

6591

1965

Source: UNCTADstat

As in many developing countries, the subregion is characterized by continuous

population growth, despite a slight decline in recent years; the growth rate tends to

be higher than in other regions. The proportion of youth in the population of the

region is signiﬁcant, ranging from 25 to 28 % (Population Reference Bureau), and

their integration into the labor market is increasingly difﬁcult. The population of the

region has more than doubled in the last ﬁve decades (Table

1).

The share of agriculture in GDP has declined steadily over the years. Even in

Morocco and Egypt, where agricultural activity is most important, it represents less

than 20 % of GDP. Agriculture, however, still employs a signiﬁcant share of the

subregion’s population and is the main source of employment in rural areas,

particularly for women who represent between half- and nearly three-quarters of

the economically active population in agriculture in most of the countries (it is only

in Tunisia, where the proportion of women in the agricultural labor force is about

30 %) (Table

3).

The population of migrants from the region is numerous and accounted for about

10 % of the total population of the Maghreb

in 2010. Remittances from migrants

have a fairly signiﬁcant economic impact for the countries of the subregion. Despite

the global economic environment, remittances have continued to increase in recent

years. In 2011, migrant remittances accounted for 7 % of the GDP of Morocco and

4 % in and Tunisia accounted for approximately US$10.6 billion in average for the

period 2009–2011 (Table

4).

2.2

Agriculture and Natural Resources

The SM region has a diverse resource base but faces constant pressure from

population growth and national development activities—a situation that renders

the countries very vulnerable to climate hazards. Much of the subregion is desert or

semi-desert: between 75 % and 90 % of the territory of Egypt, Algeria, and Libya,

the proportion of agricultural land is low (less than 10 % in Libya and less than 5 %

in Egypt), while in Morocco and Tunisia, it is over 60 % (Table

5).

Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia.

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Food Security in the Southern Mediterranean/North Africa

Table 5

Agriculture indicators (2012)

Agricultural

land (% of

total)

Algeria

Egypt

Libya

Morocco

Tunisia

17.4

3.7

8.8

67.3

63.0

Area equipped for

irrigation (% of total

agricultural area)

1.4

100

3.0

4.9

4.5

Arable land with

permanent crops (% of

total agricultural area)

20.4

21.7

13.2

30.1

50.4

Value added

in agriculture

(% GDP)

6.9

15.5

1.9

15.1

8.8

Source: FAOSTAT

Table 6

Renewable water resources per person (cubic meters/year)

1963–1967

Algeria

Libya

Morocco

Tunisia

976

369

2,174

992

1983–1987

528

157

1,302

631

1998–2002

382

115

1,008

481

2008–2011

331

912

438

2011 (% of 1963)

Source: United Nations Environment Programme (2013)

Agriculture continues to occupy a prominent place in the countries of the SM

both at the level of its value-added in GDP, employment, and exports of goods (the

participation of agriculture varies depending on the existence of exports of petro-

leum and energy products or not). Agriculture is also important in its role in rural

development, environmental protection and regional balance. The agricultural

sector is a refuge sector in rural areas: it provides many jobs to rural people, it is

the main source of income, it contributes greatly to the preservation of the envi-

ronment, and it is a catalyst for development.

Because of the arid climate, irrigation is an essential factor in productivity, but

despite numerous projects the share of irrigated agricultural land does not exceed

5 %, between 1 and 3 % in Libya and Algeria (Table

5).

The Maghreb countries

enjoy a variable climate with higher altitudes and rainfall and rely on dryland

agriculture to a large extent, while agriculture in Egypt is 100 % irrigated. Water

resources are constantly and rapidly declining due to population and economic

growth, and the subregion suffers from severe water stress with an estimated water

supply of less than 500 m

per capita except for Morocco (Table

6).

This lack is

compounded not only by recurrent droughts that severely affect the region but also

by the pressure on water resources coming from large-scale industries of agricul-

tural and animal products. Adaptation to water scarcity include many projects but

success is limited due to weak capacity of institutions and resource planning, and

efforts for better management of water have produced only limited effects so far.

Along with water scarcity and desertiﬁcation, there are also problems such as

deforestation and rangeland degradation, especially important for the region, given

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A. Tanyeri-Abur

Table 7

Value of livestock production as percent of total value of agricultural production in

North Africa (2011)

Value of livestock production (as % of total value of ag. production)

Algeria

Egypt

Libya

Morocco

Tunisia

Source : FAOSTAT

36 %

42 %

40 %

44 %

22 %

the importance of the livestock sector in all these countries. The livestock sector has

a diverse agricultural ecosystem and a unique geographical position, two key

factors for the development of this sector. Livestock plays an important role in

the Maghreb economy where it represents more than a third of the value of

agricultural production and contributes the ﬁght against poverty as a source of

employment and cash incomes for rural farmers. Structural problems also arise,

such as the fragmentation of farms (average farm size is around 10 ha in Tunisia and

Algeria, and Morocco over 70 % has less than 5 ha). Finally, ﬁsheries and forests

provide badly or insufﬁciently exploited potentials (Table

7).

3 Challenges and Problems Related to Food Security

Although differences exist among the countries of the SM regarding economic and

social conditions and resource endowments, they share the same challenges in

ensuring food security of their populations, including (1) scarce and fragile natural

resources and climatic hazards (2) high rates of growth of the population with a

particularly young population (3) a decline in public investment and weak private

investment in agriculture and rural development.

These challenges are at the root of the problems that the region must address to

improve the performance of the agricultural sector as a step toward improving food

security. Main problems to overcome are high rates of import dependency, low

levels of agricultural investment, and addressing the problem of a growing young

population with increasingly older population in rural areas. Low productivity and

high variability of agricultural production comes largely from heavy reliance on

systems based on rainfall. In addition, limited investments in agriculture have kept

the limited agricultural performance with much lower yields than other regions.

These problems related to production accompanied by a change in cereal demand

structure in the last two decades (increased demand for grain for feeding livestock)

increased the gap between supply and demand of cereals, resulting in heavy

dependence on imports to meet domestic demand.

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Food Security in the Southern Mediterranean/North Africa

3.1

Dependence on Food Imports

Figure

depicts the evolution of demand for four staple crops in the SM region

against production. The annual variability of production is quite pronounced, and

the gap between total demand and production has continued to increase.

Cereals are staple food in North Africa. The proportion of energy intake from

cereals, roots and tubers is about 55 % (FAO

2013).

As incomes increase, the share

of cereals is expected to decline, but continue to be important in the local diet.

Increasing urbanization and changes in dietary practices will also mean an increase

in demand for cereals, particularly for feed. The countries in the region are heavily

dependent on imports, particularly cereals. Import dependency

ratios are high

compared to the rest of the Mediterranean countries, ranging from 93 % in Libya

to 40 % in Egypt (Table

8).

Fig. 1

Production and demand for cereals 1960–2011. Source: FAOSTAT

Table 8

Import dependency ratios, North Africa and the Mediterranean basin

Import dependency ratio (%) 2008–2010

Algeria

Egypt

Libya

Morocco

Tunisia

Southern Mediterranean

All Mediterranean

North and eastern Mediterranean

66.1

40.4

92.7

47.4

54.4

49.6

33.1

26.1

Deﬁned as Cereal Imports/(Cereal Imports + Cereal Production)

Cereal exports.

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A. Tanyeri-Abur

Because of their extreme dependence on imports of food, agricultural and food

trade balance of the SM countries is heavily in deﬁcit. Libya and Algeria are most

concerned, although they face less of a ﬁscal constraint compared to other coun-

tries. Cereal imports accounted for 32 % of all agricultural imports in the subregion

in 2010. In the longer term, Morocco is the only country where grain imports are

expected to decline in the next 20 years due to existence of opportunities for

extension of cereal acreage under irrigation.

The North African countries are price takers and therefore exposed to substantial

risks in terms of prices and quantities arising from strongly ﬂuctuating import

quantities and prices. The vulnerability is measured as a combination of exposure

to risks of prices and quantities, and given that the SM countries all have high

import dependency with substantial ﬁscal deﬁcits, which exposes them to risks in

terms of quantity and price.

The level of economic integration in the subregion is low. Intra-regional trade

accounted for only 2.4 % of imports and 8.6 % of food exports in 2011, with the

exception of trade between Tunisia and Libya (51 % of intra-regional food trade).

This is explained by the complexity of procedures (average of 8 documents are

required to import procedures and 7 for export for North African countries except

Libya), the continued presence of barriers to trade the poor performance of some

sectors, the relatively limited diversiﬁcation of production and exports, and the lack

of infrastructure and lack of complementarities between the agricultural sectors.

3.2

Insufﬁcient Resources Allocated to Agriculture

Agricultural investment in the region in the past was driven by public investment

with most of these investments in large projects. Countries in the region have made

measurable progress in agricultural productivity and overall growth in the agricul-

tural sector. However, agriculture still lags behind other regions in terms of

productivity. Agricultural productivity in the countries except Libya has improved

signiﬁcantly, but remains well below the values of developed countries including

the European Union. A sustainable improvement in agricultural productivity is

possible and necessary given the untapped potential for sustainably improving

agricultural production.

Data on capital stock show that in the countries of the region capital stock is

mainly composed of land (51 %) and livestock (26.1 %) and less by the infrastruc-

ture, tools, machinery, and buildings (Table

9).

The countries in the region have

limited investment in agriculture, the mainstay of the evolution of agricultural

productivity and performance. Investment in agriculture in the North Africa was

down by 77 % during the period 1980–2007 and continues to represent a small

portion of the value of the sector in GDP.

Ideally, most of the investment in agriculture should be from private sources and

in most cases from farmers themselves. Data on private investment in agriculture is

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Food Security in the Southern Mediterranean/North Africa

Table 9

Capital formation in North Africa

Capital

formation

(million US$

constants

2005)

Algeria

Libya

Morocco

Tunisia

14,545.2

7,531.4

26,006.2

10,303.7

Livestock

(as %

capital

formation)

28.8

15.4

22.9

19.2

Machinery and

equipment (as %

of capital

formation)

15.8

11.1

3.7

10.5

Structures for

livestock (as %

of capital

formation)

1.4

0.5

1.2

0.9

Land

development

(as % of

capital

formation)

42.0

64.6

63.2

40.5

Source: FAOSTAT

rather scarce and hard to value, though many countries have revised their invest-

ment policies to enable more private investment in agriculture.

Historically, public investment has been the most important source of resource

for the agricultural sector; however, in the past 10 years, private agricultural

investment in relative terms has become more important. The agricultural sector

in the countries receives special support, and government expenditures remain an

essential element for the economic and social development. The agricultural

research and extension, infrastructure and utilities, response measures against

transitory shocks, programs to facilitate the adjustment of certain sectors or regions

and enable innovation at risk for an environment sustainability, and food security

are some of the features that continue to be applied to the public sector, more and

more frequently in a decentralized manner and in partnership with the private sector

and civil society (FAO

2014).

The extent of support and the instruments differ from one country to another,

ranging from ﬁnancial assistance (income support for farmers) or price supports to

agricultural loans or granting of an investment premium. The expenses also vary

from 1 year to another. The forms of taxation adopted by governments also have an

impact on the level of available resources, while constituting an effective instru-

ment for redistribution.

The share of expenditure on agriculture should reﬂect, at a minimum, the share

of agriculture in the overall economy. While data on public spending for agriculture

are scarce and not comparable, available data show that in many countries alloca-

tion of public spending does not reﬂect the economic or social importance of the

sector. By taking data on the share of agriculture in GDP and compare it with total

expenditures, it is possible to establish an agricultural orientation index indicating

the extent to which public spending on agriculture match (or not) the importance of

agriculture in the overall economy. To calculate this index, the share of agricultural

spending in relation to total public expenditure is divided by the share of agriculture

in GDP. The higher the index, the higher the share of agricultural spending is close

to the share of agriculture in GDP.

For example, in Tunisia public spending on agriculture decreased over time as a

percentage of total expenditures. The orientation index decreased by 0.39 in 2001 to

0.31 in 2011 (Table

10).

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Table 10

Agricultural orientation index (Tunisia)

2001

Orientation

index

0.39

2002

0.34

2003

0.40

2004

0.43

2005

0.40

2006

0.41

2007

0.38

2008

0.33

A. Tanyeri-Abur

2009

0.35

2010

0.32

2011

0.31

Source: FAOSTAT

Agricultural orientation index: Share of agriculture in total expenditures/share of agriculture in

value-added

In most of the countries covered, historically public investment in agriculture

was primarily oriented towards the mobilization of natural resources (water, soil,

forests, ﬁsheries to assist in preparing the conditions for sustained agricultural

development (including through private operators) that would achieve the strategic

objective of food security. Investment in research and development has been no

more than 2–3 % of all agricultural investment (FAO

2014).

4 Achieving Food Security in the Long Run

Following the hike in prices of agricultural commodities (including grains and

oilseeds) in 2007–2008, agriculture and food security have become important, not

only the recognition of the negative impacts on the poorer urban populations facing

increases in cost of food but also in fostering interest in agriculture which fueled

agricultural investments. While there has been substantial increase in investments,

the impacts of the food price hikes in the region have been more negative than

positive. At the same time, political upheavals in the region have slowed down

economic growth in Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt, severely affecting the ability to pay

for increasing cost of imports. While prices are no longer on the increase, it is the

volatility of prices that have the most devastating impact on the poor. The major

threat to food security in the region is the vulnerability at national and household

level due to price volatility of imported foods.

In developing a medium-term vision for the agriculture sector, the countries of

the region themselves have revised their agriculture and rural development policies

in an effort to take steps to sustainably improve agricultural productivity and

farmers’ income; access to these technologies, means of production, and the

market; conservation, improvement and sustainable use of natural resources; adap-

tation to climate change and prevention of its adverse effects; and improving food

security in subregional level.

Capacity building and improved management of

natural resources and special emphasis on rural development and youth appear as

clear priorities.

Opportunities should be explored, particularly in ﬁsheries and livestock and

other high value products such as olive oil. With the extent of the coastline in the

Plan Maroc Vert in Morocco and Agriculture and Rural Renewal Strategy in Algeria.

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Food Security in the Southern Mediterranean/North Africa

Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean, the SM countries have an important ﬁshing

potential, both in quantity and quality, plus aquaculture resources. In Morocco, in

particular, the ﬁsheries sector accounts for a signiﬁcant share of GDP and especially

agricultural exports. This potential can contribute substantially to the economy of

the country as well as improve food security and employment, with due consider-

ation of the wide ranging institutional, legal, economic, and social impacts of

ﬁsheries activities.

In sectors such as olives and olive oil, dates, and other fruits and vegetables,

there is much room for improvement, not only in terms of production but also in

marketing and distribution.

Over the past two decades, governments in the region have also adopted

agricultural market deregulation and reduction of price distortion and giving a

greater role to the private sector in economic activities. These measures, although

necessary, are not always sufﬁcient to induce the investment needed to improve

productivity and increase production. In order to stimulate investment in agricul-

ture, transparent and functioning markets, access to ﬁnance and extension, and an

appropriate legal and regulatory framework are needed. More generally, political

stability and strengthened institutional framework are necessary to ensure adequate

private investment. Strong complementarity between public and private investment

is also essential to support agricultural growth, and governments need to invest in

areas with signiﬁcant public interest—research, extension and infrastructure

(including water control, roads, storage facilities, and marketing), education, stan-

dards, and rules.

Improving food security requires efforts not only on the part of the countries

themselves, but through regional and international actions.

Actions toward improving food security in the region need to focus on three key

areas of action:

• National level

–

Sustainable improvements in productivity (inputs, technology, extension)

Promoting efﬁcient supply chains (reduce waste, better logistics)

Targeted safety nets for the vulnerable populations

Better management of risks associated with high import dependency (food

reserves, futures contacts)

– Improving employment prospects in agriculture, particularly for the young

• Regional Level

–

Cooperation in policies affecting pricing of common resources

Cooperation in harmonizing trade policies

Strengthening infrastructure in the region

Improve market information systems and coordination of action to respond to

world market volatility

• International Level

– Countering market volatility through new ﬁnancing mechanisms

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A. Tanyeri-Abur

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Sustainability in Cereal Crop Production

in Mediterranean Environments

Michele Perniola, Stella Lovelli, Margherita Arcieri, and Mariana Amato

Abstract

The continuous increase of the world population (a growth of about one-

third is expected by 2050), together with an even larger increase in food demand

(especially in emerging countries), will lead in the next 30 years to the necessity to

produce 70 % more food. To keep the pace with food demand, global cereal

production would need to increase by 40 % overall, or by some 900 million tons

between the present and 2050. Single countries can either increase production or

increase net imports or a combination of both.

This new global emergency involves researchers, farmers, politicians, the agro-

food industry, and all stakeholders, and the new challenge can be summarized as

follows: to produce more, but in a sustainable way. The goal of “sustainable

intensiﬁcation” constitutes one of the priorities for the research in agriculture and

one of the cornerstones of the new Common Agricultural Policy. In this context, all

the techniques designed to maximize production through the more efﬁcient use of

resources are in line with the objectives of sustaining production with minimal

impact.

In Mediterranean environments, cereal crops are grown mainly in the semiarid

and subhumid areas. In arid and semiarid areas dryland farming, techniques are of

renewed interest in the view of sustainability. They are aimed to increase water

accumulation in the soil, reduce runoff and soil evaporation losses, choose species

and varieties able to make better use of rainwater, and rationalize fertilization plans,

sowing dates, and weed and pest control.

Fertilization plans should be based on well-deﬁned principles of plant nutrition,

soil chemistry, and chemistry of the fertilizer elements. Starting from the calcula-

tion of nutrient crop uptake (based on the actually obtainable yield), dose calcula-

tion must be corrected by considering the relationship between the availability of

the trace elements in soil and the main physical and chemical parameters of the soil

(pH, organic matter content, mineralization rate, C/N, ratio of solubilization of

phosphorus, active lime content, presence of antagonist ions, etc.).

M. Perniola (

) • S. Lovelli • M. Arcieri • M. Amato

School of Agriculture, Forestry, Food and Environmental Science, University of Basilicata,

Viale dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; mariana.

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_2

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M. Perniola et al.

The choice of traditional, minimum, or no-tillage is one of the most controversial

aspects of agricultural research; much depends on soil texture, crop type (depending

mainly on the characteristics of the root), rainfall regime (mainly intensity), long-

period tillage plan, structural stability of the soil (in function of the organic matter

content), and all other variables and their interaction. In any case, minimum tillage

and sod seeding are generally less expensive and evidence points to a lower

production of CO

with respect to traditional tillage.

Weed and pest control is also a critical point for the sustainability of cereal

production: sustainability in control strategies involves minimizing the use of

chemicals while safeguarding yields. To this end, priority should be given to

preventive and nonchemical agronomic measures, while chemical means should

be used only when the level of weeds and pests exceeds the threshold of economic

damage.

Finally, precision farming is one of the most powerful tools for the sustainability

of cereal crop production. This technique helps the farmers in their decisions, taking

into account the local variability of physical, chemical, and biological properties of

the soil, as well as the timing of input application. With this management strategy,

input of resources is balanced and optimized in order to increase yields and reduce

interventions and costs; the environmental impact is signiﬁcantly reduced, as well

as the amount of resources used for the production.

1 Introduction

The continuous increase of the population (worldwide a growth of about one-third

is expected by 2050), together with an even larger increase in food demand

(especially in emerging countries), will lead in the next 30 years to the necessity

to produce 70 % more food to keep pace with the demand (FAO

2013).

Worldwide, cereals represent the main agricultural staple food; more than 50 %

of the daily energy intake is accounted for by cereals (FAO

2014b).

Overall, cereal

production has followed the trend of increasing food demand in the past, and

according to the High-Level Expert Forum, this trend is expected to continue in

the future (Fig.

1).

To keep the pace of food demand, global cereal production would need to

increase by 40 % overall, or by some 900 million tons between the present and

2050. Single countries can either increase production or net imports or a combina-

tion of both. As shown in Fig.

cereal production is increasing more in developing

countries, to sustain their own demand; anyway it is not excluded that export of

cereal commodities from developed countries will be necessary to meet the needs

of developing countries. Wheat is the main food grain in Western countries;

Europe, Central Asia, and the Russian Federation are the main wheat producers,

with a huge yield per hectare variability as a function of environmental conditions

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Sustainability in Cereal Crop Production in Mediterranean Environments

Fig. 1

Trend of world cereal production (High Level Expert Forum

2009)

and farming practices: generally yields range from 9 t/ha in the more favorable

environment and intensive farming practice to less than 1 t/ha in less favorable

conditions.

After a large increase from the beginning of the nineteenth century until the

Green Revolution years, in recent years growth rates of cereal yields have slowed

down in many countries; namely, growth rates of 6 % were calculated in 1960, but

they gradually dropped to 1.5 % in 2000 (Fig.

2).

While a constant increase in

productivity growth rate is limited by the physiological limits of plant production,

many other causes led to the above said reduction: among these the shift to less

intensive farming practice due to environmental issues, a lower investments in

agricultural research and development, and the adverse effects of climatic changes.

Increases in food production can be achieved by changing soil use from natural

to agricultural land; this is not a viable option in general, considering the relatively

low surface of natural land and its important role in the ecological equilibrium of

the planet.

At the same time, agricultural land has been steadily decreasing due to over-

building, desertiﬁcation, erosion, salinization, change of use, and abandonment of

marginal lands; in Italy in the last 3 years, 7.3 % of the arable land was lost due to a

combination of these destinations (ISPRA

2014).

It is not surprising, then, that

agricultural production no longer keeps up with the food demand since 1990. The

result is a signiﬁcant increase in food costs (FAO

2014a).

This new global emergency involves researchers, farmers, politicians, the agro-

food industry, and all stakeholders, and the new challenge can be summarized as

follows: to produce more, but in a sustainable way. The goal of “sustainable

intensiﬁcation” constitutes one of the priorities for the research in agriculture and

one of the cornerstones of the new Common Agricultural Policy.

About 26 % of worldwide agricultural land is grown under irrigation, mostly

used for high-value crops such as fruits and vegetables, and produces 40 % of food

needs. The yield recorded in these areas has achieved in recent years 80 % of the

maximum potential yield (World Bank

2008).

A relatively low margin remains then

for a further increase of production in irrigation regime.

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M. Perniola et al.

Fig. 2

Annual average growth rates of cereal yields [Source: World Bank (2008)]

The remaining 74 % of agricultural crops worldwide are grown in rainfed

conditions, generally in semiarid environments, where 60 % of food and feed,

such as cereal and fodder crops (Birard et al.

2009),

are produced.

As opposed to what happens in the irrigated areas, the average production in

dryland is well below the maximum potential yield (Passiura and Angus

2010).

It is

generally thought that the limiting factor in rainfed areas is the scarce water

availability. Nevertheless, from the analysis of data obtained in a large body of

research on wheat (reported in Fig.

3),

it turns out that yields are generally lower

than those potentially obtainable even at the level of water availability during the

whole cropping cycle.

Indeed, besides water scarcity, other factors interact to limit crop production

(Angus and van Hearwardeen

2001;

Grassini et al.

2009).

Some of these include

planting date, weed competition, pathogen attacks, nutritional deﬁciencies, abnor-

mal edaphic conditions, and high and low temperatures.

In this context, all the techniques designed to maximize production through the

more efﬁcient use of resources are in line with the objectives of “sustainable

intensiﬁcation.” In Mediterranean environments, cereal crops are grown mainly in

the semiarid and subhumid areas; in arid and semiarid areas, dryland farming is of

renewed interest in the view of sustainability. It consists of a series of techniques

aimed to increase the water accumulation in the soil, reduce runoff and soil

evaporation losses, and choose species and varieties able to make better use of

rainwater and, eventually, of supplementary irrigation.

Dryland farming has to be reconsidered also in view of the effects of climate

change on cropping systems; in this context, new approaches need to be developed

and evaluated on a series of issues such as the rational use of windbreaks, fertili-

zation, irrigation scheduling in situations of “deﬁcit irrigation,” and the latest

techniques for weed control, planting density, and planting dates for the newer

varieties.

Within this framework the next few paragraphs will address the main aspects of

cropping technique aimed at the sustainability of cereal production in Mediterra-

nean environments.

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Sustainability in Cereal Crop Production in Mediterranean Environments

Fig. 3

Schematic

representation of wheat

yield in relation to seasonal

water supply. The

solid line

depicts yield if water is the

only limitation. The points

cover the range of farmers’

experience and are typically

below the

solid line

because

of yield limitations due to

factors other than water

such as weeds, diseases,

poor nutrition, frost, and

other problems (from

Passiura and Angus

2010)

2 Soil Fertilization

Soils of the arid and semiarid environments are generally characterized by a limited

content of organic matter and macronutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. It is

well known, however, that the availability of these elements strongly affects the

crop productivity and food quality. Therefore in dry farming, organic and mineral

fertilization must be carefully considered, since they represent the cropping tech-

nique which allows a direct control of the quantitative and qualitative crop

response. As for organic fertilization, and then the content in humiﬁed organic

matter of the soil, it is just worth recalling the nutritional action resulting from the

slow and gradual release of the nutritive elements, more synchronous to the rhythm

of crop uptake, if compared to the more rapid and often unbalanced release operated

by the organic matter mineralization process. From a biochemical point of view,

humus plays an important role in the increase of the anion exchange capacity of the

soil and organic matter stimulates soil microbial activity. From a physical point of

view, the positive effects of soil organic matter on structure and its stability are very

relevant, also due to the important consequences structure bears on the increase in

water retention capacity of the soil aggregates. The source of organic fertilizer

considered more appropriate in agriculture is manure. However, the gradual diver-

siﬁcation of livestock activities from farming, as well as the difﬁculties in trans-

portation and marketing, makes its use impractical and not economically

convenient.

Furthermore, livestock wastes are increasingly used for biogas production. The

use of commercial stabilized compost in rainfed crops is generally uneconomical.

Then, crop residues are the only viable source capable of maintaining a minimum

soil organic matter balance in dry farming systems. According to many authors, this

remains a fundamental practice in cereal cultivation, in spite of the many drawbacks

of the management of crop residues linked to soil tillage mechanization (especially

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in the case of abundant and coarse residues), to a depressive effect on the crop (for

the removal of nitrogen by microorganisms in the case of a C/N relationship

exceeding 80–100), and to the accumulation of pathogens (Zhou et al.

2009;

Ward et al.

2009).

Crop residues, in addition to the beneﬁts arising from the presence of organic

matter, perform other functions which positively improve the soil water balance.

They reduce soil water evaporation thanks to their mulching action (O’Leary and

Connor

1997);

by increasing the ground roughness, they slow down the speed of

water surface runoff; also, they contrast surface compaction especially in clay soils,

thus improving the water permeability. All such factors favor soil water inﬁltration

and storage, especially in sloping surfaces (Foley and Silburn

2002).

Another

consequence is the reduction of soil erosion, to the advantage of soil fertility in

extreme fragile environments such as the dry environment of cereal cropping areas.

The generally low levels of soil organic matter that characterize rainfed envi-

ronments contribute to a reduced availability of nutrients, principally nitrogen and

phosphorus. In calcareous and red soils, phosphorus availability is further reduced

by ﬁxation process.

Regarding nitrogen, it is important to stress the role it plays in the synthesis of

chlorophyll and in the assimilative processes that inﬂuence root growth and as a

consequence trigger a virtuous circle of improved water and nutrient uptake along

the soil proﬁle (Kirkegaard et al.

1994).

Also phosphorus participates in overall

plant growth and in particular in root development; it also controls ﬂowering and

fruit setting and assimilates translocation and balances the relations between veg-

etative and reproductive functions of the plant. The root nutrient uptake occurs

through the soil solution, and this explains the strong positive interaction between

water availability and mineral fertilization. In synthesis, the availability of water

favors the removal of nutrients and the efﬁciency of their use on one side; on the

other side the availability of nutrients favors plant and root growth, and this in turn

improves the removal of water and its efﬁciency (Zhong and Shangguan

2014).

Figure

shows the response of durum wheat production to a combination of water

and fertilization regimes in an experiment conducted by Wang et al. (2010). In

particular, nitrogen fertilization increases the yield response at all water regimes by

improving the utilization of water resources. As also, a higher water intake

improves nitrogen use efﬁciency at each of the ﬁve doses of nitrogen fertilizer

supplied to the crop (Wang et al.

2010).

Fertilization is therefore a technique capable of improving the agronomic

response to water and enhancing, and in some ways substitute, the effect of natural

water resources. However the choice of the dates and rates of supply and the choice

of the type of fertilizer must be particularly accurate as a function of the water

availability. Indeed, any defect in the calculation of the dose or in the choice of the

abovesaid factors can reduce the effectiveness and efﬁciency of the fertilizer use;

on the other side an excessive dose may lead to lush vegetation resulting in

excessive water use, such as to result in periods of water stress, and this would be

particularly dangerous in times of increased sensitivity of the crop. Therefore

computation of these parameters should be based on well-deﬁned principles of

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Sustainability in Cereal Crop Production in Mediterranean Environments

Fig. 4

Response of durum

wheat grain yield to the soil

water regime and nitrogen

fertilization (redrawn from

Wang et al.

2010)

4.5

0 Kg/ha N

140 Kg/ha N

300Kg/ha N

79 Kg/ha N

221 Kg/ha N

grain yield (t/ha)

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

400

500

600

700

800

crop water use (ET)

plant nutrition, soil chemistry, and chemistry of the fertilizer elements. The dose

calculation from nutrient crop uptake (based on the actually obtainable yield) must

be corrected by taking two major factors into account: the availability of the

element in the soil and the interaction between the fertilizer and the main physical

and chemical parameters of the soil (pH, organic matter content, mineralization

rate, C/N, ratio of solubilization of phosphorus, active lime content, presence of

antagonist ions, etc.) (Mori and Di Mola

2012).

3 Surface Water and Sediment Control Systems and Soil

Tillage

Cereal-growing areas in Mediterranean environments are generally characterized

by rather low rainfall amounts, especially in the spring–summer. Furthermore,

precipitation may further lose efﬁcacy due to poor surface water systems manage-

ment. Indeed, if the rain intensity exceeds the storage capacity of the soil, this will

accumulate on its surface if the ground is ﬂat generating ﬂooding, with damage to

the crop. On slopes losses for runoff will occur and reduced water storage will be

associated with erosion and therefore with further reduction of soil fertility. Such

losses will increase as the rainfall intensity and the slope steepness increase and as

the soil permeability decreases.

For an efﬁcient water and soil use, techniques to promote water inﬁltration into

the soil and to reduce losses of surface runoff need to be used. The management of

surface water systems through land remodeling and drainage design plays a key role

in controlling water outﬂows, avoiding ﬂooding and containing losses for runoff at

the same time. In ﬂat areas the basic element of the surface water management is a

slightly convex shaping of ﬁelds generally obtained by tillage operations (local

name in Italy is baulatura), which has the function of creating gentle slopes in order

to drive excess water to ditches at the side of ﬁelds. In subhumid and arid

environments, slopes should not exceed 1 % and ﬁelds may be as wide as possible

(usually over 30–50 m) in order to increase the water traveling time on the soil

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M. Perniola et al.

surface and thus facilitate retention and water inﬁltration before it is intercepted by

the ditch and removed from the ﬁeld.

In sloping land water losses for runoff are generally higher, and surface water

and sediment control is strategic for improving soil fertility. Although terracing is

not economically viable for cereal crops, in these areas land surface shaping may be

addressed though a simpler system, and runoff and erosion control is entrusted to

ditches. Depending on the slope and soil texture, downstream ditches should be

positioned before excess water reaches the threshold speed triggering erosion. In

this way not only it contains the erosion, but it also directs water to ﬂatter areas

where it can be absorbed by the soil. This system is more effective if combined with

techniques to facilitate soil water inﬁltration, like strip cropping. All agronomic

techniques designed to increase permeability and water inﬁltration into the soil

greatly improve cereal productivity. It is well known that the rate of water inﬁltra-

tion into the soil is mainly controlled by the distribution and size of the pores: it is

directly proportional to the square of the average diameter of the pores, in particular

macropores with diameter between 30 and 500

μm

(Pagliai

1986).

A balanced

presence of macropores is therefore a guarantee of good permeability. As it is

known, however, as a result of the action of the water and its variations during the

cycles of wetting–drying, as well as the pressure of the ﬁeld machinery, the soil

tends to lose structure and therefore microporosity increases. Soil tillage is one of

the agronomic practices which directly improves the soil structure.

Technical progress has led to the transition from traditional and energy consum-

ing soil tillage to conservative techniques of minimum and no-tillage. The conser-

vative techniques impact less on soils and are capable of maintaining structure

without reversing the soil layers (Holland

2004).

In this context several techniques

have been proposed, ranging from a simple reduction of tillage depth to subsoiling

(minimum tillage) to sod seeding. Minimum tillage is achieved through machinery

(harrows or plows disk) which is capable of affecting the topsoil to a depth useful

only for the seedbed preparation. No-tillage is a more extreme technique based on

speciﬁc seed drills equipped with disk elements which break the soil (top 5 cm) and

directly deposit the seed without any previous tillage (sod seeding). The energy

savings can reach 70 % compared to traditional tillage. The choice of traditional,

minimum, or no-tillage is one of the most controversial aspects of agricultural

research; effects on crops and soil conditions depend mainly on soil type and

texture, crop type (depending mainly on the characteristics of the root), rainfall

regime (mainly intensity), long-period tillage strategy, structural stability of the soil

(in function of the organic matter content), and all other variables interacting with

them. In any case, minimum tillage and sod seeding are generally less expensive

and research results suggest lower CO

emissions compared to traditional tillage.

Everything that contributes to improve the structural stability of soil aggregates

has a positive effect on soil and crop behavior, mainly by increasing the stability of

the macropore network and therefore in improving inﬁltration. In this context the

contribution of organic matter and crop residues management is undoubtedly

positive. The partial burial of residues with harrowing, rather than their removal

from the ﬁeld, is an advisable solution particularly in hilly areas. In this case,

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Sustainability in Cereal Crop Production in Mediterranean Environments

indeed, the partial burying of crop residues constitutes one of the few viable

techniques for providing organic matter sources and promoting inﬁltration and

water storage by increasing the soil coefﬁcient of roughness and therefore slowing

runoff. Moreover, by mulching the soil, crop residues reduce both the negative

impact of raindrops on soil structure and water loss by evaporation. Inﬁltration is

also favored, and runoff reduced by tillage, even if minimum, and by contour

sowing, by increasing the soil roughness perpendicular to the lines of water ﬂow;

this slows down the water speed and thus promotes inﬁltration.

4 Choice of Species, Varieties, Planting Date, and Weed

and Pest Control

The choice of crop is based on two main criteria: (a) the length and season of the

growing cycle and (b) the ability of the species to keep good levels of productivity

and resources use efﬁciency under conditions of environmental stress. Regarding

the growing cycle, in the dry areas of Mediterranean environments, autumn–winter

species are the most indicated, since their cycle occurs in correspondence with the

time of highest precipitation amount. Among them, the most widespread are durum

and spring wheat, barley, oats, and rye. Among these species, the choice falls on

those which are capable to better tolerate low winter temperatures since they

maintain a higher growth rate in a period which is not entirely favorable to plant

physiological processes. In the most arid conditions, species which are able to

tolerate water stress are preferred. Under this respect, barley, oat, and rye are more

tolerant than durum and spring wheat.

More difﬁcult is the choice of the variety that better suits the different environ-

mental conditions. Conventional breeding and biotechnology have produced vari-

eties which can adapt to different growing environments, such as drought-tolerant

varieties and very high-yielding varieties in more favorable environmental condi-

tions. In any case, the objective of breeding was to obtain the highest possible yield

as a function of environmental conditions. The question is among the commercially

available varieties, which are those that combine high production with water use

efﬁciency? The relationships among yield potential, drought resistance, water use,

and water use efﬁciency are not easy, since many physiological plant traits are

involved in these relationships. Accurate studies on this topic were conducted by

Hsiao (1993a,

and Blum (2005). Both authors demonstrated that high productive

cultivars maintain a high water use efﬁciency both in well-watered and in water-

stress conditions compared to landrace varieties. According to Hsiao et al. (2007),

over the last century plant breeders have inadvertently selected for higher water use

efﬁciency by selecting for higher yielding ability.

Crop sowing date is also to be considered for a sustainable cereal productivity.

Identifying sowing dates involves taking into account both the biological charac-

teristics of the varieties and the rainfall and thermal trends. Sowing dates should be

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established so that the crop growing cycle is consistent with thermal and soil

moisture plant physiological requirements. A useful technique can be to anticipate

the time of sowing, always taking into account the speciﬁc thermal requirements of

the crop. Early sowing allows to better use natural water resources resulting from

rain, mainly because it reduces the time of the crop cycle falling in the spring–

summer period of drought.

Weed control is also a critical point for the sustainability of cereal production.

The damage caused by weeds is due to competition between the cereal and weeds

for the use of water, light, nutrients, and living space, with a consequent reduction

in yield. In addition weeds also negatively inﬂuence the qualitative characteristics

of harvested plant parts and foods, namely, reduced grain size with a lower speciﬁc

weight and lower yield of semolina, contamination of grains by weed seeds,

production of toxic substances (mycotoxins) as a result of fungal attack, and

production of seeds containing alkaloids which can pollute ﬂour during the process

of milling.

The sustainable control of weeds should minimize the use of herbicides while

safeguarding yields. To this end, priority should be given to preventive and

nonchemical agronomic measures, namely:

– Rotations with weed-cleaning crops (e.g., forage crops or mechanically weeded

crops).

– Soil tillage: the distribution of weed seeds and the number of seeds able to

germinate along the soil depth is a function of type and depth of tillage.

– The choice of crop varieties with a phase of tillering and developing faster than

the weeds; such crops are good competitors for space.

– A slightly higher sowing density allows to occupy space in such a way that

weeds are controlled.

– A careful preparation of the seedbed without actually sowing stimulates weed

germination. A harrowing will then be performed before the real sowing.

– Mechanical weed control in post-emergence using speciﬁc light harrow at early

tillering and up to the stage of early rising controls weeds at the seedling stage.

Chemical herbicides will then be used only if the level of weeds exceeds the

threshold of economic damage, but speciﬁc herbicides should be chosen according

to the botanical analysis of weeds which are actually present.

Pests are also responsible of signiﬁcant yield reductions, especially in monocul-

ture systems. A sustainable pest control should keep the harmful organism

populations below the density which results in economic damage, according to

the ecological and toxicological aspects related to production processes. The

control system should consist in preventive and direct, physical, mechanical,

and/or biological strategies, and only if these are not effective in guaranteeing an

acceptable containment of pests, the use of chemical plant protection means should

be permitted. In this context, it is essential to create conditions that minimize the

presence of harmful organisms. Pests considered harmful to cereals are many, but

only a few actually have a negative effect on crop proﬁtability. Farmers must

carefully evaluate potential damage in their cultivation area, in order to make the

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Sustainability in Cereal Crop Production in Mediterranean Environments

most appropriate pest control choices. The main agronomic preventive means are

the following: adoption of appropriate crop rotations; choice of a return time of the

same crop on a given ﬁeld longer than 2 years in case of heavy infection; use of

healthy seed and if in doubt use of seed treatments with allowed products (this is the

least invasive chemical approach); reduction of sowing density, with wider dis-

tances between rows; deep burying of straw to reduce the mass of inoculum in the

soil; control of weeds as possible hosts of infectious agents; and soil water man-

agement to facilitate water drainage and avoid ﬂooding.

5 Precision Farming

This management strategy is increasingly adopted. It uses data of different nature as

decision support system in the planning and management of agricultural activities.

The main purpose of precision farming is to adapt the inputs and farming practices

to the speciﬁc local variability existing within a ﬁeld. This is a new systemic

management strategy, which efﬁciently uses different kinds of information, gener-

ated by the evaluation and interpretation of spatial variability, the management of

the spatial variability in order to improve the response of crops and environmental

quality, the feedback on efﬁciency and effectiveness of different practices and on

the use of resources, and the modeling of site-speciﬁc inputs and responses.

Precision farming is made possible especially through the image analysis and

geo-referenced data, obtained by remote sensing, geophysical survey, and the

combined use of sensors at farm level. Through the application of these technolog-

ically advanced systems, it will be possible to develop a new model of multidis-

ciplinary agriculture, using machines equipped with “intelligent systems” in

relation to the real needs of the cereal area (e.g., Geo-referential Analytic Spraying

Traceability).

These techniques help farmers in their decisions, taking into account the local

variability of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil, as well as

the timing of input application. With these precision systems, therefore, the farmer

will handle cereal production treating small areas inside the farm as if they were

separate surfaces, so as to equalize, optimize, and maximize the yields. With this

management, in fact, resource input is balanced and optimized in order to increase

the yields and reduce interventions and costs. Moreover, the environmental impact

is signiﬁcantly reduced, as it reduces the amount of resources used for the produc-

tion. To measure and interpret the spatial variability, different technologies are

used, ranging from geographic information and positioning systems, spatial statis-

tics, and near or remote sensors. The main applications of this innovative technol-

ogy will address the mapping of yield and quality of the productions, driving aids,

and site-speciﬁc supply of inputs . The main results include a reduction in use and

an increase in efﬁciency of resources such as water, fuel, and nutrients, as well as a

reduction of impacts such as carbon dioxide emission. Thanks to the application of

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M. Perniola et al.

these technologies, an added value to the economy of the cereal sector will be

reached.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Innovative Crop Productions for Healthy

Food: The Case of Chia (Salvia

hispanica

L.)

Rocco Bochicchio, Tim D. Philips, Stella Lovelli, Rosanna Labella,

Fernanda Galgano, Antonio Di Marisco, Michele Perniola,

and Mariana Amato

Abstract

Chia (Salvia

hispanica

L.) is an ancient crop from Central America

which has been recently rediscovered as a source of

ω-3

and nutraceuticals in

seeds. Besides traditional seed consumption, innovative uses of the plant seeds

and leaves have been proposed based on the high protein content and the production

of mucilage which lends itself to a range of applications. This chapter reviews

research on the plant’s genetics and breeding, quality, and uses. Agronomic studies

which have only recently started worldwide are also presented along with results

from case studies in Basilicata.

1 Introduction

There is a growing body of work about chia,

Salvia hispanica

L., a source of plant

ω-3

fatty acids and nutraceuticals, since research is targeting new and functional

foods worldwide.

Salvia hispanica

L. belongs to the Lamiaceae family, and its

center of origin is between Mexico and Guatemala (Cahill

2004).

It was a staple

crop in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, but its cultivation was suppressed, and it

remained a little-known species for subsequent centuries outside limited areas in

Mexico and Central America. Over the past two decades, since evaluation and

promotion of the crop by Gentry, Coates, and others (Gentry et al.

1990;

Coates and

Ayerza

1996),

interest in knowledge and uses of chia has grown. Much of the

knowledge acquired so far on

Salvia hispanica

L. is related to seed quality and

genetic aspects, whereas there is a lack of scientiﬁc literature on crop management

R. Bochicchio • S. Lovelli • R. Labella • F. Galgano • A. Di Marisco • M. Perniola • M. Amato (

)

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali (SAFE), Universit degli Studi

della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Via Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

T.D. Philips

Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546-0312,

USA

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_3

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Fig. 1

Seeds of

Salvia

hispanica

L. produced in

Basilicata, Southern Italy

R. Bochicchio et al.

and physiological aspects as well as on agronomic characterization.

Salvia

hispanica

L. is commonly known as “chia”; its height ranges from 60 to about

180 cm, presents a subangular ramiﬁed stem, leaves with different degrees of

pubescence, blue or white ﬂowers, and very small indescent dry fruits commonly

called seeds (Capitani et al.

2013)

near ivory white to charcoal with lighter gray

mottling (Fig.

1).

Biometrical and physical properties of seeds have been studied by

Ixtaina et al. (2008) for the purpose of better design of equipment and management

related to harvest and processing. Chia is originally a short-day ﬂowering species;

the area where it can produce seeds is therefore limited to a restricted range of

latitudes, but breeding is starting to produce new genotypes (Jamboonsri

et al.

2012)

to extend the range of this crop to other temperate areas and regions

such as the Mediterranean basin. This chapter reviews ﬁndings on genetics, quality,

uses and agronomy of the crop since its rediscovery in the 1990s.

2 Genetic Diversity and Breeding

The center of genetic and phenotypic diversity of both wild and domesticated chia

populations includes the semi-temperate and temperate highlands of western Mex-

ico and eastward spanning the trans-volcanic belt to Puebla, generally between

1,400 and 2,200 m.a.s.l. (Cahill

2004;

Hernandez-Gmez and Miranda-Colın

2008;

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Innovative Crop Productions for Healthy Food: The Case of Chia (Salvia.

. .

Miranda-Colin1978). Chia cultivation traditionally occurred in this region,

extending into Guatemala, and in a separate area in Honduras and Nicaragua.

Limited chia germplasm is available in gene banks, and the chia that has been

collected mostly comes from domesticated rather than wild populations. Two

studies have evaluated genetic diversity of chia germplasm using morphological

traits and genetic markers. Cahill (2001) compared diverse germplasm sources of

chia (both wild and domesticated) using 33 morphological traits as well as RAPD

genetic markers. The sources of the accessions used by Cahill included collections

from Howard S. Gentry, housed in the agricultural institute in Chapingo, Mexico,

and lines he collected as part of his doctoral thesis work. He studied 26 quantitative

and seven qualitative traits ranging from leaf and ﬂoral measurements to seed color

and plant growth parameters. He found relatively little morphological differences

among the accessions under study, with the exception of a few major traits related

to domestication. He grouped the chia accessions into four categories: wild, culti-

vated, primitive domesticated, and advanced domesticated. In a second study Cahill

(2004) compared genetic diversity among his collection of 38 domesticated and

wild chia accessions using Random Ampliﬁed Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)

markers; levels of RAPD diversity within each group, HG, showed that the highest

genetic diversity was found, as expected, in wild accessions (HG

0.15), with less

diversity in all domesticated accessions (HG

0.10), and a subcategory was iden-

tiﬁed within the domesticated group, the modern, commercial varieties, exhibiting

the least diversity remaining (HG

0.02). Of the 55 polymorphic RAPD bands

observed in this study, 14 were unique to wild accessions, eight bands were found

only in domesticated accessions, and one band was unique to advanced domesti-

cated accessions. These results indicate a typical pattern of a narrowing of the

genetic base of the species following domestication, with a greatly diminished

amount of potential genetic variation existing in current chia lines being grown in

modern production areas. Cahill (2003) found a set of traits that changed during the

domestication process of chia. These include closed calyces, increased plant

branching, decreased pubescence, increased inﬂorescence length, determinacy in

ﬂowering, more pigmentation in stems, and increased plant height. Cahill also

found that seed size was larger in cultivated chia than in wild germplasm and was

a part of a gigantism syndrome in advanced domesticated chia lines, as well as

allelopathy. In a study of inheritance of three qualitative traits in chia, Cahill and

Provance (2002) found that genes for open calyces, charcoal seed color, and

pigmented stems are dominant over genes for closed calyces, white seed color,

and nonpigmented stems.

In another study of genetic diversity in chia, Hernandez-Gmez et al. (2008)

investigated variation among 22 chia germplasm sources for 23 morphological

characters. Multivariate analysis of his data revealed that the chia accessions he

used formed six groups, mostly related to different geographical origin. Distinct

groups included chia from northern Mexico, Guerrero, Puebla, Central America

(El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras), Oaxaca, and Acatic. This study found

differences between wild and cultivated chia for 19 of the 23 characters studied.

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R. Bochicchio et al.

Chia has not been the subject of many modern plant breeding efforts. Improved

cultivars or populations have been developed primarily by selecting lines from

mixed germplasm sources, usually landraces. In general, the domesticated chia

variety “Pinta” now dominates cultivation (Cahill

2005),

with a few other domes-

ticated populations or selections being grown; for example, Sahi Alba 911, Sahi

Alba 912, and Sahi Alba 914 are three white seed lines developed by mass

selection. Omega-3 Chia, Inc. has plant variety protection for a variety (“Omega-

3”) developed in Florida, obtained through mass selection from a mixed population/

landrace, likely “Pinta.”

Salvia hispanica

L. is a self-pollinating plant, generally setting seed at high

frequency in the absence of insects (greenhouse or mesh-covered inﬂorescences).

Hernandez-Gmez et al.(2008) found much higher levels of outcrossing (over

22 %) in cultivated chia, than in wild chia (<2 %) in ﬁeld studies in Mexico. Cahill

(2004) reported a much lower outcrossing rate of 0.24 % in his ﬁeld studies in

California using a wild and domesticated line. In Kentucky over three growing

seasons, outcrossing in white-ﬂowered chia plants surrounded by blue-ﬂowered

chia lines was in the 3–8 % range. Many insects are attracted to chia ﬂowers, and

little outcrossing has been observed under greenhouse conditions, so it is likely that

entomophily is responsible for transferring pollen rather than wind. Some South

American chia growers report better chia crop yields when chia is grown in areas

with healthy bee populations.

Cahill and Ehdaie (2005) investigated the inheritance of seed mass in chia. They

reported a 16 % increase in seed mass following one cycle of selection, but chia

seed mass between wild and domesticated chia lines does not differ as much as that

of other oilseed species in Lamiaceae (particularly Perilla frutescens Britt.).

Making crosses in chia is hampered by small ﬂower size and their fragility.

Many attempts at emasculation of chia ﬂowers result in rapid ﬂoret abscission or

poor success. Pollen is shed within a few hours of sunrise under greenhouse

conditions. Early morning pollen transfer from plants used as males to spikes of

designated female plants over several days to 2 weeks has resulted in successful

crosses, with ~10 % of seed from a spike used in crosses being non-selfed (crossed)

seed (personal observations). Making chia crosses is considerably easier when

dominant phenotypic markers are available. Cahill and Provance (2002) used

stem striation/pigmentation as a dominant marker. Breeding efforts at the Univer-

sity of Kentucky have used ﬂower color as a dominant marker. By using white-

ﬂowered plants as females in crosses with blue- or purple-ﬂowered plants as males,

hybrid plants can be distinguished from self-pollinated young seedlings. Blue

ﬂowering plants produce pigmented hypocotyls in the early seedling stage of

growth in bright light (1–3 weeks after germination), while white-ﬂowering self-

pollinated seedlings from the attempted cross exhibit only light green hypocotyls.

Alternatively, seed from attempted crosses can be grown to ﬂowering stage, and

blue-ﬂowering plants would be actual hybrids, while white-ﬂowering plants would

be selfed (maternal parent) progeny.

Traits of interest in a traditional chia breeding program include seed yield,

ﬂowering date, rate of maturity, lodging and shattering resistance, and disease

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Innovative Crop Productions for Healthy Food: The Case of Chia (Salvia.

. .

resistance. Hybrid cultivar production could increase chia vigor and seed yield, but

would likely require the use of male sterility. The use of molecular markers and

other genomics tools may be productive once more genetic information is generated

for chia.

With a narrow genetic base in available germplasm, other means of ﬁnding

genetic variation can be used, such as mutation breeding. Possible use of male

sterility for production of hybrid chia as well as novel oil/chemical proﬁles and

plant branching pattern and height are being investigated in populations treated

with gamma radiation and chemical mutagens. Additional collections of chia

germplasm from its center of origin are needed and should be available to chia

breeders.

At the University of Kentucky, in ﬁeld plots and in greenhouse-grown chia from

numerous commercial sources, variation in leaf size and shape, stem pubescence,

branching pattern, spike length, seed size, ﬂower color, and seed color have been

observed, but very little variation in photoperiod response has been found. Through

mutation breeding, a number of new chia lines with a range of responses to day

length have been developed (Jamboonsri et al.

2012).

Most of these lines are

induced to ﬂower under day lengths between 13 and 16 h and a few ﬂower under

constant illumination (i.e., they are day-length insensitive). Additional breeding

efforts have been focused on studying the inheritance of traits such as photoperiod

response, seed color, lodging resistance, and shattering resistance. Selection for

improved yield is difﬁcult until seed shattering and lodging problems are addressed.

3 Seed Quality

A series of scientiﬁc papers have addressed the quality of chia seeds since the crop’s

rediscovery. Most of them focus on fatty acids since chia oil has the highest

concentration of

ω-3

of all natural sources (Palma et al.

1947;

Ayerza

1995;

Ayerza

and Coates

2011;

Segura-Campos et al.

2014).

Seeds are also a source of proteins,

ﬁber, and nutraceuticals, and there is an increasing interest in those compounds in

literature reports.

Also, no signiﬁcant content of toxic compounds have been found in chia seeds,

and there is no evidence of allergic responses (EFSA

2005, 2009)

caused by the

consumption of chia seeds. The omega-3 chia website (www.chiagrowers.com)

reports laboratory analysis where no mycotoxins where found on tested chia

samples.

The oil yield of mature chia seeds generally ranges from 29.36 to 33.50 %,

depending on the areas of origin, climatic conditions, and on the technique used for

oil extraction (Ayerza and Coates

2004, 2009a, b;

Ixtaina et al.

2011;

Marineli

et al.

2014;

Rocha Uribe et al.

2011;

Silveira Coelho and de las Mercedes Salas-

Mellado2014). Moreover, the seed’s oil content tends to rise as altitudes of eco-

system in which the seeds are grown increase (Ayerza

2009).

From a nutritional

point of view, the concentration of fatty acids in chia seed oil ranks in the following

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R. Bochicchio et al.

order:

α-linolenic

acid

linoleic acid

oleic acid

palmitic acid

stearic acid. In

particular, the content of

α-linolenic

acid (C18:3) is about 60 % of all fatty acids

present in oil.

Medical and epidemiological studies have demonstrated that

ω-3

fatty acids are

essential nutrients and play a role in human health for the prevention of cardiovas-

cular diseases, being antithrombotic, anti-inﬂammatory, antiarrhythmic, and favor-

ing plaque stabilization. Therefore, the intake of foods containing high amounts of

α-linolenic

acid is recommended. Also, an important ratio of unsaturated fats to

target in the human diet is that of

ω-6:ω-3

fatty acids. The ideal ratio ranges from

1:1 to 3:1, but generally in the western diet, it is much higher, even in vegetable oils,

where the content of

ω-6

fatty acids is high. The ratio is lower than 1 in chia (Ixtaina

et al.

2011;

Silveira Coelho and de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado2014); therefore,

chia seeds or extracted oil can be used as a means to balance the unsaturated fatty

acid intake in diets.

However, genotype and environmental conditions can inﬂuence the fatty acid

composition more than the total oil content in chia seeds (Ayerza

2009, 2011;

Ayerza and Coates

2004, 2009a, b, 2011),

and namely

α-linolenic

content of chia

seeds varies under differing environmental conditions and ecosystems, even in the

case of a common genetic source. In general, it has been observed that as elevation

of the seed production location increases, oil saturation decreases since the levels of

α-linolenic

and linoleic fatty acid increase and palmitic and stearic fatty acids

decrease (Ayerza and Coates

2011).

The ratio of

ω-6:ω-3

fatty acid ratio decreases

and that of polyunsaturated fatty acid/saturated fatty acids ratio increases. Also cool

temperatures can often positively affect the level of unsaturation of chia fatty acids

as for other oil seed crops (Ayerza

2009;

Ayerza and Coates

2004, 2011).

In addition to important fatty acid composition, chia seed and oil also represent a

rich font of compounds which have beneﬁcial effects on human health such as

vitamin B (Bushway et al.

1984)

and natural antioxidants such as tocopherols,

phytosterols, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds, including chlorogenic acid,

caffeic acid, myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol (e.g., Reyes-Caudillo et al.

2008;

Marineli et al.

2014;

Amato et al.

2015),

and do not represent a hazard for human

health (Bresson et al.

2009).

Amato et al. (2015) report the ﬁrst data on the quality of chia seeds produced in

Europe, from an experiment conducted in Basilicata. They found that oil concen-

tration from Basilicata seeds was not signiﬁcantly different than that of commer-

cially available seeds from Australia and Peru, but characterized by a higher

concentration of pigments (chlorophyll and carotenoids) and

α-linolenic

acid.

Chia seeds are also a source of protein and ﬁber: Capitani et al. (2012) report that

after oil extraction, chia meal contains 19–23 % of proteins and 33.9–39.9 % of

dietary ﬁber. Proteins in whole seeds range from 12 to 26 % (Ayerza and Coates

2004, 2009a, b, 2011).

Ayerza and Coates (2009a,

b, 2011)

report changes with

environment of production, and, namely, a highly signiﬁcant decrease in protein if

elevation increases. Its amino acid proﬁle is suitable for the adult diet (Weber

et al.

1991).

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Innovative Crop Productions for Healthy Food: The Case of Chia (Salvia.

. .

One of the most promising features of chia seeds is the 5–6 % content of ﬁber,

which can be used as dietary ﬁber (Ayerza and Coates

2001;

Reyes-Caudillo

et al.

2008)

but are also very interesting for industrial and pharmaceutical uses

because of the high content of soluble ﬁber forming a highly hydrophilic mucilage.

A polysaccharide with a molecular weight of 0.8–2

Da has been identiﬁed

by Lin et al. (1994) who proposed a tentative structure as a tetrasaccharide with

4-O-methyl-a-

-glucoronopyranosyl residues occurring as branches of

xylopyranosyl on the main chain and yielding by acid hydrolysis the monosaccha-

rides

-xylose,

-glucose, and 4-O-methyl-a-

-glucoronic acids in the propor-

tion 2:1:1. The ﬁber is localized in the fruit exocarp (Capitani et al.

2013),

namely,

in the ﬁrst three cell layers. After contact with water, hydrated ﬁlaments of the

mucilage are partially extruded out of the seed and form a transparent “capsule”

which remains strongly attached to the fruit outer layers (Mu~oz et al.

2012a, b).

4 Leaf and Stem Quality

The composition of the leaves of

Salvia hispanica

L. has not been the object of

many studies. Ahmed et al. (1994) studied leaf oil and its composition from leaves

and found 52 compounds. They identiﬁed 42 of the chemical components and found

that oil composition was dominated by

β-caryophyllene,

globulol,

γ-murolene,

β-pinene, α-humulene,

germacrene-B, and widdrol, but the relative amounts varied

as a function of geographical area where the plant was grown, ranging from

California to Texas to Argentina.

Peiretti and Gai (2009) reported a concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids of

62.3–75.2 % of the total fatty acids in the plant biomass, with changes between

single components as a function of growing stages: they recorded a decrease of the

linolenic acid content from 64.9 % of the total fatty acids at early-vegetative stage

to 49.9 % at the budding stage, while other fatty acids increased. They also found an

increase in the ﬁbrous fractions and a strong decrease of the crude protein content

after the shooting period. Another study (Peiretti

2010)

showed increases in dry

matter (from 8.4 to 22.4 % of fresh plant weight) during the growth cycle of chia

while water soluble carbohydrates increased from 8.6 to 21.3 % of the dry matter.

Values of soluble nitrogen in the whole plant ranged from 10.5 to 17.4 %.

Recently research conducted in Basilicata, Southern Italy (Amato et al.

2015),

has shown secondary metabolites in leaves and provides the ﬁrst report of ﬂavo-

noids in chia leaves, including two uncommon compounds: acetyl vitexin and

acetyl orientin which had never been reported before in the Lamiaceae family.

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R. Bochicchio et al.

5 Uses

Chia seeds are an important source of

ω-3,

proteins, and antioxidants, and as such,

their ﬁrst use—traditional and future—is as a functional food or a nutritional

supplement. Seeds may be consumed whole, after oil extraction (consuming both

oil and meals), or ground as an additive to other food ingredients. They offer

advantages over other available

ω-3

sources such as the higher content of

ω-3

(Ayerza and Coates

2004),

the long shelf-life of whole seeds (Ahmed et al.

1994;

Amato et al.

2015),

and the lack of ﬁshy ﬂavors (Coates and Ayerza

1998).

According to Ayerza and Coates (2011), keeping into account the variation in

α-linolenic

fatty acid contents found in chia seeds between growing environments,

an adult with an intake of 2,700 cal would need between 22.5 and 26.5 g/day of

seeds or between 6.9 and 7.9 g/day of oil to reach the required daily recommenda-

tions of

ω-3

fatty acid. Chia can be incorporated into human diets for their protein

content and composition, alone or as ingredients to produce a better source of

proteins compared to other grains. Oil extracted from chia may be used as a

seasoning or in cosmetics (Mu~oz et al.

2013).

Also, it has been used in ethnic

medicine for eye infections (Lu and Foo

2002;

Reyes-Caudillo et al.

2008).

Chia seeds and oil can be added as ingredients to obtain functional foods, as

tested in bakery products (Pizarro et al.

2013;

Marineli et al.

2014;

Silveira Coelho

and de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado2015). Chia seeds do not contain gluten. Coeliac

disease has lately become one of the most important food intolerances, and gluten-

free diets are increasingly adopted, but according to Steffolani et al. (2014), they

often are unbalanced and poor in ﬁber, iron, calcium, and rich in saturated fats.

Adding chia to gluten-free ﬂours improves their nutritional qualities and does not

negatively affect organoleptic characteristics (Steffolani et al.

2014).

Therefore, the use of chia seeds is growing in food industry for the production of

bread, bars, cookies, and breakfast products especially in the USA, Latin America,

and Australia (Cabrera and Cerna

2014).

Steffolani et al. (2014) report that whole or

pre-hydrated seeds give better results compared to ground seeds for bread-making,

in terms of lower speciﬁc volume and higher ﬁrmness and color. Cabrera and Cerna

(2014) reported that the concentration of chia seeds affects texture and color but not

the taste of bread and found the ideal amount of chia seeds is 3 %.

Mucopolysaccharides contained in chia fruits are useful as soluble dietary ﬁber

and result in the production of gel surrounding the seeds when hydrated. This

mucilage has been reported to be essentially composed of polysaccharides (de la

Paz Salgado-Cruz et al.

2013)

and to have exceptional physical properties due to the

high soluble to insoluble ﬁber ratio (de la Paz Salgado-Cruz et al.

2013):

it absorbs

27 times its own weight of water, and this amount is affected by the concentration

and type of salts (Mu~oz et al.

2012a, b).

According to Ahmed et al. (1994)

hydrated seeds are traditionally used in beverages called “agua fresca” or “chia

fresca” in Mexico.

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Innovative Crop Productions for Healthy Food: The Case of Chia (Salvia.

. .

The gel-forming phenomenon occurs in the mouth when fruits are chewed and

continues inside the stomach. This gel has important effects on nutrition and health

due to:

– A soothing effect on the digestive tract

– The creation of a barrier for enzymes, therefore a slow down and reduction of the

breakdown of complex carbohydrates into sugars

– A satiety sensation due to the increase in the volume of the hydrates’ mass

(Gentry et al.

1990)

– An increase in viscosity of the bolus which then proceeds slowly in the intestinal

tract, and this makes digestion more efﬁcient and prolongs the feeling of satiety

(Gentry et al.

1990;

Capitani et al.

2012)

– Soluble ﬁbers forming the gel act as probiotic and regulate blood sugar and

cholesterol levels (Gentry et al.

1990;

Capitani et al.

2013)

Thanks to its physical properties chia mucopolysaccharide can be used in many

applications, from food to pharmaceutical industry (de la Paz Salgado-Cruz

et al.

2013):

as a thickening and stabilizing agent in products such as preserves,

yogurt, mayonnaise, and sauces (de la Paz Salgado-Cruz et al.

2013).

According to

Steffolani et al. (2014) this mucilage could be used in baked products as a substitute

for eggs or oil.

The use of microscopy, spectroscopy, and image analysis in a study conducted

by de la Paz Salgado-Cruz et al. (2013) shows that chia mucilage can be relevant to

nanotechnology research and applications since it is formed by a network of

microﬁbrils of 18–45 nm width. They can therefore be considered as nano-

aggregates and are likely to have several active sites on their surface. Chia mucilage

is therefore suited for many high-technology uses such as the formation of nano-

composites or the controlled release of drugs.

Mu~oz et al. (2012a,

proposed the use of chia hydrocolloids to improve the

properties of ﬁlms and showed that ﬁlms could be made from the mucilage of

Salvia

hispanica

L. and whey protein and Dick (2014) developed biodegradable ﬁlms

from chia ﬂours and mucilage. Both works show that resulting materials have low

permeability and good mechanical properties. Dick (2014) also proved that chia-

based bioﬁlms have an excellent ability to absorb ultraviolet radiations and there-

fore can protect packaged goods. Chia mucilage has also been used as an experi-

mental model for the study of plant-soil water relations by Kroener et al. (2014).

One technical problem in the use of chia mucilage is related to the difﬁcult

separation of the gel from fruit coats since it is ﬁrmly attached to the fruit exocarp

outer cell layers (de la Paz Salgado-Cruz et al.

2013).

According to Capitani

et al. (2013) this phenomenon is possibly due to the association of mucilage with

the columella and the cell wall, in analogy with ﬁndings on

Arabidopsis.

This issue

is addressed by separation techniques such as the use of sonication and high

pressure ﬁltration (Marin Flores et al.

2008)

or lyophilization (Capitani et al.

2013).

The high concentration of health-promoting compounds in chia seeds allows to

envisage the incorporation of chia seed into animal feed to increase the linolenic

acid concentration and to decrease cholesterol levels in meat and eggs (Norlaily

URU, Alm.del - 2020-21 - Bilag 67: Henvendelse af 3/12-20 fra Martin Toft vedr. foretræde om chia frø

R. Bochicchio et al.

et al.

2012).

Ayerza and Coates (1999,

2000, 2001)

and Ayerza et al. (2002) remark

that chia seeds do not show the disadvantages of other source of polyunsaturated

fatty acids in the animal diet, such as ﬁshy ﬂavor and digestive problems.

Ayerza and Coates (2000) studied the effect of a diet including chia seeds on

poultry and found a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids and a low level of

cholesterol and saturated fats in egg yolk. In a research on milk cows’ diet, Ayerza

and Coates (2006) found that chia seeds did not affect production or total fatty acid

and cholesterol content, but they caused an increase in the percentage of

ω-3

fatty

acids.

Meineri and Peiretti (2007) fed chia seeds to rabbits and report that a 10 % of

chia seeds increases the digestibility of acid detergent ﬁber, dry matter, organic

matter, crude protein, crude ﬁber and gross energy. Peiretti and Meineri (2008)

found signiﬁcant increases in polyunsaturated fatty acids in meat as a function of

the increase of chia seed ratio in the rabbit diet.

According to other authors, the seed meal after oil extraction can be a good

source of protein with adequate amounts of amino acids and as such could be used

as a feed supplement (Bushway et al.

1984;

Weber et al.

1991)

Regarding leaves and whole plants, Peiretti and Gai (2009) reported that the

quality of chia forage is a function of harvest time and is optimal before shooting.

Peiretti (2010) suggests that chia has a good potential for ensiling, based on lab-

scale experiments showing that the fermentation of chia plants is characterized by a

lack of lactic acid and the presence of alcohols and volatile fatty acids. He found

that isobutyric acid decreased with increasing wilting level down to null values at

dry matter levels of more than 28.5 % of the fresh biomass. Ethnobotanical uses of

chia leaves (Cahill

2003)

include leaves and vegetative parts of

Salvia hispanica

L. for medicinal purposes.

Ahmed et al. (1994) report that due to their oil composition, chia leaves are of

potential interest for extracting ﬂavors and fragrance; they also raise the hypothesis

of use as insecticides, based on the observation that the canopy seems to deter

whiteﬂy and other insects. Subsequent research, though, has shown attacks by

insects as reported below (section on disease and insect control).

6 Agronomic Management

Agronomic management is one of the most important aspects in cropping systems,

for the success of crops, but also for the correct management of resources and

energetic inputs and sustainability. Reports on agronomic management of chia are

only just starting to appear in the scientiﬁc literature; most of them are based on

experiments and observations conducted in the areas of origin of South and Central

America and focus mainly on the response of different genotypes to growing

environments in terms of phenology, yield, and quality of seeds (Ayerza and Coates

2009a, b;

Ayerza

1995, 2010, 2011, 2013;

Lobo Zavalia et al.

2011).

Ongoing

research in Basilicata, Southern Italy (Fig.

2),

provides the ﬁrst report of seeds

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Innovative Crop Productions for Healthy Food: The Case of Chia (Salvia.

. .

Fig. 2

Plants of

Salvia

hispanica

L. in

experimental ﬁelds in

Basilicata, Southern Italy

produced in Europe (Bochicchio et al.

2015)

and shows that while quality is

comparable to that of other traditional or new production areas (Amato

et al.

2015),

yields are quite low, although still in line with some of the low-

producing areas of origin. This is due to late ﬂowering of the traditional short-day

genotypes at the latitudes of South Europe and therefore to the occurrence of

autumn low temperatures during grain ﬁlling. In order to fully exploit the potential

for chia seed production therefore new genotypes ﬁt for high latitudes (Jamboonsri

et al.

2012)

need to be used in this case. Conversely, a high potential for the

production of whole fresh biomass up to 59.71 t ha

À1

(Bochicchio et al.

2015),

and for leaf production, with values of up to 11.06 t ha

À1

of fresh and 2.02 t ha

À1

dry biomass (Amato et al.

2015)

have been obtained with short-day genotypes due

to the long duration of the vegetative stage.

Soil

Chia

prefers sandy, well-drained soils with moderate salinity and with a pH

ranging from 6 to 8.5 (Yeboah et al.

2014).

According to some authors this crop has

low salt tolerance, and salinity can signiﬁcantly reduce the seed oil yield (Heuer

et al.

2002).

However, chia plants adapt well to soils belonging to other texture

classes provided they have good drainage and are not too wet (Mu~oz et al.

2013;

Lobo Zavalia et al.

2011;

Baginsky et al.

2014).

This crop is semi-tolerant to acid

soils and drought (Mu~oz et al.

2013;

Baginsky et al.

2014).

Climatic Requirements

Chia

is a drought-resistant crop, and it has been

suggested as a choice for cropping systems in semi-arid environments (Ayerza

and Coates

2009a, b).

This plant can grow in arid environments, and it has been

proposed as an alternative to existing forage crops (Peiretti and Gai

2009).

Mini-

mum and maximum growth temperatures of this crop are 11–36

C, with an

optimum range between 16 and 26

C. It is well known that this plant is very

sensitive to low temperature, and it cannot produce seeds since it is killed by frost

before ﬂowers set (Ayerza and Coates

2005).

The duration of the crop cycle in most

cases ranges from 140 to 180 days (de Kartzow

2013;

Coates and Ayerza

1996),

but

URU, Alm.del - 2020-21 - Bilag 67: Henvendelse af 3/12-20 fra Martin Toft vedr. foretræde om chia frø

R. Bochicchio et al.

being chia sensitive to day length, the growing cycle strictly depends on the latitude

where it is planted (Coates

2011).

Water

While being able to grow in dry conditions (Baginsky et al.

2014),

Salvia

hispanica

L. beneﬁts from rainfall events ranging from 300 to 1,000 mm during the

whole growing season (Yeboah et al.

2014;

Coates and Ayerza

1996).

The optimal

distribution of precipitation for this crop allows a good supply of rainfall during the

ﬁrst phenological phases corresponding to vegetative growth, while drier condi-

tions are required during subsequent phases, especially seed maturation (Yeboah

et al.

2014).

The crop can be grown in rainfed or irrigated conditions (Coates and

Ayerza

1996),

but there is a lack of scientiﬁc literature on irrigation experimental

trials, so there is no exact quantiﬁcation of evapotranspiration of this crop.

Fertilization

There is no published data from speciﬁc ﬁeld experiment on fertil-

ization of chia so far; for this reason information on this aspect is few, fragmentary,

and imprecise.

Chia

grows well in soils with a good amount of nutrients, while a

low soil nitrogen content seems to strongly reduce yield (Coates

2011).

Coates and

Ayerza

1996

reported amounts of nitrogen applied in ﬁeld settings ranging from

21 to 45 units and Pozo Pozo (2010) reports amounts as high as 115 units.

According to de Kartzow (2013), though, the recommended doses of N, P

and K

O are 51, 43, and 60 units, respectively; the author also suggests to apply

50 units of calcium sulfate.

First results of research conducted in Basilicata, Southern Italy, has shown that

after organic fertilization at sowing nitrogen topdressing has not improved yield, in

connection with a higher incidence of lodging (Bochicchio et al.

2015).

Amato

et al. (2015) also showed that mineral fertilization increased free acidity, chloro-

phyll, and carotenoids in seeds, whereas it reduced

p-anisidine

value, phenols, and

oxidative stability. It also seemed to affect the amount of secondary metabolites in

leaves.

Sowing

In South America chia is sown at a rate of 5–6 kg ha

À1

with a variable row

spacing, the most frequent is 0.7–0.8 m. Some studies have shown that planting date

affects yield, and, namely, earlier sowing results in higher yields probably due to a

longer vegetative growth period (Coates

2011).

Growth and yield of

chia

depend

also on planting method and planting density. A recent study has shown that direct

planting instead of transplanting allows to achieve the best yields (Yeboah

et al.

2014).

As regards plant density, it has been observed that for

Salvia hispanica

L. the greatest variations in seed yield are related to the different planting method

and plant density used in the different environment of production (Yeboah

et al.

2014),

and according to available data for this crop, the higher the planting

density, the greater the seed yield. Results of Yeboah et al. (2014) show highest

yields at a planting density of 40,000 plants ha

À1

with narrow-row spacing

(0.5 m

0.5 m).

A ﬁeld experiment conducted at Atella in Basilicata (Southern Italy) tested the

response of chia to sowing densities of 4–125 plants m

À2

and ﬁrst results show that

URU, Alm.del - 2020-21 - Bilag 67: Henvendelse af 3/12-20 fra Martin Toft vedr. foretræde om chia frø

Innovative Crop Productions for Healthy Food: The Case of Chia (Salvia.

. .

seed yield increased with plant density (Bochicchio et al.

2015).

In Kentucky we

ﬁnd that 2–3 kg ha

À1

provides better yields with less lodging.

Weed Control

As for many crops, the early stages of growing are critical times for

weed competition; this is especially true for

chia

since no herbicide has been found

to be fully satisfying for weed control so far. Indeed Coates (2011) indicates that the

ﬁrst 45 days are very sensitive because the pressure of weed is high at a time when

the growth rate of chia is very low compared with common weeds. After a good

establishment of chia plants, it is possible to control weeds manually and mechan-

ically until canopy closure (Coates

2011).

There is an important need to investigate

weed control in relation to plant density as highlighted in a study by Pozo Pozo

(2010). In a pesticide trial conducted in Chile, Villegas et al. (2012) compared

different herbicides and concluded that linuron showed the best behavior in terms of

weed control and conservation of

chia.

In another study metribuzin and haloxyfop-

methyl-R were used to control weeds with good results (Pozo Pozo

2010).

Disease and Insect Control

According to Pascual-Villalobos et al. (1997) chia

leaves contain essential oils capable to carry a repellent action against insects and

thanks to this characteristic Mu~oz et al. (2013) report previous observations that

this crop can be grown without pesticides or other chemical compounds. Other

authors, though, observed insect attacks in particular foliage beetles able to provoke

a signiﬁcant insect infestation of the plant (Yeboah et al.

2014).

Moreover, in

Southern Italy during the crop seasons 2013 and 2014 (data not shown), insect

attack on leaves by whiteﬂies and aphids were observed. In a recent experimental

trial (Yeboah et al.

2014)

Fusarium wilt infection on chia has also been observed.

Moreover, recently the presence of two viruses infecting chia plants was reported,

and the infection was able to determine severe disease symptoms (Celli et al.

2014).

Also, Celli et al. (2014) conﬁrmed that the virus was transmitted by whiteﬂies, and

this conﬁrms the presence of species of

Aleyrodidae

family on this crop as was

observed in our ﬁeld trials in Southern Italy. Such reports of the occurrence of

common diseases highlight the need to assess the appropriate control methods,

including pesticides useful for the pests and pathogens identiﬁed on this crop.

Harvesting

Salvia hispanica

L. seeds are harvested mechanically. In low input

conditions, average yield is around 600 kg ha

À1

but can be up to 1,200 kg ha

À1

(Coates

2011),

while in high input conditions with irrigation and fertilization, yields

as high as 2,500 kg ha

À1

have been shown in some experimental trials in Argentina

(Coates

2011).

During harvest a great problem is the scalarity of ﬂowering and

maturation: the central ﬂower head matures and dries out while inﬂorescences on

side branches are still green. Waiting until all seeds are dry can increase the risk of

seed loss to rain, wind, or birds (Jamboonsri

2010).

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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R. Bochicchio et al.

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The Hidden Costs of Livestock

Environmental Sustainability: The Case

of Podolian Cattle

Ada Braghieri, Corrado Pacelli, Andrea Bragaglio, Emilio Sabia,

and Fabio Napolitano

Abstract

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is currently one of the most widely used

methods for assessing the environmental impacts and performance of livestock

products. According to this procedure, intensiﬁcation of animal production is

generally advocated to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions compared with extensive

grazing systems due to the use of selected breeds, with enhanced productivity, and

the signiﬁcant reductions in CH

emissions consequent to the use of concentrates

rather than forages. In addition, the impact of intensive systems on land use is much

lower. However, free-ranging Podolian cattle show a number of positive environ-

mental effects, such as increased climate stability, improved soil functionality,

water quality and footprint and preservation from ﬁres along with maintaining an

economically active social community in otherwise unproductive, marginal areas.

Other beneﬁcial effects of extensive Podolian farming system include low compe-

tition with human nutrition and high level of animal health and welfare. An

economic evaluation of these non-commodity outputs should be indirectly esti-

mated by the avoided costs (e.g. reduced veterinary interventions and therapy

treatments) or the lack of proﬁts (e.g. direct payments for the enhancement of

environmental performance) that would have incurred in their absence. These

economic evaluations should be used in order to allocate them as further outputs

to be included in the LCA in order to achieve a more accurate estimation of the

impact of the Podolian farming system.

A. Braghieri (

) • C. Pacelli • A. Bragaglio • F. Napolitano (

)

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali, Universit degli Studi della

Basilicata, Via dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]; [email protected]

E. Sabia

Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria - Unit di ricerca per

la Zootecnia Estensiva, Via Appia Bella Scalo, 85054 Muro Lucano, Potenza, Italy

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_4

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A. Braghieri et al.

1 Introduction

According to The State of Food and Agriculture 2009, the agriculture sector is the

world’s largest user of natural resources (FAO

2009).

Taking into account the entire

livestock commodity chain, from land use and feed production, to livestock farming

and waste management, to product processing and transportation, the livestock

sector plays an important role in climate change, representing 14.5 % of human-

induced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Beef and cattle milk production

accounts for the majority of the emissions (41 and 20 % of the sector’s emissions,

respectively). Feed production and processing and enteric fermentation from rumi-

nants are the two main sources of emissions (45 and 39 % of sector emissions,

respectively) while manure storage and processing represent 10 % (FAO

2013).

Thus, an increased interest in the greenhouse gas (GHG) intensity of food products

has induced a lot of discussion in the media regarding the climate impacts of beef

production systems.

2 Environmental Impact Assessment

Currently, many different methods are used to assess the environmental impacts

and performance of livestock products. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a well-

developed internationally standardised method and management tool (ISO 14040

2006;

ISO 14044

2006)

for quantifying the emissions, resources consumed and

environmental and health impacts of products throughout their entire life cycle,

from raw material extraction through transport, manufacturing and use all the way

to the end of their life (from cradle to grave). According to ISO 14040 (2006), LCA

consists of four phases: (1) deﬁnition of goal and scope of the analysis, the

functional unit, the impact categories and the system boundaries; (2) life cycle

inventory (collection of data that identify the system inputs and outputs and

discharges to the environment); (3) performance of impact assessment (calculating

the contributions made by the material and energy inputs and outputs tabulated in

the inventory phase to a speciﬁed suite of environmental impact categories,

e.g. using the SimaPro 8.1 LCA software package); and (4) analysis and interpre-

tation of results (aiming to identify hot spots and possibilities of decreasing

environmental impacts of the system).

It is becoming increasingly common to express the environmental impacts of the

production of human food commodities as carbon footprints (CFPs), taking into

account all GHGs that are produced during the life cycle of a product. CFPs are

expressed as CO

-equivalents (CO

-eq.), CH

having a value of 25 and N

O a value

of 298 (Forster et al.

2007).

Ruminant products have higher CFP production

compared with other food commodities (Williams et al.

2007);

in fact, due to the

nature of their diet (based primarily on forages) and digestive system, ruminants

produce hydrogen and CH

during the fermentative digestion of their feed. CH

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The Hidden Costs of Livestock Environmental Sustainability: The Case of.

. .

constitutes a loss of energy equivalent to 2–12 % of gross energy ingested (Johnson

and Johnson

1995).

2.1

Limitations of the Standard Method of Sustainability

Assessment

According to the LCA procedure, intensiﬁcation of animal production is generally

advocated to mitigate GHGs emissions compared with extensive grazing systems.

In fact, intensive systems consider the use of selected breeds, with enhanced

productivity, associated with signiﬁcant reductions in CH

emissions, related to

larger use of concentrates rather than forages (Capper

2012).

However, these results

focus on emission of greenhouse gases of a single product: beef. On the contrary,

for extensive farming systems, the outputs in LCA analysis have to refer not only to

material products but also to other non-commodity outputs (OECD

2010)

and non-

marketable public goods (Tscharntke et al.

2005),

named “ecosystem services”

(de Groot et al.

2002;

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

2005;

Liu et al.

2010)

and

related to the multifunctional role of livestock, especially in marginal areas.

3 The Multifunctional Role of Podolian Farming System

Rather than resource sufﬁciency, the concept of sustainability in terms of functional

integrity is well suited for extensive livestock farming, where domesticated ani-

mals, wildlife, forage, non-forage plants and manure display complex relationships

and the capability to coexist as different components of a system. Husbandry of

native breeds, such as Podolian cattle (Fig.

4.1),

can provide an opportunity for a

sustainable use of natural ecosystems and maintain an economically active social

community in Southern Italy marginal areas. Podolian cattle, in fact, are a local

breed, characterized by a high rusticity and are well adapted to live in a semiarid

environment with poor vegetation, as suggested by skin pigmentation, well-

developed dewlap and sturdy hooves. Their most common rearing system is

based on either no-shelter pasture or pasture with nocturnal shelter (Napolitano

et al.

2005).

Most often, cows and calves are not supplemented, whereas young

adults receive concentrates in the ﬁnishing period (Braghieri et al.

2011a, 2013).

According to Liu et al. (2010), ecosystem services include all the beneﬁts that

people obtain from ecosystems and they are divided (Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment

2005)

into four categories: provisioning services (e.g. food and

water), regulating services (e.g. regulation of climate through the storing of carbon

and control of local rainfall and removal of pollutants by ﬁltering the air and water),

supporting services (e.g. soil preservation and nutrient cycling) and sociocultural

services (e.g. labour provision, recreation and provision of historic, scientiﬁc and

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A. Braghieri et al.

Fig. 4.1

Extensive Podolian farming systems can provide an opportunity for a sustainable use of

natural ecosystems and maintain an economically active social community in Southern Italy

marginal areas

educational information). Other aspects related to animal production and consid-

ered relevant by the public opinion include animal welfare and product quality.

In the next few paragraphs we are going to make a brief analysis, suggesting an

economic evaluation of various services provided by Podolian farming system

accounting for its multifunctional role in the southern marginal areas of Italy, in

order to allocate them as further outputs in LCA analysis.

3.1

Land Use

Nearly one-third of terrestrial lands have agricultural crops or planted pastures as a

dominant land use (accounting for at least 30 % of total area), thus having a

profound ecological effect on the whole landscape (Scherr and McNeely

2008).

According to the Eco-indicator 99 methodology of LCA procedure (PRe Consul-

tants), land or occupation of land is considered an important impact category. This

parameter showed a heavy impact when considering extensive farming systems,

such as Podolian system (Roma et al.

2009).

Although LCA software programmes

accurately take into account the appropriate datasets, land use impact evaluation

should also take into account the quality of the lands used as pasture that in the

Podolian system are marginal (upland and of low fertility); therefore, this farming

system may represent a tool to maintain an economically active social community

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The Hidden Costs of Livestock Environmental Sustainability: The Case of.

. .

in these areas. As no realistic alternative to this production system exists, these

lands would risk desertiﬁcation. Conversely, the husbandry of these cattle shows a

number of positive environmental effects, such as increased climate stability,

improved soil functionality, water quality and footprint and preservation from

ﬁres. In addition, positive social and cultural functions, such as labour, touristic

activities and production of typical products directly linked to the area, are also

promoted.

As for climate stability, permanent grasslands store nearly as much carbon as

forests (EIP-AGRI2014). Carbon sequestration potential of permanent pastures was

estimated between 0.01 and 0.3 Gt (gross tonnes of volume) C year

À1

(Lal

2004).

addition, a number of management practices, such as maintenance of permanent

grassland, adequate grazing pressure, cutting and haymaking, manure application

and reduction of tillage, may enhance C sequestration (Lugato and Berti

2008)

and

decrease rather than increase N

O emissions (Wolf et al.

2010).

Soil functionality, in terms of good structure, sufﬁcient organic matter and

resilience to erosion by wind or water, may be improved by the manure of grazing

animals, which represents the most important source of nutrients, and organic

matter. When deposited directly on pastures and ﬁelds, manure does not increase

signiﬁcantly the amount of methane (Bernues et al.

2011).

Intensive rearing systems show a high water footprint (Steinfeld et al.

2006;

Hoekstra and Chapagain

2007)

in terms of water use (e.g. water embedded in feed

production and farming practices and drunk by animals) and water quality

(i.e. pollution due to mismanagement of manure, antibiotics and agrochemicals).

On the contrary, water-related problems are comparatively irrelevant in low-input

systems based on grazing at low stocking densities and on utilisation of local

natural resources.

According to de Groot et al. (2002), economic evaluation of these ecosystem

services may be indirectly performed by the avoided costs that would have incurred

in the absence of these services. Examples are wildﬁre prevention practices

(e.g. cleaning, cutting and partial deforestation) that have relevant costs in terms

of human labour and environmental impact or fertilisation and agricultural prac-

tices to avoid desertiﬁcation.

The new Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) introduces a mandatory “green-

ing” component of direct payments for the enhancement of environmental perfor-

mance (Regulation EU No 1307/2013). Member States should use part of their

national ceilings for direct payments in order to grant an annual payment for

compulsory practices linked to agriculture, such as crop diversiﬁcation, the main-

tenance of permanent grassland and the establishment of ecological focus areas.

Regarding permanent grassland, among other aspects, Member States shall ensure

that the ratio of areas of permanent grassland to the total agricultural area declared

by the farmers will not decrease by more than 5 % compared to a reference ratio to

be established by Member States in 2015.

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A. Braghieri et al.

3.2

Lower Competition with Human Nutrition

There is a growing concern about the use of grains in animal feeding that could be

used to produce food eaten by humans (O’Mara

2012).

The degree of competition

with human nutrition should be another aspect to consider, in terms of sustainable

production, as diets in intensive meat systems are mainly based on cereals. Since

much of the energy value is lost during conversion from plant to animal matter, it

would be much more efﬁcient for humans to consume cereals directly (Gerbens-

Leenes and Nonhebel

2005).

In addition, when considering the efﬁciency of food

production, the quantity of human-edible energy and protein used in animal feed

should be used rather than gross energy efﬁciency or protein intake/output ratios

(Oltjen and Beckett

1996).

Although beef production systems are considerably less

efﬁcient than monogastric livestock systems in terms of total energy consumed,

recalculating efﬁciencies of energy and protein production on the basis of human-

edible food produced per unit of human-edible feed consumed gave higher efﬁ-

ciencies for ruminants than for monogastric animals (Gill et al.

2009).

A low degree

of competition with humans was found for Podolian beef production (Napolitano

et al.

2005).

These animals are able to convert vast renewable resources from

grassland, pasture and by-products into food edible for humans. The calculation

of human-edible returns should be performed using only gross energy (GE) and

crude protein (CP) inputs derived from human-edible foods (Napolitano et al.

2005)

and used in the different stages of the Podolian farming system (i.e. cow pregnancy,

suckling and weaning of calves and fattening phase).

3.3

Animal Health and Welfare

A sustainable animal production system should pursue long-lasting economically

competitive activities enabling to minimize any negative effects to the animals, the

people, the environment and the community (McGlone and Sutherland

2007).

It is

obvious that some of these aims are contrasting. For instance, an environmental

sustainable farming system should minimize methane emissions by increasing the

efﬁciency of transformation of dietary energy into human-edible products. This

approach intends to reduce the amount of ﬁbrous feeds in ruminant feeding while

introducing more selected and efﬁcient breeds (FAO

2006).

Both strategies may

have adverse effects at animal welfare level. The lack of ﬁbre in ruminant nutrition

leads to increased levels of disease and abnormal behavioural expressions, such as

stereotypies (Fraser

2008).

In addition, when native cattle breeds, such as Podolian,

are outdoors, they are able to express most of their most relevant natural behav-

iours, albeit ingesting poor-quality forages while grazing on natural pastures

(Braghieri et al.

2011a, b).

The substitution of local native breeds with more

selected animals may also represent a hazard to animal welfare as these animals

are often more susceptible to infectious and production diseases (e.g. Ameni

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The Hidden Costs of Livestock Environmental Sustainability: The Case of.

. .

et al.

2007)

with potentially higher levels of pharmaceuticals involved in the

production process.

Napolitano et al. (2010) report that information about animal welfare is an

important determinant of consumer willingness to pay (WTP) for various animal-

based products. In addition, many producers certify their products with labels

(e.g. Animal Welfare Approved, Humane Farm Animal Care, Neuland, Beter

Leven) ensuring high standard for farm animal welfare along all the supply chain

and receiving a ﬁnancial reward for that. The indirect market valuation of this non-

commodity output could be either performed assessing consumer WTP (de Groot

et al.

2002)

or evaluating the premium price for animal welfare-friendly products.

In addition, the money saved could be quantiﬁed as a result of the reduction in

veterinary interventions and therapy treatments.

3.4

Conservation of Biodiversity

As agriculture has intensiﬁed, biodiversity conservation depends primarily on areas

with extensive management or on unfarmed features around the farm

(e.g. uncultivated strips between crops, walls or hedges and farm tracks) providing

food, shelter and breeding sites for birds, mammals and insects and the growing of

native ﬂowers and plants. Farmland biodiversity also includes the rich genetic

diversity of local breeds of farm animals and varieties of crops well adapted to

the soils, vegetation and climate of their region. In addition, natural ecosystems

provide habitat to wild plants and animals contributing to the conservation of

biological and genetic diversity acting as a “storehouse” of genetic information

(de Groot et al.

2002).

Livestock intensiﬁcation, with high breeding selection, and

the abandonment of marginal farmland caused a loss of biodiversity. On the

contrary, autochthonous breeds can be strategic for adaptation to climate changes

in terms of resistance to higher temperature and water scarcity, lower diet quality

and disease sensitivity (Hoffmann

2010).

Apart from wild ancestors, which for

cattle are extinct, and few examples of feral populations (e.g. Hernandez

et al.

1999),

domestic herds kept in natural environments represent the main source

of information about natural behaviour. Podolian cattle, one of the most direct

descendants of the ancient wild bovine with a genetic relationship with similar

breeds from the Balkans, Anatolia and the Middle East, may be considered a valid

example of biodiversity preservation. In fact, they have been subjected to a lower

selective pressure (artiﬁcial insemination has been rarely used) and a higher natural

selection (animals kept in natural environments, where food search, avoidance of

predators, maternal care, etc. were essential) as compared with other breeds

(Napolitano et al.

2005).

In addition, as Podolian cows exhibit a higher degree of

adaptability to the local phytocoenosis (e.g. ingestion of ferns), they may also

contribute to the preservation of crops biodiversity (Braghieri et al.

2011b).

Live-

stock diet selection is a key issue as it can affect the sensory properties and the

nutritional composition of animal-based products (Hadjigeorgiou et al.

2005)

with

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A. Braghieri et al.

positive consequences for human health and for the acquisition of characteristics

closely related to the typical rearing environment. This aspect along with some

speciﬁc genetic characteristics of the Podolian breed can positively inﬂuence the

nutritional properties of meat (Braghieri et al.

2005;

Costa et al.

2013),

thus

promoting local niche products that can provide higher ﬁnancial returns for farmers

and a wider rural economy.

A major potential driver for biodiversity conservation is represented by the

payments to farmers and their communities. According to the new CAP, farmers,

probably through a Rural Development Plan (RDP), should be rewarded for the

services they deliver to the wider public, even though they have no market value.

To this end, a new policy instrument has been introduced in the ﬁrst pillar (green-

ing) to promote the provision of environmental public goods: the green direct

payment, which constitutes a major change in the policy framework. This accounts

for 30 % of the national direct payment envelope and rewards farmers for respect-

ing three obligatory agricultural practices, namely, maintenance of permanent

grassland, ecological focus areas and crop diversiﬁcation.

4 Concluding Remarks

An economic evaluation of all ecosystem services, non-marketable public goods

and non-commodity outputs produced by free-ranging extensive systems, such as

the Podolian farming system, should be indirectly estimated either by the avoided

costs (e.g. reduced veterinary interventions and therapy treatments) or the lack of

proﬁts (e.g. direct payments for the enhancement of environmental performance)

that would have incurred in their absence. These economic evaluations should be

used in order to allocate them as further outputs to be included in the LCA in order

to achieve a more accurate estimation of the impact of the Podolian farming system.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Feeding, Nutrition and Sustainability

in Dairy Enterprises: The Case

of Mediterranean Buffaloes (Bubalus

bubalis)

Emilio Sabia, Fabio Napolitano, Salvatore Claps, Ada Braghieri,

Nicoletta Piazzolla, and Corrado Pacelli

Abstract

Buffalo farming is a dairy enterprise emerging in Italy and other

European and non-European countries due to the progressive saturation of the

dairy market, which requires product diversiﬁcation. As a response to the increasing

demand for dairy buffalo products, most farms are undertaking a progressive

intensiﬁcation of rearing techniques. In particular, feeding rely on different rations

according to the physiological stage of the animals. Buffalo heifers are generally

offered a total mixed ration based on corn silage and ryegrass hay, which require

high amounts of water, chemical fertilisers and fossil fuel. Additionally, lactating

buffaloes receive concentrates with an even higher environmental impact, whereas

more ﬁbrous feeds are used in the dry period. Although the emission factors for

enteric fermentation and manure management in buffaloes appear to be 38.4 % and

20.5 % less than in dairy cows, respectively, the contribution of dairy buffalo farms

to global warming has been estimated as higher than that produced by dairy cow

farms. Therefore, studies are needed to assess the general environmental impact of

this species and identify alternative environmental friendly rearing techniques.

1 Introduction

The water buffalo (Bubalis

bubalis)

is a large bovid spread throughout the world,

especially in Asia and in tropical and subtropical regions. The water buffalo

population in the world is about 199 million, more than 80 % placed in Southeast

E. Sabia (

) • S. Claps

Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l’analisi dell’economia agraria, Research Unit for the

Extensive Animal Husbandry (CRA-ZOE), Via Appia Bella Scalo, 85054 Muro Lucano, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]; [email protected]

F. Napolitano • A. Braghieri • N. Piazzolla • C. Pacelli

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali, Universit degli Studi della

Basilicata, Via dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected];

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_5

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Table 1

Number of heads

and milk production of

buffaloes kept in the

Mediterranean area

Countries

Albania

Bulgaria

Egypt

Germany

Greece

Italy

Turkey

Total

FAOSTAT (2013)

Head

120

9,212

4,200,000

5,000

1,750

402,659

107,435

4,726,176

E. Sabia et al.

Milk Ton

8,081

2,650,000

Unknown

160

192,455

4,6989

2,897,695

Asia (FAOSTAT

2013).

According to genetic, morphological and productive

differences, two types of water buffalo may be recognised: the

swamp buffalo,

from Assam in the west, through Southeast Asia to China in the east, used mostly as

draft power and as a meat source, and the

river buffalo,

characterised by high milk

yield and more intensive genetic selection, reared in Indian and Mediterranean

regions. The total number of animals raised in Mediterranean area is about 4.7

million, representing 2.4 % of the world population. In Egypt there are 4.2 million

buffaloes (Table

1),

with a milk production of about 2.6 million ton (FAOSTAT

2013),

that are mainly used for direct consumption as Egyptians prefers buffalo

milk than cow milk for its stronger sensory properties despite the higher price

(Helal and Lasheen

2008).

European buffaloes, named

Mediterranean buffalo,

are

all of the river type and are found in Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania,

Kosovo and Republic of Macedonia, and a few hundred in the United Kingdom,

Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Hungary (Table

1).

Italian buffaloes

are 402,000, with a milk production of about 192,000 tons (Table

1),

processed into

Mozzarella cheese. In Italy buffaloes were particularly selected and ofﬁcially

recognised as

Mediterranean Italian breed

in 2000. The largest amount of heads

is concentrated in Campania (Caserta and Salerno), although many buffalo farms

may be found in Latium (Latina and Frosinone provinces) and in Apulia.

The Italian buffalo herd increased to about 52 % from 2005 to 2013, due to the

increasing economic interest for its typical cheese, called “Mozzarella di Bufala

Campana”, which in 1996 was recognised by the Protected Designation of Origin

(PDO), at European level. The average annual production of Mozzarella is about

37,000 t, mainly consumed in Italy. In recent years, other dairy products, such as

ricotta and caciocavallo, have acquired the interest of consumers. The increasing

demand of products of buffalo origin may be attributed to the progressive saturation

of the dairy market, which requires product diversiﬁcation.

The aim of the present chapter is to brieﬂy describe the main features of modern

buffalo farming techniques and identify weaknesses and strengths in terms of

environmental sustainability.

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Feeding, Nutrition and Sustainability in Dairy Enterprises: The Case of.

. .

2 Farming and Feeding Systems

The Italian buffalo farming system in Italy has changed from the extensive use of

meadows and pastures to intensive farming, with loose housing (e.g. cubicles) and

milking routine (machine milking twice a day) similar to dairy cattle.

As to reproduction, natural mating is still the most common practice. However,

efforts by the National Association of Buffalo Breeders (ANASB) aim to spread the

use of biotechnologies, such as artiﬁcial insemination and embryo transfer, for a

more accurate and effective genetic improvement of the breed. At our latitudes,

buffaloes can be considered seasonal animals and an increasing length of daylight

negatively affects their reproductive performances. In fact, about 90 % of calvings

are concentrated in late summer and at beginning of autumn. Consequently, the

production of milk and mozzarella is concentrated in the cold months, while in Italy

most of the market demand for mozzarella cheese is concentrated in summer. In

order to reverse the calving season, the out-of-breeding-season-mating technique

may be gradually introduced (Zicarelli

1997).

It consists in removing bulls from the

herd in October and releasing them again in the herd between March and the end of

September so that most of parturitions occur between the end of January and the

beginning of August.

The feeding system of dairy buffaloes is intensive and similar to dairy cow

feeding. Most of farms are organised with three feeding rations, according to the

buffalo physiological state: lactation period, dry period and heifer growth period.

The forage ration used for the lactation phase and for heifer growth is usually based

on farm production of corn silage. The forages are composed for 60 % by corn

silage and ryegrass hay. The cultivation of 1 ha of maize for animal feed requires

approximately 5,000 m

of water and about 300 kg of urea and 100 kg of P

fertilisers, with relevant consequences on water footprint and environmental

impact. Ryegrass (Lolium

multiﬂorum

L.) for hay production is the crop commonly

used in succession to corn in buffalo farming. The concentrates are largely used

only during the lactation phase. The unifeed technique, which provides all the

dietary components mixed together in one feed using mixing wagons, is widely

adopted for buffalo feeding. Grazing practices are not widespread due to the poor

availability of optimal pastures in terms of quantity and quality. However, a recent

study has shown that grazing may be a valid alternative to intensive rearing systems

for growing heifer (Fig.

1),

with no signiﬁcant effects on the age of puberty and with

interesting cost savings and reduced environmental impact (Sabia et al.

2014).

The dry phase is characterised by a higher use of straw and the inversion of the

ratio of calcium to phosphorus. The use of agricultural by-products is not very

frequent. However, the inclusion of dried stoned olive pomace in a ration for

lactating buffaloes did not produce any signiﬁcant difference in terms of milk

yield while improving some qualitative parameters (Terramoccia et al.

2013).

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E. Sabia et al.

Fig. 1

Buffalo heifers grazing on a Mediterranean natural pasture

2.1

Feeding Behaviour

The dry matter intake of dairy buffaloes (16 kg DM/animal/day) is generally lower

than that of dairy cattle (Terramoccia et al.

2005).

However, these animals show a

higher digestibility of protein and ﬁbre as compared with cattle and sheep (Bartocci

et al.

2005)

with lower emissions in the environment. When kept on pasture, buffalo

heifers show productive and reproductive performances similar to those shown by

conﬁned animals whose diet is based on mixed rations (Sabia et al.

2014).

They eat

a wide variety of plants, although they only occasionally ingest non-herbaceous

plants; buffaloes are, therefore, considered grazers rather than browsers

(Napolitano et al.

2007).

The adaptation to a highly variable diet has also led to a

high resistance to unbalanced diets, particularly in terms of protein excess; as a

result, these animals are rarely affected by lameness of nutritional origin

(Napolitano et al.

2013).

3 Nutritional Requirements of Dairy Buffaloes

The nutritional requirements of dairy buffaloes are inﬂuenced by several factors

related, in particular, to the following three physiological stages: growing period

(i.e. heifers), lactation period, dry period. In each phase, the identiﬁcation of feeds

with high nutrient digestibility could reduce the emissions resulting from enteric

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Feeding, Nutrition and Sustainability in Dairy Enterprises: The Case of.

. .

rumination and increase buffalo farming environmental sustainability (Sabia

et al.

2015).

3.1

Lactating Phase

The standard lactation of buffalo cows is 270 days with an average milk production

of about 2,200 kg. The peak of maximum production is reached at 50–60 days from

calving. Nutritional needs are related to the output of buffalo cows during lactation.

The dry matter content of buffalo milk (18.5 %) is much higher than that of cow

milk (Claps et al.

2007)

and in order to standardise milk production according to fat

and protein contents, Di Palo (1992) developed a speciﬁc equation. Using this

equation Proto (1993) observed that for the production of 1 kg of standardised

buffalo milk, 0.44 Milk Forage Unit (MFU) are necessary. According to Zicarelli

(1999), the energy content of the feed ration for lactating buffaloes may vary from

0.85 to 0.90 MFU/kg DM and the percentage of crude protein (CP) should be

14–15 %. In fact, this author suggests that 2.47 g of CP per 1 g of milk protein are

acceptable levels for a balanced ration; while in early lactation, when the levels of

dry matter intake are lower, this value should be increased by 10 % (Campanile

et al.

1995).

3.2

Dry Phase

The dry phase is the period between the end of lactation and the subsequent calving.

Although this phase may be considered unproductive by farmers, it is fundamental

to obtain satisfactory productive performances in the subsequent lactation. During

this period, buffaloes should be provided with a ration capable to fulﬁl both

maintenance requirements and the requirements for an optimal foetal growth,

which are particularly high in the last months of pregnancy. The requirements

recommended by Proto (1993) for the dry phase of buffaloes are about 0.65 MFU/

kg DM for energy and 10.5 % for CP. In addition, Terramoccia et al. (2005)

suggested the use of fresh forages or hay with high biological value and the

integration with at least 15 %/kg DM of concentrates. An appropriate ration for

this phase should have a low rumen fermentation rate, which promotes the produc-

tion of volatile fatty acids and improves the proliferation of cellulolytic bacteria.

During this phase, a decrease of the absorption process with a drop in the rumen

papillae activity is noticed.

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E. Sabia et al.

3.3

Heifer Growth Phase

In many countries growing heifers are reared exclusively on very poor pasture and

hay. However, this is not the proper approach from an economic and animal welfare

point of view, as the heifer has to reach puberty in the best physical condition. Thus,

in order to reduce their unproductive period, heifers have to be fed with proper

diets, to obtain high daily gains, and anticipate sexual maturity, conception and ﬁrst

calving. However, the studies on the rearing systems to be used to increase growth

rates and reduce the age of puberty of buffalo heifers achieved contrasting results.

Borghese et al. (1997), when comparing various intensive rearing systems at

different energy levels with a pasture system, found that heifers fed a total mixed

ration showed an earlier age of puberty compared with grazing animals. Con-

versely, Terzano et al. (1996) observed that grazing heifers reached puberty earlier

than animals fed corn silage ad libitum, although the latter showed a higher weight

at puberty. Similarly, Sabia et al. (2014) found no signiﬁcant differences in terms of

age of puberty between buffalo heifers reared in intensive or extensive conditions,

although the weights of puberty were higher in conﬁned animals.

4 Sustainability of Dairy Buffalo Farming

Water buffaloes, like other ruminants, are very efﬁcient as they are able to convert

feed with low nutritional quality into products with higher nutritional values.

However, the contribution of methane derived from ruminal fermentations to

agriculturally greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) has led to increasing efforts to

develop strategies for the reduction of ruminant methane production (Martin

et al.

2010).

According to the Kyoto Protocol (1997), 37 industrialised countries

and the European Community, during the ﬁrst commitment, agreed to reduce GHG

emissions to an average of 5 % against 1,990 levels; during the second commitment

period, parties agreed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 % below 1,990 levels

in the 8-year period from 2013 to 2020. Livestock production is responsible for

8–10.8 % of GHG emissions as assessed by International Panel of Climate Changes

(IPCC). In Italy, according to the report of the Institute for the Protection and

Environmental Research (ISPRA), the emission factor for enteric fermentation in

buffaloes appears to be 38.4 % less than the dairy cow, whereas for manure

management the emission factor is 20.5 % less in buffaloes compared with dairy

cows (Cndor et al.

2008).

However, few studies have been conducted on environmental impact assessment

of dairy buffalo farms. Recently, Pirlo et al. (2014) observed that the environmental

impact of dairy buffalo farms, expressed in terms of global warming, was 5.07 kg of

eq per 1 kg of normalised buffalo milk. This value is nearly ﬁve times higher

than that produced by dairy cow farms (O’Brien et al.

2012).

This difference may be

attributed to the fact that dairy buffalo farms require energy inputs for the

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Feeding, Nutrition and Sustainability in Dairy Enterprises: The Case of.

. .

production and the purchase of raw materials similar to those of dairy cows, but

lower outputs in terms of milk production can be obtained. Another aspect of

buffalo farming with a potentially high environmental impact is manure manage-

ment. Faugno et al. (2012) found that buffalo manure has less nitrogen content than

dairy cow manure. In addition, they suggested that immediate incorporation is the

best technique of manure spreading in terms of sustainability, albeit more expen-

sive. Martiniello et al. (2010) observed that the use of buffaloes manure increases

dry matter yield of forage crops compared to traditional management as the carbon–

nitrogen ratio in buffalo manure is able to promote biomass production.

Sabia et al. (2014) suggested that the use of an extensive system based on

grazing for some unproductive phases of animal rearing (e.g. heifer growth)

could reduce the environmental impact of dairy buffalo farms. In particular, free-

ranging animals beneﬁt from forages directly taken from pasture, thus potentially

decreasing the emission of pollutants contributing to global warming, acidiﬁcation

and eutrophication potential, while also reducing non-renewable energy use. A

further beneﬁcial effect of buffalo heifer free-ranging system is the marked reduc-

tion in consumption of feed potentially edible by humans, as most of the plants

growing in natural pastures are not directly usable in human nutrition. Obviously,

buffalo heifer free-ranging system requires a higher level of land occupation.

However, for marginal natural pastures there are no uses other than breeding of

local ruminant species, which also implies a higher level of quality in land use

(e.g. biodiversity conservation, animal welfare).

5 Conclusion

Buffalo farming is an emerging enterprise in Italy and other European and

non-European countries in a dairy market progressively becoming saturated. There-

fore, further studies are needed to assess the environmental impact of this species

and identify alternative environmental friendly rearing techniques.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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URU, Alm.del - 2020-21 - Bilag 67: Henvendelse af 3/12-20 fra Martin Toft vedr. foretræde om chia frø

Sustainability of Sheep and Goat Production

Systems

Mariangela Caroprese, Marzia Albenzio, and Agostino Sevi

Abstract

Sustainability of sheep and goat production systems has been investi-

gated in this chapter in terms of environmental, social, and economic sustainability.

Strategies to reduce waste from animal husbandry activities and the negative impact

of animal husbandry on environment have been described. Social sustainability has

been analyzed in relation to animal welfare and human–animal relationship. Eco-

nomic sustainability of sheep and goat production systems in the Mediterranean

countries has been addressed in terms of animal management plans to improve

animal health, quality of products, and increase proﬁtability of animal production

systems. In particular, strategies to change the basic standard for sheep and goat

productions into high standard of nutritional, hygienic, and technological quality

have been analyzed.

1 Introduction

Sustainable development aims to meet human needs by preserving the natural

environment so that these needs can be met both in the present and in the future

(Peacock and Sherman

2010).

The ﬁeld of sustainable development can be divided

into three concepts: environmental, social, and economic sustainability.

Environmental sustainability is linked to energy use, biodiversity and genetic

conservation, and environmental management; when applied to farm animals,

environmental sustainability is associated to the negative impact of husbandry on

air, soil, and water pollution. Waste from animal husbandry comprises fecal and

urinary output, and production of fermentation and respiration gases, such as carbon

dioxide (CO

) and methane (CH

). In the waste usually high amounts of water,

nitrogen (N), and other inorganic molecules are found.

The link between animal production and natural environment is acquiring more

importance for the sustainability of the farm system (de Rancourt et al.

2006).

M. Caroprese (

) • M. Albenzio • A. Sevi

Department of the Sciences of Agriculture, Food and Environment (SAFE), University of

Foggia, Via Napoli 25, 71122 Foggia, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_6

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M. Caroprese et al.

Consumer concerns about the quality and sustainability, including ethical aspects,

of the production cycle of animal food products is increasing. Social sustainability

concerns politics, social institution, culture, tradition, and civil society. In this

chapter social sustainability is discussed as animal welfare and human–animal

relationship. In particular, the concerns about life quality of farm animal in relation

to human–animal relationship to optimize animal production are presented.

In the Mediterranean area small ruminant farming systems represent one of the

most important agricultural activity connected to the utilization of marginal lands,

with prevalence of pastoral system, low level of mechanization, and production of

typical products, mainly cheeses. Although small ruminant farming systems are

largely diffused in all the Mediterranean countries, the level of animal management

is far from an acceptable level of animal health, quality of products, and

proﬁtability.

1.1

Environmental Sustainability of Sheep and Goat

Production System

Ruminant livestock produce about 80 million tons of methane (CH

) accounting for

about 28 % of anthropomorphic emissions each year (Beauchemin et al.

2008).

is physiologically produced as a by-product of digestion; at farm level CH

emitted both from direct ruminant fermentation and from manure. Methane pro-

duction by ruminants is inﬂuenced by animal size, dry matter intake, carbohydrates,

and other components of the diet (Wilkerson et al.

1994).

The increasing level of

concentrate in the diet of ruminants causes changes in the fermented substrate from

ﬁber to starch and a decline in ruminant pH with a reduction of the proportion of

dietary energy converted to CH

. However, the increased level of concentrate in

ruminant diet should be limited at 50 % of the diet to avoid negative effects on milk

quality. A number of nutritional management strategies to reduce enteric CH

production have been reported, among which are increasing the level of grain and

lipids, and supplementation with ionophores in the diet. Furthermore, a number of

feeding strategies to reduce CH

emissions in animal production systems have been

proposed, such as feeding maize and cereal silages instead of grass silage, improved

pasture management, inclusion of legumes, yeast and enzyme, feed additives, or

plants characterized by secondary compounds with potential CH

suppressing

properties (Beauchemin et al.

2008).

Nitrogen losses originate mainly from the imbalance and the asynchrony

between the rate at which carbohydrates and proteins are degraded at rumen level

(Tamminga

1996).

The imbalance between the simultaneous availability of net

energy and amino acids in the rumen is the main cause for NH

ruminal losses;

ammonia, after its conversion into urea in the liver, is found in blood and milk, and

is excreted in urine. Apart from the contradictory results on the relationship

between CP level of diet and milk yield and composition, the concentration of

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Sustainability of Sheep and Goat Production Systems

urea in the milk is always regarded as a good indicator of efﬁcient use of dietary

protein by the animals, and it is currently used to evaluate and to adjust the diet

(Cannas

2002).

The efﬁciency of dietary N utilization for milk protein synthesis is

rather low in dairy sheep and goat (15–35 %) (NRC

1988),

and the use of high

protein level diets for sustaining milk production in lactating animals is widely

studied. High protein level diet can result in a number of deleterious events:

reducing environmental sustainability of sheep and goat farming, causing an

increase of N output to the environment, and high levels of ammonia pollution in

animal houses, which originates from animals’ urine and feces and can be injurious

to both livestock and stock persons’ health. An increased N excretion in urine and

feces, as a consequence of poor dietary N absorption, can result also in high growth

of microorganisms. Sevi et al. (1999,

2006)

suggest that the efﬁciency of utilization

of dietary N in the lactating ewe increases with decreasing protein levels in the diet

from 16 to 13 %, especially when limiting amino acids (lysine and methionine) in

the ration are encapsulated to prevent bacterial deamination in the rumen. Sheep fed

with a moderate protein level excrete more N than sheep fed with low protein level

of the diet. On the contrary, the low protein level of the diet results in lower amount

of feces, in less wet feces, and in higher NH

release in the urine. The choice of a

proper ventilation regimen in small ruminant housing is critical for the control of

environment and for removing aerial pollutants, which originate from animals and

their excreta. In particular, low ventilation rates can fail in removing efﬁciently the

moisture and gases, which originate from the respiratory activity of animals and the

decomposition and fermentation of manure, resulting in increased relative humidity

and higher air concentrations of ammonia and carbon dioxide. Very high ventilation

rates, instead, can result in higher air dust concentrations, probably due to reduced

humidity levels and to turbulent air currents maintaining dust particles suspended in

the air for a longer time. Ventilation rate is based on the length of ventilation cycles

and on air speed. During summer, dairy sheep need an average ventilation rate of

about 65 m

/h/head achieved by giving most ventilation cycles during the hottest

hours of the day (Sevi et al.

2002, 2003b).

However, also overnight air exchange for

removing gases, mostly ammonia, originated from excreta decomposition and

fermentation are of great importance. Furthermore, combining a moderate protein

level of the diet (16 %) with low ventilation rates result in excretion of 40–64 % of

higher volumes of urine and 40–79 % greater amounts of total water.

Litter management by using paraformaldehyde and bentonite is an effective

strategy for reducing emissions from manure. Paraformaldehyde is a

polyoxymethylene containing 90 to 98 % formaldehyde, which has a recognized

bacteriostatic effect on the microorganisms naturally present in droppings. Litter

treatment with paraformaldehyde was shown to inﬂuence milk hygienic quality

reducing somatic cell count and microbial cell load of 10 and 15 %, respectively.

The use of paraformaldehyde for litter disinfection markedly increased protein

(10 %) and fat (20 %) content in sheep milk with a consequent improvement of

milk coagulation performance. Addition of paraformaldehyde to the bedding is a

procedure that may be applied at intervals suitably far apart to be not economically

prohibitive. Its use, however, would remain limited to circumstances in which there

are difﬁculties in processing or marketing milk of low hygienic quality which could

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M. Caroprese et al.

not be easily resolved using other cheaper methods (Sevi et al.

2000).

In a

subsequent study (Sevi et al.

2003a),

the effects of litter renewal intervals on the

yield and quality of ewe milk were evaluated as an alternative strategy to litter

treatment with antimicrobial products. Bentonite has been used to reduce the levels

of airborne particulates in livestock housing and improve the hygienic quality of

ewe milk. Bentonite is mainly composed of clay minerals and has a high water-

absorbing capacity. It is relatively inexpensive and there are no reports of it having

adverse effects on the health of either ewes or people. Litter renewal of litter at

4 weeks intervals can sustain health status of the mammary gland and improve ewe

performance at the same levels as litter treatment with bentonite.

1.2

Livestock Sustainability: Human–Animal Relationship

and Sheep and Goat Welfare

During the second half of the 20th Century, in the industrialized nations, production

of meat increased; the increase regarded mainly poultry and pig production systems

fed on grain and concentrated diets. The increase was less pronounced in sheep and

goat production. In the developing countries production of bovine meat and sheep

and goat meat increased more than threefold from 1961 to 2001 (Fraser

2008).

The

increased production was characterized by an increase in the number of animals and

in a reduced number of farms rather than in an increase in the number of farms. In

the industrialized countries, these events coincided with a cultural change in the

way of looking at farm animal particularly on conﬁnement production system. Such

concern was addressed to preserve animal welfare by a scientiﬁc approach to the

matter. In intensive production systems of sheep and goats, a number of researches

have been conducted to deﬁne technical parameters in animal housing to control

their impact on animal welfare and production (Sevi et al.

2009).

Stocking density

is a critical factor in sheep and goat housing because space allocation is known to

affect both the performance and welfare of livestock. Space allowance reduction

from 2 to 1 m

/head showed interesting effects on feeding behavior in goats. In

horned goats, a reduction of feeding activity and of resting time is found; a slighter

reduction of the same parameters in goats without horns is observed (Loretz

et al.

2004).

In ewes conﬁned in a space allowance of 1.5 m

/head, a reduced

humoral immune response is observed compared with ewes housed at a space

allowance of 3 m

/head. Furthermore, ewes that have free access to an outdoor

area display an increased cell mediated immune response compared with ewes

enclosed indoor (Caroprese et al.

2009).

Among structural housing parameters in sheep and goat buildings, inadequate

airspace may be a limitation to high efﬁciency of production and good health in

farmed livestock. This could be of practical interest when sheep are raised in warm

climates and do not beneﬁt from efﬁcient ventilation system. Ventilation regimen,

indeed, has a main role in sustaining the welfare by affecting thermal exchanges

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Sustainability of Sheep and Goat Production Systems

between the animal’s body surface. With a pending high heat load situation, a

moderate ventilation rate (65 m

/h per ewe) improves the well-being of the lactat-

ing ewe compared to a low ventilation rate (35 m

/h per ewe), as suggested by

behavioral, endocrine, and immune indicators. Under such conditions, a fan venti-

lation system, programmed to operate over upper critical air temperature (30

and relative humidity (70 %), has been proved to be economically unattractive,

because it involves about a threefold greater energy cost and does not lead to

remarkable improvements of ewe welfare and productivity compared to a moderate

ventilation regimen (65 m

/h per ewe) (Sevi et al.

2002).

Under heat stress, feed

intake decreases especially when sheep are fed on low quality feed due to both the

effort of reducing heat production and the slower feed transit through the digestive

tract (Costa et al.

1992).

Feed administration in late afternoon is beneﬁcial in

minimizing the impact of thermal stress on ewes’ immune function and udder

health (Sevi et al.

2001a).

One of the main factors in inﬂuencing the welfare of an animal is the quality of

the human–animal relationship. A poor human–animal relationship can lead to

chronic fear of humans and to handling difﬁculties, injury, and stress and, as a

consequence to impaired growth, reproductive performance, and product quality

(Hemsworth and Coleman

1998;

Jones

1997).

The nature and frequency of the

relationship are different in sheep and goat farming system according to the

management system, i.e., shepherding, intensive system, extensive systems. The

human–animal relationship depends on the behavior, the knowledge, and the

aptitude of the stockperson and his ability in recognizing animal needs. Frequent

interaction between the animal and the stockman with repeated animal manipula-

tion is a potential stress factor for sheep and goats. It is considered that sheep and

goats are rustic animals; as a consequence, usually stockman handle them roughly,

especially those with less experience or aptitude. On the contrary, it is well known

that small ruminants have ancestral predatory fear, a gregarious nature, and a

difﬁculty of adaptation to unfamiliar environments and integration with unknown

groups. As a result, sheep and goat suffer if handling is excessive or inappropriate

when rearing practices change suddenly or when regrouping and relocation occur

suddenly or frequently (Sevi et al.

2001b).

In lactating ewes, member exchange

among groups increases aggression and altered immune response; also relocation

results in a reduced immune response. An useful tool to minimize the stress related

to artiﬁcial rearing is gentling, a friendly approach of the stockman towards the

newborn animal. Several studies have highlighted that gentling strongly encourages

the lamb and the kid reared without their mothers to positively interact with the

stockman, whereas gentling has no beneﬁcial effects on dam-reared animals. In

artiﬁcially reared lambs, gentling improves their immune reactivity, making it

comparable to that of dam-suckled lambs and reduced their plasma cortisol

responses to handling (Caroprese et al.

2006).

The genetic predisposition may

play an important role in building positive human–animal relationship, and lamb

gentling results in an improvement in the quality of human–animal relationship

particularly in more reactive breeds. In particular, breeds that are more sensitive to

disturbance by human handling more promptly build a positive relationship with

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M. Caroprese et al.

humans possible because a higher disturbance generates a need to be reassured

through social support (Caroprese et al.

2012).

The results obtained from these and other studies were used to regulate, manly in

the European Union, a number of laws regarding production systems, transport, and

slaughter of sheep and goat reinforced by EU directives. More recent evolution

focused on voluntary certiﬁcation of animal welfare to achieve standard of produc-

tion recognized by retails and suppliers.

1.3

Economic Perspectives of Sustainable Sheep and Goat

Farming

In the last 30 years, a progressive decline of the traditional pastoral system based on

transhumance has been observed (Manrique et al.

1996).

As a consequence of the

decrease in rural populations and in traditional farming systems, sheep and goat

livestock systems need to be changed to improve animal welfare, and to increase

the animal productive efﬁciency, and food quality with particular regard to food

safety (Gibon et al.

1999;

Ronchi and Nardone

2003).

The reduction of veterinary costs linked to the enhanced animal health status and

the increase of biological efﬁciency in terms of quantity and quality of milk and

meat production can be considered as the strategies to improve the economic proﬁts

of a sustainable sheep and goat production. Veterinary and particularly parasitic

diseases are one of the most important issues affecting health management in

extensive small ruminant breeding being responsible of productivity losses. Infec-

tions can be considered deleterious for sheep and goat welfare and productivity,

increasing mortality, management costs, and requirements for the use of anthel-

mintics. A sanitary program aiming to reduction of drugs requires high standard of

welfare of animals and adequate management practices to improve farmers’

income.

The need for increasing ﬂock proﬁts conforming to the quality standards is

dependent on husbandry systems aiming to improve small ruminant welfare and

health animal status. Extensive farming has proved to be beneﬁcial to the welfare

needs of lactating ewes but exposure to climatic extremes and seasonal ﬂuctuations

of pasture can threaten the welfare of extensively managed ﬂocks. The gradual

diffusion of semi-intensive husbandry systems led to the increase in highly pro-

ductive dairy breeds. In this perspective, the maintenance of high standard of

welfare of animals can markedly improve their biological efﬁciency. Under more

intensive farming conditions, sheep and goats’ welfare is inﬂuenced by the micro-

environment control, the choice of proper housing, and building conditions to avoid

crowding, aggressive behavior, increased ambient pollution, and poor animal

health.

Farm management and health status of sheep and goat are mainly responsible for

the quality of animal-based food products. Sheep and goat husbandry is strictly

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Sustainability of Sheep and Goat Production Systems

associated with rural societies contributing to the manufacture of local typical

products which are expression of the regional cultural tradition.

Although products from small ruminants are intended to be free of chemical

contaminants, the basic standard for sheep and goat productions lack high standard

of nutritional, hygienic, and technological quality. Milk must have a desirable

chemical composition and must be of satisfactory hygienic quality. This is essential

in relation to public health, the suitability of milk for processing, and the quality of

milk products. The health of the udder can have a profound effect on the quality and

processing characteristics of milk. The most widely used indicator of udder health

is somatic cell count (SCC), a measure of the number of white blood cells, known as

leucocytes in milk. An elevated SCC usually indicates the presence of mastitis.

Mastitis is caused by pathogenic bacteria entering the mammary gland via the teat

canal and multiplying within the udder sinuses or epithelia or in the teat duct.

Mammary inﬂammation during mastitis causes a range of physical, microbiologi-

cal, and chemical changes in milk. The microorganisms found in raw milk may

come from several sources: organisms from the udder, the environment (e.g., water,

soil), milking equipment, bulk milk storage tank, tank in processing plant (Fajardo-

Lira and Nielsen

1998).

In the Mediterranean area, due to the reproductive seasonality of sheep, ewes are

usually in their later stage of lactation in late spring and summer. Lactation is thus

often shortened given that dairy factories stop collecting milk from farms since it is

produced in smaller amounts and its coagulating behavior is deteriorated. Indeed, a

number of events can occur in summer, which have a deleterious effect on coag-

ulating properties of sheep milk and, namely, (1) the use of fat and nitrogen reserves

to supply energy through gluconeogenesis at the expense of the mammary gland

(Amaral-Phillips et al.

1993),

(2) a plasma mineral imbalance, especially due to a

reduction in sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus and to an increase in

chloride concentrations (Kume et al.

1987),

(3) an increased milk pH, due to high

amounts of CO

dissipated via the panting (Habeeb et al.

1992),

(4) an increased

plasmin (PL) activity, the main endogenous proteinase in milk (Bianchi et al.

2004),

(5) an increased bacterial load in milk, due to enhanced multiplication and growth

of microorganisms in the litter (Sevi et al.

2001a).

A worsening in milk coagulating

behavior in ewes reared in pens without shading areas and receiving feed during the

warmest part of the day has been observed (Sevi et al.

2001a).

Under moderate heat

stress, also a low ventilation rate has deleterious effects on milk yield and on

clotting properties of milk (Sevi et al.

2003c).

When collected for cheese making,

the bulk milk from ewes in less ventilated houses has higher microbial load and

somatic cell count compared to milk from ewes in more ventilated houses. As a

result, a weaker caseous matrix of the curd releasing higher concentration of fat and

protein in the whey was observed (Albenzio et al.

2005).

Proﬁtability of dairy farms largely depends on milk casein content and milk

hygienic quality in terms of pathogen, spoilage bacteria, and somatic cell count,

giving that sheep and goat milk is almost totally destined for cheese making as raw

milk. Milk yield and casein content increased to around 10 %, as well as the

coagulation properties of milk (+8 %) when ewes are housed with a space allocation

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M. Caroprese et al.

of 2 m

per animal (Sevi et al.

1999).

A stocking density of 1 m

per ewe has

deleterious effects on the hygienic quality of milk. Higher levels of airborne

microorganisms also affected the mammary system of the animals with higher

microbial cell loads and somatic cell counts being recorded in milk from ewes

housed under high stocking density conditions. Milk produced by high densely

stocked ewes, which are housed on a straw litter treated with bentonite, displayed

lower concentrations of bacteria in their milk together with lower airborne micro-

organism loads. An increase of milk yield (3 %), of milk fat (10 %) and casein

content (5 %), and of milk clotting time (8 %) was recorded. When no litter

treatment is used, higher SCC (+40 %) was found in milk due to greater bacterial

colonization of the udder. Adequate airspace allocation of 7 m

/animal leads to

increase in milk yield (20 %) and milk casein content (10 %) and improves

renneting ability and hygienic quality of milk mainly in terms of somatic cell

count (À10 %) (Sevi et al.

2001c).

Protein supplementation in grazing dairy ewes is a popular strategy for

upgrading sheep nutrition in order to reduce the variability and improve ewe milk

yield and composition. Feeding strategies together with several other management

practices may improve the overall quality of milk for cheese making. Bulk milk

produced by the ewes receiving a low crude protein diet (13 %) displayed higher

casein (10 %) and low urea contents (À20 %). Therefore, the choice of a proper

dietary crude protein level plays a main role in sustaining protein synthesis in the

mammary gland (Sevi et al.

2006).

The use of appropriate supplements in the diet of

small ruminants can succeed in improving the nutritional features of animal-based

food. This goal besides adding functional properties to animal-based food can meet

the recently growing consumer demand both for quality food products and more

ethical food production. Adequate supplementations in the diet of sheep and goat

have been proved to sustain their welfare during stressful conditions such as

thermal stress, the transition period. The use of ﬂaxseed in the diet of lactating

ewes under heat stress succeeds in increasing milk yield and ameliorating nutri-

tional milk composition particularly in terms of milk fatty acid proﬁle (Caroprese

et al.

2011).

Lamb meat is valuable from a nutritional point of view for its high CLA content

which can exert positive effects on human health (Schmid et al.

2006).

The

proportion of saturated and unsaturated fatty acid in meat from lambs subjected

to different regimes highlights a better fatty acid proﬁle in meat from artiﬁcially

reared lambs from a nutritional and health promoting point of view. In particular,

unsaturated fatty acids are considered hypolipidemic by reducing both plasma

cholesterol and triglycerides, and a low intake of saturated fat as well as an

increased polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratio are associated with a lower

risk of human coronary heart disease (Oriani et al.

2005).

The addition of probiotics

to milk replacer play a role in modulating the health status of lambs. Meat from

artiﬁcially reared lamb fed milk replacer containing probiotic showed an improved

fatty acid proﬁle for human diet, in terms of higher CLA and lower SFA content

(Santillo et al.

2011).

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Sustainability of Sheep and Goat Production Systems

2 Conclusions

Human induced climate changes, and subsequent global warming, are involving

also European countries located within the temperate zone. As a result, the impor-

tance of sheep and goat farming is expected to increase gradually in comparison

with cattle farming in both rural and industrialized countries. In fact, sheep and

goats are more tolerant to climate extremes, in terms of production, reproduction,

and resistance to diseases, and less competitive with humans for crops and grains

than cattle. So that the role that sheep and goat farming are about to play is achieved

in a fully sustainable way; the effort of research and the production world is

invoked. It must aim to ﬁnd feeding strategies and management practices for

reducing emissions from sheep and goat farming, to identify dimensional and

physical parameters, and management practices for sustaining ﬂock welfare, and

to raise the proﬁtability of sheep and goat farming by reducing the impact of

veterinary costs and increasing the commercial value of sheep and goat products.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Tamminga S (1996) A review on environmental impacts of nutritional strategies in ruminants. J

Anim Sci 74:3112–3124

Wilkerson VA, Casper DP, Mertens DR, Tyrell HF (1994) Evaluation of several methane

producing equations for dairy cows. In: Aguilera JF (ed) Energy metabolism of farm animals.

C.S.I.C, Granada, p 395, EAAP publ. no. 76

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds

and Their Products as a Tool

for Sustainability and Safeguard

of the Mediterranean Environment

Adriana Di Trana, Lucia Sepe, Paola Di Gregorio, Maria A. Di Napoli,

Daniela Giorgio, Anna R. Caputo, and Salvatore Claps

Abstract

This chapter is a survey of recent studies on native sheep and goat breeds

with special emphasis on their role as a tool of sustainability. After a short

overview, strategies for adding value to the local breeds are described together

with a synthesis of measures in support of animal biodiversity in marginal areas of

Mediterranean environment. In this direction, three case studies are reported in

which the added value of local breeds arising from a typical and/or traditional

product is investigated. The ﬁrst one is on native sheep breeds from Apulian region

and the PDO

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese, and it indicates that

Altamurana

and

Apulian Merino breeds produce milk and cheese having nutritional characteristics

and sensory properties distinguishable from non-native breeds. The second and

third studies regard local goat breeds and local cheeses,

Caciotta

and

Ricotta

cheeses. As it appears from our discussion,

Girgentana

breed produces milk and

Caciotta

and

Ricotta

cheeses with distinguishable fatty acid proﬁle, nutritional

index and sensory properties compared to other breeds. These peculiarities add

value to the

Girgentana

breed and therefore give a support in favour of this breed,

amplifying its sustainable use. Finally, we point out that the high quantity of

sialyloligosaccharides found in local

Garganica

breed compared to foreign breed

appears as an interesting promising feature in the study of adding value to local

breeds.

A. Di Trana (

) • P. Di Gregorio • D. Giorgio

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali (SAFE), Universit degli Studi

della Basilicata, Viale dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

L. Sepe • M.A. Di Napoli • A.R. Caputo • S. Claps

CRA-ZOE, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Unit di Ricerca per

la Zootecnia Estensiva, Via Appia, Bella Scalo, 85054 Muro Lucano, Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]; [email protected]; annarocchina.

[email protected]; [email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_7

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A. Di Trana et al.

1 Sheep and Goat Breeds, a Tool for Sustainability

More than two decades have passed since the principle of sustainable development

received nearly universal agreement at the 1992 Earth Summit after its deﬁnition by

FAO (FAO

1989).

The sustainability shows multi-dimensional structure embracing survival, resil-

ience and efﬁciency, and it relies on three pillars described as the economic,

environmental and social factors. The usual representation of this multi-

dimensional structure is by the Venn diagram in which sustainability is represented

as the set intersection of three sets, namely economic resilience, environmental

integrity and social well-being. This is to be integrated with the good governance

(FAO

2014),

which is the fourth dimension of sustainability.

In a Mediterranean environment, the descriptors of Sustainable agriculture are

numerous and interconnected. The main descriptors of the economic factor include

the use of local breeds, disease resistance, forage self-sufﬁciency, forage quality,

milk and cheese quality, typical and/or traditional products, environmental label-

ling, direct sales and eco-agritourism. Those of the environmental factor include

biodiversity in terms of plants, animal breeds and habitat, landscape and its visual

value, as well as, ﬁre risk and the use of abandoned biomass, GHG emission and

carbon sequestration. The social factor focuses on those aspects which are linked to

the farmers (age, dignity, interests and future possibilities) and animal welfare

(Lombardi

2005;

Battaglini et al.

2014).

In this context, local breeds appear to be the major component of animal farm

biodiversity, thanks to their excellent adaptation to speciﬁc environmental condi-

tions. Furthermore, local breeds are linked to traditional products of special qual-

ities and to several practices that are part of cultural heritage. Therefore, every

effort to add value to local breeds is important, especially as a contribution to the

prospects of their conservation through sustainable use.

As recently suggested by Papachristoforou et al. (2013), the available strategies

to increase the value of local breeds with special attention on sheep and goats can be

grouped into three interconnected categories: (1) linking local breeds to traditional

products and/or to tourism/agritourism activity; (2) promoting the use of local

breeds in speciﬁc farming systems like organic production, through the conserva-

tion of grazing/silvo-pastoral systems, small low-input farms and hobby farms;

(3) general strategies like marketing, legislation, organisation of stakeholders and

raising public awareness.

Local breeds, less frequently used in intensive systems but still preserved in situ

in marginal territories, represent an important resource for maintaining animal

biodiversity (Oldenbroek

2007).

In marginal areas of Italy, the most important

livestock activity is represented by the rearing of local breeds in connection with

local tradition. In Italy, there is a population of about 7,874,108 sheep and 960,950

goats, and about 65.8 % and 69.5 % of these populations are distributed in Southern

Italy, respectively (ISTAT

2009).

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

In Southern Italy, sheep and goat ﬂocks are located in the marginal areas, in hilly

rocky, shrub lands and mountain areas, where the production is based on the

utilisation of natural pasture with a low stocking rate per hectare. In the extensive

rearing system, the daily milk yield and its composition are strongly affected by

annual and seasonal variation of feed availability. Especially in the mountains,

herbage availability is often low but its quality is high (Rivoira

1976).

At the same

time, this rearing technique guarantees high ecosystem sustainability, improving

the role of agriculture in the environmental preservation as well as the maintenance

of rural areas, providing a means to enhance the value of family labour (Morand-

Fehr and Boyazoglu

1999;

Sepe et al.

2011).

The endurance of rural human population in less favoured areas assures the

safeguard and survival of biodiversity, which can then be transferred to locally

made “typical” products. A “typical” product is a result of several factors including

raw material, transformation process and sensory characteristics. All these pecu-

liarities are closely related to the geographical origin and to the social and cultural

traditions of the production area (Scintu and Piredda

2007).

In this respect, it is

strategic to support the multi-purpose sheep and goat breeds still existing in the

Mediterranean and marginal area of Southern Italy.

The

Altamurana

and

Gentile di Puglia

(Apulian Merino) sheep breeds, native of

Apulia region (Table

1),

and

Jonica

and

Girgentana

goat breeds (Table

are

maintained in nucleus form in CRA-ZOE (Consiglio per la Ricerca e la

sperimentazione in Agricoltura—Unit di ricerca per la Zootecnia Estensiva), in

Basilicata region, both for research purposes and preservation of these endangered

breeds.

In the past, the milk from these two sheep breeds (especially

Altamurana)

was

used for the production of

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese. At this time, endorsed by the

Status of protected Designation of Origin (PDO, CE Reg, n. 1107/96) and produced

in Bari and Foggia provinces, the ripened

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese has almost

entirely been made with milk of

Comisana

and

Sarda

sheep breeds both non-native

of Apulian region (Table

1).

Concerning the caprino cheeses,

Caciotta

cheese is one of the several innovative

products available in Southern Italy, made with goat milk and ripened for 20–30

days. On the other side,

Ricotta

cheese is a soft cheese and it appears to be the oldest

and the best known whey cheese made mainly with goat milk.

The special, and often superior, characteristics of local breeds compared to

non-native breeds in their native environment provide the basis for promoting

their use in several production systems that guarantee the sustainability of resources

and the quality of products.

In this context, we focus on the relationship between animal biodiversity and

production quality, in terms of gross composition, fatty acid (FA) proﬁle, volatile

organic compounds (VOCs) and sensory properties in milk and “typical” and local

cheeses obtained from native and non-native sheep and goat breeds.

Cheese characteristics and their differentiation are affected by quantitative and

qualitative presence of FA in raw milk (Kim Ha and Lindsay

1993;

Buchin

et al.

1998).

The different classes of fatty acids (saturated, unsaturated), single

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Table 1

Sheep breeds

Population

size (heads)

847

44,669

6,800

441,427

Diffusion areas in

Italy

Puglia

South, Centre,

North Italy

Puglia, Molise,

Basilicata, Abruzzo

Sardegna, Centre

and South Italy

Proliﬁcacy

(%)

112

180

120

110–150

Fertility

(%)

Lamb at

90 days

(kg)

10.5

(30 days)

Wool

(kg)

5.5

♀

7.5

♂

–

Lactation

(days)

100

200

180

150–200

Lactation

yield

(kg)

159

173

Fat

8.10

7.13

8.13

6.91

Protein

6.78

6.32

7.07

6.16

Sheep breed—L.G.

Altamurana

Comisana

Gentile di Puglia

(Apulian Merino)

Sarda

L.G.

Genealogical book

Registered heads, June 2014, ASSONAPA

In order of population size

Multiparous ewe

Claps et al. (2008)

Italy: Milk recording activity, ofﬁcial statistics, AIA (2013)

A. Di Trana et al.

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

fatty acids (conjugated linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid) and lipids (choles-

terol) are of particular interest and may affect consumers’ health (McGuire and

McGuire

2000).

Milk fat is an essential prerequisite to ﬂavour development (Marilley and Casey

2004).

The triglyceride structure can affect the ﬂavour of the cheese produced when

pregastric lipases are used in cheesemaking (Kim Ha and Lindsay

1993).

It is

known that the development of goat milk ﬂavour is due to volatile branched

chain fatty acids but also to the structure of triglycerides and to the lipolytic action

of the milk lipoprotein lipase (Chilliard et al.

2003).

The volatile ﬂavour com-

pounds in cheese originate during ripening mainly from lipid degradation and they

are determinants in the ﬂavour of traditional sheep and goat cheeses. The ﬂavour

intensity is closely related to short- and medium-chain free FA content of products

(Fernandez-Garcıa et al.

2006).

Large differences in texture and taste were

observed among cheeses issued from milk differing by the genetic variant of

αs1-

casein in goats (Coulon et al.

2004).

Recently, many studies have focused on the

relationships among FA proﬁle (Di Trana et al.

2004, 2005;

Addis et al.

2005;

Bonanno et al.

2013),

volatile organic compounds (Claps et al.

2010),

polyphenols

content (Di Trana et al.

2014b)

of milk and dairy products and different forages or

natural pasture ingested by small ruminants. These studies showed that it may be

possible to categorise the type of forage or feeding system (grazing or stable)

utilised by sheep and goats.

Having positively tested in milk and its derivatives, the possibility of transfer-

ring, directly or indirectly, some of the constituents from diet to dairy products

shows that such a transfer is an important tool of traceability. These results amplify

and strengthen the mutual relationship among plant biodiversity, grazing system

and nutraceutical properties of dairy products from small ruminants. Interconnec-

tion and overlapping between local know-how and scientiﬁc knowledge of all

elements and/or factors related to the animal and to the environment enforce the

sustainability and safeguard the Mediterranean system.

It should be stressed that the new system must be innovative and not a sort of

reshufﬂe of old traditional systems so that the research can act as a powerful tool to

add value to native breeds by creating new knowledge and providing scientiﬁc

evidence on particular biological characteristics. Participation of local breeders and

incorporation of scientiﬁc knowledge from several disciplines are further important

tools (Dubeuf

2014).

Political strategies and European legislation can be adopted to support directly

and/or indirectly local farm and native breeds. Regarding the future, the new CAP

(2014–2020) draws up measures, on a European basis, supporting mountain and

Mediterranean areas and environmental sustainability. In particular, in the second

pillar (rural development), resources are assigned for the implementation of

regional programmes in the animal biodiversity sector Reg. 1305/2013. These

guidelines on a domestic basis are implemented by Mipaaf (Ministry of Agriculture

and Forestry), and the regions draw up tools such as the rural development plan

(RDP) on seeking their realisation.

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A. Di Trana et al.

In our discussion on the role of native sheep and goat breeds and their products,

as a tool for sustainability, we have focused our attention on four sheep breeds and

four goat breeds: two endangered native sheep breeds (Altamurana and Apulian

Merino) and goat breeds (Jonica and

Girgentana)

from Southern Italy and two

non-native breeds,

Comisana

and

Sarda

sheep breeds, and

Maltese

and Red Syrian

goat breeds, respectively.

2 Sheep Breeds and

Canestrato Pugliese

Cheese

In this section, we report an example that can be considered a case study. The study

was carried out at the CRA-ZOE experimental farm of Foggia (41

N; 15

E),

located at 76 m a.s.l in the Apulia region (Southern Italy). The maximum and

minimum environmental temperatures and relative humidity during the different

seasons were 23

C, 11

C and 68 % in spring, 30

C, 17

C and 64 % in summer,

C, 9

C and 76 % in autumn and 13

C, 3

C and 78 % in winter. The average

annual rainfall was 391 mm, mainly occurred in autumn. Temperature humidity

indexes were 64, 78, 68 and 57.5 in spring, summer, autumn and winter, respec-

tively. The botanical composition of native pasture included 18.9 %

Graminaceae,

12 %

Leguminosae,

13.5 %

Compositae,

11.2 %

Labiatae,

0.3 %

Caryophyllaceae

and other botanical families being represented in lower percentage.

A ﬂock set-up of four breeds of mature sheep was used. In order to compare local

and non-native breeds, the ﬂock was set-up with two native breeds,

Altamurana

(A) and

Gentile di Puglia

(Apulian Merino) (G), and two non-native breeds,

Comisana

Sarda

(S), the most important Mediterranean sheep breeds and

native of Sicily and Sardinia regions, respectively (Table

1).

All animals were

homogeneous for days in milk (75

11 DIM) and body condition score (2.75). The

ﬂock grazed on native pasture during the day and was housed in shaded open pens

during the night. All sheep were supplemented with 0.6 kg/day of concentrate in

two equal meals at milking.

2.1

Canestrato Pugliese Cheesemaking, Sampling

and Analysis of Milk and Cheese

Three cheesemakings of

Canestrato Pugliese

were carried out for each breed in

CRA-ZOE’s experimental dairy for three consecutive days.

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

Canestrato Pugliese Cheese

Italian Pecorino, uncooked hard cheese, recognised with Protected Designa-

tion of Origin: it is produced in Bari and Foggia provinces (Apulia region)

exclusively from raw, but also thermised or pasteurised, whole sheep milk.

The cheese derived its name and traditional shape from the rush basket

“Canestro”, in which the curd is ripened. During ripening, usually the rind

is rubbed with a mixture of oil and vinegar. The cheese has a cylindrical

shape, 10–14 cm height, 25–34 cm in diameter, and weighs 7–14 kg (PDO,

CE Reg. n. 1107/96). Paste is pale yellow coloured, more or less intense

depending on age; compact texture, somewhat crumbly, poorly melting, not

very elastic, with just visible eyes; characteristic spicy taste fairly marked.

The ﬂowchart of

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese manufacture is shown in Fig.

Cheese was ripened for 6 months in a natural cave at CRA-ZOE of Bella.

Milk samples were collected at milking time, and cheese samples were obtained

at the end of the ripening period. Milk and cheese samples were analysed for pH,

chemical composition and fatty acid (FA) content. Volatile Organic Compounds

(VOC) and sensory proﬁle were evaluated on cheeses. Basic chemical composition

was measured according to standard methods as previously reported (Pizzillo

et al.

2005).

FA separation and quantiﬁcation was carried out using a gas chro-

matograph as reported by Di Trana et al. (2004). The Health-Promoting Index (HPI)

was calculated as the ratio between the unsaturated FAs content and lauric acid,

palmitic acid and 4 x miristic acid contents (Chen et al.

2004).

VOC content was

assessed by multiple dynamic headspace extraction and GC-MS (Ciccioli

et al.

2004).

The cheese sensory proﬁle was evaluated, at room temperature, by

ten panellists using a 0–9 point graduated scale for each attribute.

Changes in milk and cheese chemical compositions, FA proﬁle and VOC proﬁle

were analysed by ANOVA procedure (Systat 7

1997).

Analysis included the effect

of sheep breed (Apulian Merino,

Altamurana, Comisana

and

Sarda).

Sensory

proﬁle data were normalised before submitting them to ANOVA repeated measures

procedure. Signiﬁcance was declared at

0.05 and tendencies at 0.05

0.10;

differences between means were tested using Fisher’s LSD test. In order to ascer-

tain the discriminant effect of the sheep breed on products, milk and cheese data

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Fig. 1

Flowchart of

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese

A. Di Trana et al.

Ewes’milk (raw milk of each brred)

↓

Heating of milk at 37°C

↓

Addition of liquid calf rennet 20 ml/100 kg

↓

Coagulation of milk after 25 min at 37°C

↓

Cutting of the curd (size of the curd after cutting = 0.5-1.0 cm)

↓

Heating the whey (45°C for 2 min)

↓

Removal of the whey, moulding and pressing

↓

Hold curd at 22°C for 24 h

↓

Salting of the curd by spreading over the surface

↓

Ripening at ca. 12°C for 2 and 4 months (environmental humidity ca. 90%)

were pooled

per

breed and submitted to a multivariate approach by Stepwise

Discriminant Analysis (Systat 7

1997).

2.2

Results and Discussion

Milk chemical composition was affected by sheep breed (Table

2).

The native G

and A breeds showed higher dry matter and fat percentage than C and S breeds.

Milk from G breed was characterised by higher protein content followed by A, C

and S breeds. Ash content was higher in A and C breeds than others. There were no

signiﬁcant differences among breeds on pH data. These results are in line with a

previous study on G and A sheep breeds (Claps et al.

1999).

The

Canestrato Pugliese

cheeses from milk of G, C and S breeds were

characterised by a higher content of protein and ash compared to the cheese from

A breed. The breed effect on dry matter and fat reported above for milk was not

observed in cheese. Breed affected chemical composition, but higher percentages of

fat and ash in milk do not always lead to cheeses with a superior level of these

compounds (Table

2).

A signiﬁcant breed effect on milk and cheese quality was reported by Kawecka

and Sosin-Bzducha (2014), using two indigenous Polish breeds, the Coloured

Mountain Sheep (CMS) and the Podhale Zackel (PZ), reared under the same

environmental conditions. These authors showed a higher crude protein, casein,

urea, and solid non-fat contents in milk from CMS compared to PZ. Cheese

obtained from CMS milk had about a 6 % lower fat content compared to cheese

made from PZ milk. An effect of the month of grazing season was also found but

only for milk composition. The breed x grazing season interaction affected all

parameters of cheese chemical composition, while it was negligible for most of

milk composition parameters.

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

Table 2

Effect of sheep breed on chemical composition, fatty acid content and nutritional index of milk and

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese (Claps et al.

2008;

Trana et al.

2009)

Product

Milk

6.54

20.32

8.10

6.78

0.99

69.54

25.69

4.78

0.88

1.83

2.30

0.74

0.44

6.64

18.38

7.13

6.32

0.98

70.72

24.53

5.44

1.14

2.04

2.14

0.85

0.42

a, b, c

Cheese

6.45

18.42

6.91

6.16

0.96

71.36

24.75

5.56

1.17

2.06

2.09

0.86

0.40

, $

Breed

Chemical composition (%)

6.70

Dry matter

19.85

Fat

8.13

Protein

7.07

Ash

0.95

Fatty acids

(g/100 g FA)

SFA

70.51

MUFA

24.22

PUFA

5.27

omega-3

1.09

omega-6

2.05

Total

trans

2.23

CLA

0.81

Nutritional index

HPI

0.41

SEM

0.09

0.43

0.06

0.09

0.01

0.47

0.43

0.14

0.03

0.08

0.04

0.03

5.40

62.56

24.87

22.4

6.40

71.01

23.87

5.32

1.09

2.12

2.28

0.81

0.38&

5.12

62.88

25.29

19.15

5.74

69.86

25.74

4.64

0.84

1.87

2.21

0.70

0.40

5.07

62.78

24.67

20.28

6.14

71.65

23.08

5.42

1.08

2.19

1.91

0.83

0.39&

5.41

62.48

23.41

20.31

6.21

70.80

23.57

5.38

1.06

2.18

1.86

0.88

0.39&

SEM

0.02

0.56

0.59

0.78

0.24

0.49

0.40

0.13

0.03

0.07

0.11

0.03

0.04

0.05; &

0.10

Means within row with different superscripts differ at

Apulian Merino;

Altamurana;

Comisana;

Sarda breeds

SFA

saturated fatty acids;

MUFA

monounsaturated fatty acids;

PUFA

polyunsaturated fatty acids;

CLA

conjugated linoleic acid;

HPI

health promoting index;

SEM

standard error mean

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A. Di Trana et al.

A negligible breed effect on milk chemical composition was observed in

Boutsiko and Karamaniko, two native sheep breeds of North Western Greece

(Kondyli et al.

2012).

A few studies have been published in attempt to elucidate the effect of breed on

cheese chemical composition. Comparing some hard cheeses produced in various

parts of Spain from different ewe breeds, Gonzalez Vi~as et al. (1999) observed no

signiﬁcant differences in the physicochemical composition. The sheep breed effect

on milk composition and coagulation properties for Niza production, a traditional

Portuguese PDO cheese, was evaluated comparing two autochthonous breeds

(Merino and Saloia) with the non-native Assaf breed that is commonly reared in

Portugal (Martins et al.

2009).

The milk composition showed higher solid content in

Merino and Saloia breeds resulting in higher potential cheese making yield as far as

75 % and 27% , respectively, when compared to the corresponding value of that of

Assaf milk. The lower solid content of Assaf milk led to lower curd ﬁrmness while

the milk from Merino and Saloia breeds showed superior ﬁrming rates and reached

higher ﬁnal curd ﬁrmness in agreement with physical and chemical characteristics

of milk. The results emphasise the different cheese making aptitude of the milk

from the two Portuguese autochthonous breeds.

Some studies have showed that FA proﬁle of cheese was very similar to that of

milk (Addis et al.

2005;

Nudda et al.

2005).

In our investigation, the sheep breed

affected milk and cheese FA proﬁle, and both showed a similar trend (Table

2).

milk and cheese, G and C breeds showed a higher content of polyunsaturated FA

(PUFA) and omega-3 compared to A breed, which instead increased the content of

monounsaturated FA (MUFA). No differences were found in saturated FA (SFA)

content, and slight differences were detected for milk omega-6 contents. Total

trans

FAs were higher in milk and cheese from native G and A breeds compared to the

others.

Comparing three Italian sheep breeds (Massese,

Sarda

and

Comisana),

Duranti

and Casoli (1988) detected breed effect on milk FA proﬁle, in particular, on short-

chain FA percentages and on unsaturated/saturated FA ratio. Later on, study about

Altamurana,

Apulian Merino and

Sarda

breed conﬁrmed the breed effect on the

majority FA of milk (Signorelli et al.

2008).

As regards CLA (conjugated linoleic

acid

cis-9, trans-11),

the higher content was found in milk and cheese from G, C

and S breeds compared to A breed. Comparing three dairy sheep breeds

(Garfagnina,

Massese

and

Sarda),

Secchiari et al. (2001) observed the breed effect

on milk’s total CLA isomers content, with a higher CLA content in local

Garfagnina

and

Massese

breeds compared to

Sarda

breed. In contrast with our

results, other authors have not found a sheep breed effect on milk CLA content,

probably due to the wide variation in milk CLA level among individuals consuming

the same diet (Tsiplakou et al.

2006;

Signorelli et al.

2008).

Evaluating CLA isomer

content in milk from Polish Zelazne~ska and Wrzoswka sheep, Rozbicka-

Wieczorek et al. (2013) detected a higher but not signiﬁcant level of CLA in milk

from Zelazne~ska ewes. Talpur et al. (2009) found different FA proﬁles in milk

from indigenous Pakistani sheep breeds (Kachi and Kooka) reared under the same

feeding and housing conditions. Kooka breed showed a better proﬁle with lower

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

SFA and higher CLA contents than Kachi breed. The variability among breeds

might be useful in the improvement on milk and derived products’ quality.

From the human health point of view, when comparing the autochthonous A

breed with the C and S breeds, we observed health-promoting properties of milk

and cheese from A endangered breed. The milk HPI from A breed was higher than

that observed in the other breeds. This result was conﬁrmed in the cheese, though

the difference was slight. In our further investigation, we observed a higher HPI in

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese, 4 months ripened, produced with A breed milk than the

same product obtained from

Sarda

breed milk (Claps et al.

2011).

In North Western Greece, a study was carried out in farms located in the semi-

mountainous (600–800 m a.s.l.) region of Ioannina, using two small sized native

breeds, Boutsiko and Karamaniko, which are endurable and adaptable to the

environmental conditions, frugal in eating and having the same yearly milk pro-

duction as other indigenous breeds (Voutsinas et al.

1988).

The sheep breeds grazed

in semi-mountainous and mountainous pastures, so as to eliminate any differences

due to different feeding. The breed effect was observed for butyric, stearic, CLA

and vitamin A contents, with Boutsiko breed having higher levels than Karamaniko

one, while the breed effect was negligible for the major FAs (Kondyli et al.

2012).

Some studies on local sheep breeds were performed in Romania to evaluate their

effect on milk FA proﬁle (Mierlita et al.

2011a, b).

Merino of Transylvania, Tsigay

and Turcana are three Romanian sheep breeds on the verge of extinction for their

low productivity. Turcana and Tsigay milk are used to produce some high quality

traditional cheeses (“cas”, “telemea” and “branza de burduf”) due to their fat and

protein content. Mierlita et al. (2011a) reported that Turcana sheep produced more

milk than Merino of Transylvania, Tsigay breeds. In addition, Turcana milk was

richer in fat and protein content and had a better HPI value, due to its lower SFA

level and higher PUFA content, especially in CLA, than other milk. The healthiest

FA proﬁle of Turcana milk was also found when comparing Turcana with Spanca,

another indigenous Romanian breed (Mierlita et al.

2011b).

The higher concentra-

tions of

trans-11

C18:1 (VA), C18:1 n9c and

cis-9 trans-11

CLA in Turcana milk

were related to its more intense VA desaturation and conversion into

cis-9, trans-11

CLA. These results support the sustainable use of animal genetic resources to

improve ewe milk fat quality.

The study conducted in Poland by Kawecka and Sosin-Bzducha (2014) is one of

the few studies carried out simultaneously on milk and cheese made from different

breeds of sheep: the Coloured Mountain Sheep (CMS) and Podhale Zackel (PZ).

“Oscypek” cheese manufactured from PZ breed showed lower SFA, atherogenic

index values and higher MUFA and omega-3 FA contents than cheese from CMS

breed. The differences in the FA proﬁle of products observed in response to

breeding and grazing season may represent the basis for producing different

ﬂavoured niche cheeses. The authors indicate that these local sheep breeds have a

high potential for sustainable use.

Also, the study by Esposito et al. (2014) was aimed at recovering the dairy

aptitude in

Appenninica

sheep, a native breed in Central Italy. The characterization

of the Apennine Pecorino cheese made from raw milk was performed using as test

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A. Di Trana et al.

pecorino made from raw milk of

Sarda

breed. These sheep breeds were maintained

in the same rearing conditions. The breed effect was evident for some FAs and

aromatic compounds, while it was negligible for cheese chemical composition.

Cheese of

Apennine

breed showed greater content of

cis-10

pentadecenoic acid and

lower content in

α-linolenic

acid and

γ-linolenic

acid compared to cheese of

Sarda

breed.

In our study, the discriminant analysis performed on FA composition of milk and

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese highlight that A and G autochthonous breeds were well

discriminated from

Comisana

and

Sarda

breeds. Canonical scores plot (Fig.

show on the left A and G breeds and on the right C and S breeds not well separated.

The variables contributing to discriminant analysis were the main classes of FAs

(SFA, MUFA, PUFA, omega-3, omega-6 and total

trans)

and single FA (oleic acid,

trans

vaccenic acid and CLA). These results suggest that local breeds, indepen-

dently from diet, possess the potential to link a speciﬁc product to a breed. With a

multivariate approach by Principal Components Analysis, Ighina et al. (2007) on

four Alpine sheep breeds (Frabosana,

Delle Langhe, Savoiarda

and Lacaune)

showed and conﬁrmed that the breed has an inﬂuence on milk FA composition

and CLA content when animals are fed the same diet.

Milk volatile compounds originate from the feed and/or from microbial metab-

olism. Some compounds present in plants, such as terpenes, can be transferred to

the milk through inspiratory lung or feeding. Most of the volatile compounds are

microbially produced from the catabolism of milk component and depend on the

composition of the endogenous microﬂora in the raw milk and/or from starters

(McSweeney

2004).

The physicochemical characteristics of cheeses from different

breeds are linked to the development of volatile ﬂavour compounds, particularly

from lipid degradation during ripening (McSweeney

2004).

As suggested by Engels

et al. (1997), the FAs are important components in the ﬂavour of many cheese

types; the Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) in cheese, such as esters, methyl

Function 2

-1

-3

-4

A A AA

A A

G C

Fig. 2

Distribution plot of

milk and

Canestrato

Pugliese

cheese using two

canonical discriminant

functions (Claps et al.

2008;

Di Trana et al.

2009).

(G)

Apulian Merinos,

(A)

Altamurana,

(C)

Comisana

and (S)

Sarda

breeds

C C

C SS

C S

C CC C

C SSS

C S

S S

C S

C CSS

C C

S S

S SS

-5

-4

-3

-1

Function 1

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

Apulian Merino

Altamurana

Comisana

Sarda

Fig. 3

Effect of sheep breed on percentage of volatile organic compounds in

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese (Claps et al.

2008;

Di Trana et al.

2009)

ketones and secondary alcohols, arise from the lipolysis of myristic and palmitic

acids.

In our study, the sheep breed affected VOC proﬁle of cheese (Fig.

3).

In the

cheese from G breed, aldehydes and acids excluded, a higher content of alcohols,

ketones, terpenes and sesquiterpenes than A and C breed was detected. The highest

content of the acid class of VOC found in

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese does not

agree with a previous study performed on the same cheese (Di Cagno et al.

2003).

These differences may be due to the use of non-starter lactic acid bacteria culture

and different procedure to measure VOC proﬁle.

A different VOC proﬁle was found in Pecorino produced by two different

breeds,

Apennine

and

Sarda.

Cheese from

Apennine

breed showed a greater level

of 8-nonen-2-one and a smaller quantity of diacetyl, 1-butanol, 3-methyl-2-buten-1-

ol and 2,3-butanediol than other breed (Esposito et al.

2014).

The breed effect on

VOC proﬁle was also detected by Ferreira et al. (2009) on Portuguese “Castelo

Branco” POD cheeses manufactured with milk from different sheep breeds (Merino

da Beira Baixa, Assaf, and Crusade). The same authors reported that the discrim-

inant analysis of volatile fraction of PDO Castelo Branco cheese can be used to

evaluate breed origin.

The sensory proﬁle of

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese showed that the breed

affected some parameters of cheese sensory properties (Fig.

4).

G and A cheeses

had higher scores of “pecorino”, “bitter”, “spicy” tastes and “colour” than C breed.

No differences were found among breeds for “salty” and “fermented odour” tastes.

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

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Fig. 4

Effect of sheep

breed on sensory proﬁle of

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese

(Claps et al.

2008;

Di Trana

et al.

2009)

Gentile di Puglia

A. Di Trana et al.

Altamurana

colour

pecorino

Comisana

flower odour

spicy

fermented odour

bitter

salty

sweet

animal odour

The relationship between ovine breeds and sensory characteristics of

Canestrato

Pugliese

cheese was reported in our previous studies (Claps et al.

1999;

Taibi

et al.

2000).

The present study suggests that the panel test could discriminate

between cheese made from

Comisana

breed and cheeses from native breeds

(Altamurana and Apulian Merino) by the colour and smell.

Regarding sheep, few studies have been conducted about the inﬂuence of breed

on cheese sensory proﬁle. Comparing cheeses produced in various parts of Spain

from different ewe breeds, Gonzalez Vi~as et al. (1999) indicated that the diversity

of cheese sensory proﬁle arises from their chemical composition and indirectly by

animal breed. The breed effect on cheese sensory analysis was highlighted by

Ferreira et al. (2009) in a study on “Castelo Branco” cheeses manufactured with

milk from different breeds (Merino da Beira Baixa, Assaf, and Crusade). The

results from descriptive analysis and triangle tests conﬁrmed that these cheeses

showed signiﬁcantly different sensory characteristics.

2.3

Conclusion

The results indicate that chemical composition and FA proﬁle of milk and cheese

and VOC compounds and sensory properties of

Canestrato Pugliese

cheese vary

according to sheep breed. Milk and cheese from Apulian Merino and

Altamurana

breeds have nutritional characteristics and sensorial properties distinguishable from

other breeds. The Discriminant Analysis of FAs, the VOC proﬁle and sensory

attributes are interconnected tools able to discriminate the origin of the cheese.

The differences among breeds for milk FA proﬁles, according to the reviewed

literature on cheese characteristics, are likely to affect cheese quality and could be

an indicator of typicality in order to adding value to local and endangered

Altamurana

and

Gentile di Puglia

(Apulian Merino) breeds.

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

3 Goat Breeds and

Caciotta

Cheese

In this paragraph, we report an example that can be considered a case study. The

study was carried out at the CRA-ZOE experimental farm of Bella-Muro (40

E), located at 360 m a.s.l in the Basilicata region (Southern Italy), during

spring. The maximum and minimum environmental temperatures and relative

humidity were 13

C, 5

C and 70 % in spring, 24

C, 14

C and 64 % in summer,

C, 8

C and 71 % in autumn and 7

C, 1.3

C and 77 % in winter. Average

annual rainfall was 752 mm, mainly distributed in autumn. Temperature humidity

index was 57, 72, 62 and 50 in spring, summer, autumn and winter, respectively. In

autumn–winter, the contribution of botanical families in the native pasture was

92 %

Graminaceae,

1 %

Leguminosae,

7 %

Forbs

and the main species present

were

Lolium perenne

(60 %),

Dactylis glomerata

(25 %),

Phleum pratense

(5 %). In

spring-early summer, the botanical composition was 28 %

Graminaceae,

3 %

Leguminosae,

68 %

Forbs

and the main species were

Cichorium intybus

(15 %),

Asperula odorosa

(12 %),

Phleum pratense

(10 %),

Crepis

sp. (9 %),

Galium verum

(9 %),

Convolvulus arvensis

(8 %),

Lolium perenne

(8 %) and

Daucus carota

(7 %).

A ﬂock set-up of four goat breeds,

Girgentana

(G),

Jonica

(I),

Maltese

(M) and

Red Syrian (R) breeds (Table

3),

were used.

Girgentana

breed, native of Sicily, and

Jonica,

native of Apulian and Basilicata regions, were compared with two

non-native breeds:

Maltese

and Red Syrian.

Mature goats from each breed were selected on the basis of homogeneous days

in milk (110

10) and body condition score (2.60

0.25). All goats grazed on

native pasture and they received hay

ad libitum

plus a small amount of mixed grain

in two equal meals at morning and evening milking.

This diet reﬂects the common feeding regimen of grazing goats in Mediterranean

environments according to the herbage allowance at pasture.

3.1

Caciotta Cheesemaking, Sampling and Analysis of Milk

and Cheese

Three cheesemakings of

Caciotta

cheese for each goat breed were carried out for

three consecutive days in CRA-ZOE experimental dairy.

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Table 3

Goat breeds

Population

size (heads)

1,776

836

129

3,487

2,138

Proliﬁcacy

180

170

150

210

Fertility

Kid at

40 days

(kg)

8.0

13.2

9.0

11.0

Lactation

(days)

210

180

210

Lactation

yield

(kg)

252

126

290

112

200

292

102

178

(570

in Sicily)

Fat

3.9

5.3

3.6

4.3

4.1

Protein

3.5

4.0

3.3

3.6

Goat breed

Girgentana—L.G.

Jonica—L.G.

Local—R.A.

(Cilentana Grigia)

Maltese—L.G.

Rossa di Siria (Red

Syrian)

R.A.

Diffusion areas in Italy

Sicilia, Umbria, Basilicata

Puglia, Basilicata

Campania

Sicilia, Sardegna, Basili-

cata, Lazio, Calabria

Sicilia, Basilicata,

Calabria

L.G.

genealogical book; R.A anagraphic logbook

Registered heads, June 2014, ASSONAPA

In order of population size

Multiparous doe

Italy: Milk recording activity, ofﬁcial statistics, AIA (2013)

Todaro et al. (2005)

Noe et al. (2005)

Pizzillo et al. (2005)

A. Di Trana et al.

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

Goat Caciotta Cheese

Caciotta cheese (from the

left):

Pure, thyme-spiced and wine-ripened cheese

Whole goat milk cheese. It weighs 500–600 g, and it is ripened for 20–30

days; the shape is cylindrical, 15 cm in diameter and 11 cm high; the rind is

ivory coloured, the texture is compact, the paste is semi-soft, with rare eyes or

eyeless, and white-ivory coloured. The odour is pleasantly acidic-fermented,

the taste is sweet, typical and slightly goaty. This cheese can be ﬂavoured

with various ingredients. For example, with thyme (Thyme-spiced Goat

Caciotta cheese): the rind is barely formed and covered by thyme leaves,

which give the typical aroma to the cheese. Moreover, with wine: in this case

(Wine-ripened Goat Caciotta cheese

), the rind is dark-red coloured because

of the ripening in Aglianico del Vulture grape vinasse, which gives the typical

red plonk colour and aroma to the cheese. When correctly ripened, the

ﬂavoured rinds are edible and enrich the taste and nutritional value of the

cheeses with the aromas, the antioxidant compounds and vitamins contained

into the leaves and vinasse.

The ﬂowchart of cheese-making process is shown in Fig.

Caciotta

cheese was

ripened for 1 month in a natural cave at CRA-ZOE of Bella.

Milk samples were collected during the morning and evening milking, and

cheeses were sampled at the end of the ripening period. Chemical composition,

pH, FA content and C14:1/C14:0 ratio were measured both in milk and cheese

samples. VOC and sensory proﬁle of

Caciotta

cheese were evaluated. Methods

used for analytical assessments are given in previous section (see Sect.

2.1).

Changes in chemical composition, FA proﬁle, VOC proﬁle and textural proper-

ties of milk and

Caciotta

cheese were analysed by ANOVA procedure (Systat

1997)

including the breed effect (Girgentana,

Jonica, Maltese

and Red Syrian).

Data of sensory proﬁle were normalised before submitting them to ANOVA

repeated measures procedure. Signiﬁcance was declared at

0.05, and tenden-

cies were declared at 0.05

0.10; differences between means were tested using

Fisher’s LSD test. In order to ascertain the discriminant effect of the breed on

Goat cheese type pointed out by CRA-ZOE with Aglianico del Vulture, a Lucanian red wine

(www.entecra.it).

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Fig. 5

Flowchart of

Caciotta

cheese

A. Di Trana et al.

Goats’milk (raw milk )

↓

Heating of milk at 37°C

↓

Addition of liquid calf rennet 20 ml/100 kg

↓

Coagulation of milk after 25-30 min at 37°C

↓

Cutting of the curd (size of the curd after cutting = 1.0-1.5 cm)

↓

Partial removal of the whey and moulding

↓

Stewing at 37°C for 3 h until pH 5

↓

Cooling to 4-6°C

↓

Salting the mould for 3 days

↓

Brushing

↓

Ripening at ca. 8-10°C for 20-30 days (environmental humidity ca. 90%)

products, FA data of milk and cheese were pooled

per

breed and submitted to a

multivariate approach by Stepwise Discriminant Analysis (Systat 7

1997).

3.2

Results and Discussion

Goat breed affected the chemical composition of milk (Table

4).

Milk from

Maltese

breed was characterised by higher contents of dry matter, fat and protein compared

to the milk from the other breeds. Milk from

Jonica

goats showed higher contents

of dry matter, fat, protein and ash than milk from R and G breeds. There were no

signiﬁcant differences among breeds on pH data. In the same study, the goat breeds

affected also caseinic nitrogen (CN) and non-proteic nitrogen (NPN) fractions, M

goats showing a CN content 30 %, 14 % and 16 % higher than in the milk from R, I

and G goats, respectively (Claps et al.

2007).

Milk dry matter from the non-native R

breed did not differ signiﬁcantly from milk dry matter of G breed.

A negligible breed effect on chemical composition of

Caciotta

cheese was

observed (Table

4).

Cheese made from milk of M breed was characterised by

higher dry matter and fat contents compared to cheese from the other breeds,

though the differences are not signiﬁcant. The pH and ash values were statistically

higher in cheese from M breed.

As FA proﬁle is concerned, some studies in sheep (Addis et al.

2005;

Claps

et al.

2007)

and cow (Sinclair et al.

2007)

have shown that the FA proﬁle of cheese

reﬂects that of milk. In our study, breed had an effect on FA proﬁle of milk and

Caciotta

cheese and both showed a similar trend. The levels of PUFA, omega-3,

CLA and total

trans

FA were higher in milk from G breed than in that from the

other breeds. SFA, MUFA and omega-6 contents in milk did not change among

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

Table 4

Effect of goat breed on chemical composition (%), fatty acid content (g/100 g FA) and index of milk and

Caciotta

cheese (Claps et al.

2007;

Di Trana

et al.

2009)

Product

Breed

Chemical composition

Dry matter

Fat

Protein

Ash

Fatty acids

SFA

MUFA

PUFA

Omega-3

Omega-6

CLA

Total

trans

Index

desaturase activity

Health promoting index

Milk

6.57

13.83

4.70

3.91

0.74

70.61

24.90

4.48

0.94

2.04

0.56

1.34

0.037

0.43

6.61

12.17

3.47

3.34

0.73

71.35

24.12

4.53

1.02

2.18

0.61

1.32

0.038

0.43

6.51

12.90

4.30

3.66

0.84

70.66

24.83

4.52

0.096

2.12

0.65

1.38

0.036

0.41

6.66

11.10

3.97

3.13

0.73

70.18

24.54

5.28

1.15

2.02

0.71

1.74

0.033

0.44

SEM

0.02

0.18

0.15

0.05

0.001

0.40

0.33

0.09

0.02

0.05

0.01

0.03

0.00

0.01

Cheese

4.78

53.69

27.25

18.07

5.56

70.26

25.18

4.56

1.08

2.00

0.54

1.43

0.037

0.45

4.43

53.27

24.00

21.00

4.07

71.28

24.54

4.18

0.91

1.74

0.62

1.42

0.038

0.42

4.27

51.75

26.00

18.56

3.37

71.11

24.61

4.28

abc

0.94

1.91

0.64

1.42

0.036

0.40

4.40

50.06

24.38

18.95

4.81

70.69

24.00

5.31

1.18

1.96

0.74

0.79

0.033

0.43

SEM

0.06

1.46

1.12

0.98

0.28

0.43

0.39

0.08

0.03

0.05

0.01

0.05

0.00

0.01

Means within row with different superscripts differ at

a, b, c, d

0.05

Maltese;

Red Syrian;

Jonica;

Girgentana breeds

SFA

saturated fatty acids;

MUFA

monounsaturated fatty acids;

PUFA

polyunsaturated fatty acids;

CLA

conjugated linoleic acid;

SEM

standard error mean

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A. Di Trana et al.

breeds. Indeed, the

Caciotta

cheese made from milk of

Girgentana

breed contained

more PUFA, omega-3, omega-6 and CLA and less total

trans

FA. The different FA

proﬁle among breeds might be a useful tool in quality improvement of milk and

derived products. These results agree with our previous study (Di Trana

et al.

2006a, b)

in which we found signiﬁcant differences in FA proﬁle of milk

from

Girgentana,

Cashmere, Red Syrian and

Maltese

breeds.

The

-desaturase activity index (calculated as C14:1/C14:0 ratio) was signif-

icantly affected by goat breed in both milk and cheese. This index was higher in R

breed compared to M, I and G breeds. The results suggest the breed effect in

expression of

-desaturase enzyme in the mammary gland as observed in our

previous study (Di Trana et al.

2006a, b)

in addition to the effect of animal species

observed by Addis et al. (2005).

In the Canary Islands, Fresno et al. (2001) found signiﬁcant differences between

soft cheeses made from Majorera and Tinerfe~a goats; chemical composition only

affected the soft cheese. Later studies (Alvarez et al.

2008;

Fresno and Alvarez

2007),

considering other Canary goat breeds (Majorera and Palmera), demonstrated

signiﬁcant gross chemical differences. Cheeses from Majorero milk presented

better values for fat and protein parameters but less moisture content and pH. The

FA proﬁle was very similar between breeds although sensorial features had many

differences. Fresh cheeses made with Majorera goat milk presented higher rough-

ness, ﬁrmness and friability values than cheeses from the other breeds but lower

elasticity and solubility. Hard cheeses from Palmero breed were more elastic and

rough than others, although ﬁrmness, friability and solubility values were lower.

In a Pakistani study, a signiﬁcant effect of breed was reported in cow (Talpur

et al.

2006)

and goat (Talpur et al.

2009)

milk. Comparing Kamori and Pateri goats

kept under the same feeding and housing condition, authors reported a better FA

proﬁle with lower SFA and higher CLA content in Kamori milk. As regards cow

breeds with identical dietary intake, the milk of Red Sindhi breed showed a higher

content of MUFA, PUFA and CLA compared to White Thari milk.

Soryal et al. (2005), comparing the milk of Egypt Nubian and Alpine breeds,

reported signiﬁcant differences in fat, total protein, casein and total solids, with

Nubian goat having higher contents. This gross milk composition affected cheese

yield, but it did not change cheese composition and sensorial scores. Moreover,

only oleic acid and unsaturated fatty acids were affected by breeds, with Alpine

milk having higher content.

In Portugal, goat milk is mainly used for traditional cheesemaking, sometimes

also mixed with ewe milk, or for direct household consumption but on a very

limited scale. Trancoso et al. (2010) undertook a study with the main Portuguese

indigenous breeds (Serrana Transmontana, Serrana Ribatejana, Serpentina,

Charnequeira and Algarvia) and a foreign breed reared in Portugal (Saanen) in

order to compare their milk composition, particularly concerning the

micronutrients. The results showed that the Serrana breed could be distinguished

from the others and there was a signiﬁcant difference between both ecotypes

(Serrana Transmontana SRT, Serrana Ribatejana SRR). SRT and SRR milk showed

higher and lower levels of milk chemical constituents, respectively, compared to

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

milk of the other breeds. Milk from the foreign breed Saanen (SA) did not differ

signiﬁcantly from milk of the indigenous breeds, leading to suggestion that breed

might not be as important for milk composition as geographical region and pro-

duction system.

In Ethiopia, Mestawet et al. (2012) evaluated the cheese production potential

and suitability of indigenous breeds by comparing four goat breeds, two indigenous

(Somali and Arsi-Bale), one non-native (Boer) and one crossbreed

(Toggenburg

Arsi-Bale). They observed a breed effect on milk characteristics.

In fact, the indigenous goats had a lower milk yield than the improved European

goat breeds. However, they showed higher values in major milk components than

most of the non-native breeds. In particular, Arsi-Bale goats had signiﬁcantly

higher protein content (4.8 %) than the others. Superior chemical composition

observed in milk from indigenous Ethiopian goats revealed their potential for

cheese production.

Due to a large number of FA in milk and

Caciotta

cheese, data were pooled

per

breed and analysed using a multivariate approach. Discriminant analysis,

performed simultaneously on FA proﬁle of milk and

Caciotta

cheese, clearly

separates the goat products obtained from different breeds. A canonical scores

plot of the two canonical discriminant functions showed M at the bottom, G on

the left, I on the right and R in the centre (Fig.

6).

However, R and I breeds did not

show a strong distance. The most important FAs that contributed to the separation

among breeds were short-chain FAs, medium-chain FAs, saturated FAs, monoun-

saturated FAs, omega-3, omega-6 and CLA. Under our experimental conditions,

these results support the differences of milk and cheese among breeds consuming

the same diet.

During cheese ripening, biochemical reactions lead to the formation of cheese

aroma. Flavour compounds are produced from three major milk constituents:

lactose, lipids and proteins. Aroma development in cheese products results from

the metabolic activities of cheese bacteria, by glycolysis, lipolysis and proteolysis

Function 2

-2

-4

-6

-8

-12

RR R

Fig. 6

Distribution plot of

milk and

Caciotta

cheese

using two canonical

discriminant functions

(Claps et al.

2007;

Di Trana

et al.

2009).

(G)

Girgentana,

(I )

Jonica,

(M )

Maltese

and

(R) Red Syrian breeds

-9

-6

-3

Function 1

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Maltese

Acids

Terpe

nes

A. Di Trana et al.

Red Syrian

Jonica

Girgentana

Keton

Aldey

des

Alcoh

ols

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Fig. 7

Effect of goat breed on percentage of volatile organic compounds in

Caciotta

cheese

(Claps et al

2007;

Di Trana et al.

2009)

(Marilley and Casey

2004).

The Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) proﬁle

provides a “ﬁngerprint” (Mariaca and Bosset

1997)

of what happens during

ripening.

In our study, goat breed affected the VOC proﬁle of

Caciotta

cheese. Detected

headspace compounds were grouped according to their nature in acids, alcohols,

aldehydes, ketones and terpenes. Signiﬁcant differences were found among indi-

vidual classes of aromatic compounds whose higher values were observed in M

cheese, with the exception of ketones (Fig.

7).

The acid class was wider in cheeses

from M and R breeds compared to I and G ones.

The main source of this class is lypolysis, but it can also be the result of the

lactose metabolism, directly from acetyl-CoA or formed from amino acid conver-

sion (Tavaria et al.

2004).

This class is involved in cheese aroma like “sweet” and

“goaty” ﬂavour note or in a rancidity defect when it is present in very large amounts

(Tavaria et al.

2004).

As alcohol class is concerned, the butan-1-ol compound is

linked to “sweet, fruity” ﬂavour note (Ferreira et al.

2009).

In our study G and I

cheeses showed low and high incidence of acids and alcohols compounds, respec-

tively. Both compounds seem connected to the high “sweet” taste observed in G and

I cheese and “ﬂower” taste in cheese from G breed (Fig.

8).

The terpene class in cheeses is of plant origin and not of microbial origin (Belitz

and Grosch

1986).

The greater incidence of terpenes in the M, I and G cheeses than

R ones suggests different grazing behaviour of goat breeds. The differences of the

VOC content among breeds seem to be linked to the different grazing behaviour

and intake of botanic species of goat breeds at pasture (Fedele et al.

2005;

Claps

et al.

2010)

as well as to their genetic characteristics (see Sect.

3.3)

such as wide

casein polymorphism (Coulon et al.

2004).

The characteristic “goat” ﬂavour, and its link with animal breed, was shown

many years ago by Ronningen (1965). A subsequent study (Skjevdal

1979)

showed

a stronger taste in cheese made with Norwegian goat milk than Saanen milk. Cheese

volatile fraction and consequently sensory characteristics are affected by climatic

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

Fig. 8

Effect of goat breed

on sensory proﬁle in

Caciotta

cheese (Claps

et al.

2007;

Di Trana

et al.

2009)

Maltese

Red Syrian

colour

Girgentana

Jonica

accettability

granulosity

friability

milk

goat

herbaceos

hardness

fruity

mioisture

flower

stable

salt

acid

sweet

bitter

conditions and raw milk quality, which depends on the animal species, breed, feed,

farming and adventitious microﬂora of the raw milk (Collomb et al.

1999;

Tavaria

et al.

2002).

In our study, the breed affected all parameters of

Caciotta

cheese

sensory properties (Fig.

8).

Girgentana

cheese showed a signiﬁcantly higher value

of “milk odour”, “bitter”, “sweet”, “fruity” and “herbaceous” taste than others.

Girgentana

cheese had a lower value of granulosity and friability than the other

breeds, probably due to its fat and protein content, as observed for ricotta cheese

(see Sect

4.2).

The higher value of “herbaceous” taste for G and I cheeses might be

explained by the greater incidence of terpenes in these cheeses compared to R ones.

3.3

Goats and Genetic Variants of Casein Fractions

Goat casein genes show a high level of polymorphism due to the presence of several

alleles in different loci in some populations. In particular, the

αs1-casein

(CSN1S1)

locus shows 17 alleles (Grosclaude and Martin

1997;

Martin et al.

2002),

the

β-casein

(CSN2) and

αs2-casein

(CSN1S2) loci 8 alleles each (Marletta

et al.

2007;

Ramunno et al.

2001)

and the

κ-casein

(CSN3) locus shows 21 alleles

(Prinzenberg et al.

2005;

Gupta et al.

2009).

Except for the CSN3 gene, the

polymorphism is not only due to qualitative differences but also to quantitative

differences since some alleles affect the level of expression of the gene itself.

According to the level of synthesised

αs1-casein,

the CSN1S1 alleles have been

divided into strong (A, B1, B2, B3, B4, C, H, L and M), medium (E and I), low (D, F

and G) and null (01, 02 and N), producing about 3.6 g/l; 1.6 g/l; 0.6 g/l; 0 g/l of

casein, respectively. The CSN1S1 alleles have also a different inﬂuence on cheese

ﬂavour. In fact, Grosclaude and Martin (1997) report a less pronounced goat ﬂavour

in cheese obtained from AA milk compared to cheese obtained from FF milk.

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100

Table 5

Allelic frequencies

at the

αs1-casein

(CSN1S1),

β-casein

(CSN2) and

αs2-

casein (CSN1S2) loci in goat

populations reared in southern

Italy. Data were obtained

from different authors

Red Syrian

CSN1S1

A 0.303

B 0.096

–

0.325

CSN2

A 0.111

C 0.547

0.053

CSN1S2

A 0.243

B –

C 0.186

0.012

0.254

D –

–

A. Di Trana et al.

Girgentana

0.590

–0.351

0.065

–0.129

–

0.290

–0.186

0.047

–0.040

0.071

0.556

0.096

0.535

–0.722

0.023

0.055

–0.051

0.002

0.101

–0.225

0.006

–

Jonica

0.350

0.305

0.064

0.282

–

0.207

0.700

0.093

0.291

0.014

0.355

0.005

0.332

–

0.005

Maltese

0.249

–0.414

0.108

–0.157

0.004

–0.057

0.327

–0.371

0.011

0.142

–0.129

0.464

–0.819

0.088

–0.052

0.153

–0.286

0.086

0.130

–0.264

0.038

–0.107

0.382

–0.250

–

0.004

–0.007

Gigli et al. (2008)

Mastrangelo et al. (2013)

Sacchi et al. (2005)

Chessa et al. (2005)

Palmeri et al. (2014)

The CSN2 alleles are divided in normal alleles (A, A1, B, C, D and E),

producing a normal quantity of

α-casein

(about 5 g/l), and 0 and 01 alleles

characterised by the absence of synthesis of

α-casein.

The CSN1S2 alleles are characterised by a normal (A, B, C, E, F and G) (2.5 g/l),

weak (D) (1.5 g/l) and null (0) (0.0 g/l) production of as2-casein.

The level of total milk casein is important both for its impact on cheese-making

properties (strong alleles are associated with better technological properties of milk,

fat percentage and fatty acid composition (Remeuf

1993;

Valenti et al.

2010;

Zullo

et al.

2005))

and for particular dietary requirements (El-Agamy

2007).

As a

consequence, particular attention must be paid to casein polymorphism in breeding

programmes to obtain a milk rich in casein suitable for cheesemaking or a milk

deprived of a casein fraction to be used for hypoallergenic diets. In this context,

local goat populations, characterised by a high genetic variability at the casein loci

(Table

5),

could be the start point of both selection programmes in order to reach

different destinations of the ﬁnal product.

The genotyping of CSN1S1, CSN2 and CSN1S2 loci in

Maltese

and Red Syrian

populations reared in Basilicata showed results characterised by a good, though

slightly different from those shown in Table

genetic variability: CSN1S1 A

(0.571) F (0.212) B(0.125) E (0.038) N (0.054) and CSN1S2 “strong alleles”

(0.958), 0 (0.022) in Red Syrian; CSN1S1 A (0.659) F (0.305) B(0.012) E (0.012)

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

101

Table 6

Haplotype frequencies at casein loci in goat populations reared in southern Italy. Data

were obtained from different authors

Red Syrian

I (10.5 g/l)

II (5.5 g/l)

III (8.1 g/l)

IV (7.5 g/l)

Girgentana

0.530

0.005

–

0.250

Jonica

0.539

–

0.044

0.250

Maltese

0.240

–0.400

0.007

0.024

0.380

–0.368

0.320

–

0.321

Rando et al. (2000) Quantitative haplotypes observed at the goat calcium-sensitive casein loci

Gigli et al. (2008)

Sacchi et al. (2005)

N (0.012) and CSN1S2 “strong alleles” (0.989) 0 (0.011) in

Maltese

(our

unpublished results).

Test for casein haplotype could be more useful as the four casein genes are

closely linked in a 250 kb DNA segment on chromosome 6. Association of strong

alleles at the calcium-sensitive casein loci will lead to milk rich in total casein

(10.5 g/l), while association of strong and weak allele should decrease the total

casein content (Rando et al.

2000).

The analyses of casein haplotypes showed that haplotype I (Rando et al.

2000)

which should produce the maximum level of total casein (10.5 g/l) had higher

frequencies in

Girgentana

and

Jonica

breeds than in Red Syrian and

Maltese

breeds. So, Gigli et al. (2008) suggest that although their milk should be more

suitable for cheesemaking, the largest number of haplotypes has been found in

Maltese

breed. Interestingly, in

Maltese

breed Sacchi et al. (2005) found a specimen

heterozygote for a haplotype that should produce only 2.5 g/l of total casein.

3.4

Goat Breeds and Oligosaccharide Fraction

All the special characteristics and qualities that add value to local breeds should be

exploited in order to ﬁnd new roles for the breeds. The oligosaccharide fraction

appears to be an interesting and promising feature.

Goat milk contains smaller casein micelles and fat globules, higher concentra-

tion of some whey proteins and oligosaccharides than bovine milk (Silanikove

et al.

2010).

The fraction of oligosaccharides (OS) in goat milk is becoming

increasingly important for its known bio-functional role in consumers. Oligosac-

charides, 3–10 monosaccharide residues, are either acid containing N

acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid) or neutral. OS promote biﬁdobacteria growth

in the neonate and play a role as intestinal mucosal cell protectors against patho-

gens. In addition, they play an essential role in neonatal brain development (Gopal

and Gill

2000).

Goat colostrum and milk have shown an OS proﬁle similar to that of

human milk and a highest content of sialyloligosaccharides (SOS) in comparison to

milk from other ruminants; Puente et al. (1996) found four times as much sialic acid

in goat milk as in cow milk. In the last decade, OS were characterised (Viverge

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102

Saanen

Garganica

A. Di Trana et al.

Maltese

Fig. 9

Effect of goat breed on percentage of sialyloligosaccharides in milk (Claps et al.

2014)

et al.

1997)

and quantiﬁed (Martinez-Ferez et al.

2006)

in goat milk, and Baro

Rodriguez et al. (2005) isolated and identiﬁed 25 oligosaccharides in Murciano-

Granadina goat milk.

Recently, some studies have focused on the comparison of milk OS between

goats with and without the genetic ability to synthesise

αs1-casein

(Meyrand

et al.

2013),

on the effect of genotype, at

αs1-casein

locus, and diet on SOS in

goat milk (Di Trana et al.

2014a)

and on the SOS content and their variation in the

colostrum and milk of several goat breeds (Claps et al.

2014).

In our study, the goat

breed affected the content of three SOS: 3

-sialyllactose (3

-SL), 6

-sialyllactose

-SL) and disialyllactose (DSL). Differences in SOS compounds were found from

colostrum to milk in

Garganica

and Maltese breeds.

Garganica

breed, a local breed

of Gargano promontory in Apulian region, showed the higher values of 3

-SL and

-SL, while

Maltese

breed exhibited the higher content of DSL (Fig.

9).

The same

trend was observed comparing these data with unpublished data on Saanen breed.

Although further studies are required, goat milk from native breeds appears to be an

attractive natural source of human-like oligosaccharides for infant and health-

promoting formulas, due to its composition and content.

6'_

3'_

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

3.5

Conclusion

Milk and cheese from

Girgentana

breed are distinguishable for FA proﬁle, nutri-

tional index and sensory properties compared to other breeds. Cheese from

Girgentana

breed shows a VOC proﬁle that is conﬁrmed by the corresponding

sensory proﬁle. The genetic types of goat and the genetic variants of casein

fractions could have inﬂuenced the sensory proﬁle of cheeses. The results are due

to the presence in raw material of molecules produced by animals (fatty acids and

casein) and also caused by grazing behaviour. These characteristics are the basis of

the complex and multifactorial mechanism making the product “typical”. These

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

103

peculiarities add value to the

Girgentana

breed and therefore give a support in

favour of this breed amplifying its sustainable use. The high quantity of SOS found

in local breed

Garganica

compared to foreign breed appears an interesting and

promising feature for adding value to local breeds.

4 Goat Breeds and

Ricotta

Cheese

In this section, we report a further example that can be considered a case study.

Among products made from whey,

Ricotta

cheese is likely the earliest. It is

considered as a high-moisture product, and it is essentially a co-precipitate of

proteins with a mild ﬂavour and soft texture.

Goat Ricotta Cheese

Whole goat whey cheese. It weighs 200–500 g and is consumed fresh; its

shape is cylindrical, 11 cm in diameter and 8 cm high; there is no rind, the

texture is compact but creamy, the paste is spreadable, eyeless and pure white

coloured. Its odour is pleasantly lactic, no goaty; its taste is sweet, lactic,

sapid and cloaking, slightly goaty.

This study was conducted under the same condition as for goat breed and

Caciotta

cheese case (see Sect.

3).

The experimental ﬂock was set-up with goats

belonging to the

Local

(L),

Girgentana

(G), Red Syrian (R) and

Maltese

(M) goat

breeds (Table

3).

The ﬂock management and feeding system are reported in the

previous case (see Sect.

study.

4.1

Ricotta Cheesemaking, Sampling and Analysis of Milk

and Cheese

Three

Ricotta

cheese-making trials for each breed were conducted. A simpliﬁed

ﬂowchart of cheese-making process is shown in Fig.

10.

Thirty-six samples of

whole milk, whey and

Ricotta

cheese were analysed for their chemical

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104

Fig. 10

Flowchart of

Ricotta

cheese

A. Di Trana et al.

Whey

↓

Straining of whey

↓

Heating at 90°C

↓

Coagulation at 85-90°C

↓

Standing of Ricotta cheese for about 10-15 min

↓

500g of Ricotta cheese was packaged in polyethylene bags

↓

Cooling

↓

Purchase

composition, FA proﬁle, textural properties and sensorial properties. The analytical

methods and assessment procedure are previously reported (see Sect.

2.1).

Changes in milk, whey and

Ricotta

cheese of chemical composition, FA proﬁle,

textural properties and sensory proﬁle were analysed by ANOVA procedure (Systat

1997).

The statistical analysis evaluated the effect of

Local, Girgentana, Maltese

and Red Syrian breeds. Data about sensory proﬁle were normalised before submit-

ting them to ANOVA repeated measures procedure. Signiﬁcance was declared at

0.05; differences between means were tested using Fisher’s LSD test.

4.2

Results and Discussion

The average gross composition of milk, whey and

Ricotta

cheese for each breed is

shown in Table

The breed effect was more evident in

Ricotta

cheese than in whey

and milk.

The main effects of goat breed in

Ricotta

cheese were found in dry matter, fat

and lactose contents. The milk produced by R breed showed higher fat content

when compared to the M and L breeds. G milk exhibited intermediate values. As

concern the whey fraction, G, R and L breed had a higher content of dry matter than

M breed. Ricotta cheese from the

Girgentana

breed showed a higher dry matter and

lactose content and an intermediate fat content than the same product from R and M

breeds. The

Ricotta

cheese from

Local

breed exhibited an interesting chemical

composition with high fat and dry matter content.

Ricotta

cheese did not reﬂect the

milk gross composition in terms of fat and dry matter. According to Pintado and

Malcata (1996), differences between milk and

Ricotta

cheese are related to heating

time and heating temperature during

Ricotta

cheesemaking.

The FA proﬁle of

Ricotta

cheese was signiﬁcantly affected by breed (Fig.

11).

The cheese made from

Girgentana

breed contained signiﬁcantly lower SFA content

than other breeds. Compared to the L breed, G, R and M breeds had a higher content

of MUFA, because of the higher oleic acid level. A higher PUFA content was

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

Table 7

Effect of breed on pH and chemical composition of milk, whey and

Ricotta

cheese (Pizzillo et al.

2005)

Product

Breed

Fat

Protein

Lactose

Milk %

6.54

12.34

3.78

3.33

4.48

6.51

11.46

4.10

3.33

4.16

6.57

11.96

3.52

3.13

4.55

6.58

12.07

3.59

3.29

4.46

SEM

0.03

0.36

0.24

0.09

0.16

Whey %

6.44

8.05

1.58

1.14

5.62

6.46

8.03

1.82

1.15

5.81

6.35

7.51

1.64

1.05

5.57

6.28

8.04

1.72

1.02

6.29

SEM

0.08

0.26

0.11

0.06

0.42

Ricotta cheese %DM

6.27

32.13

64.56

20.77

11.55

6.43

28.62

61.63

24.00

11.11

6.41

29.89

66.83

21.03

8.87

6.32

32.07

71.75

19.81

5.89

SEM

0.07

1.58

3.73

1.42

2.15

Means within row with different superscripts differ at

a, b, c

0.05

Girgentana;

Red Syrian;

Maltese;

Locale breeds;

SEM

standard error mean

dry matter

105

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106

Saturated

Monounsaturated

A. Di Trana et al.

Polyunsaturated

Girgentana

Red Syrian

Maltese

Local

Fig. 11

Effect of goat breed on fatty acid composition (% FAME) of

Ricotta

cheese (Pizzillo

et al.

2005).

a, b, c

0.05

detected in

Ricotta

cheese from

Girgentana

breed compared to others because of

the higher linoleic and arachidonic acid levels. Indeed, Ricotta cheese from G

showed a level of linoleic acid 2.4, 2.7 and 1.1 times higher than R, M and L

breeds, respectively, while its arachidonic acid content was 6.4, 1.6 and 1.9 times

higher than the others.

As reported in previous studies (Di Trana et al.

2006a, b;

Impemba et al.

2005),

the breed affected the

-desaturase activity index (ratio C18:1/C18:0), G breed

having higher index value followed by R, L and M breeds. The product:substrate

ratio indicates increased enzyme activity in G breed. The high level of MUFA and

PUFA present in

Ricotta

cheese from

Girgentana

goat could encourage the use of

this breed.

In goat dairy products, taste plays an important role in consumer acceptance

(Ribeiro and Ribeiro

2010).

Within the textural and colour properties of

Ricotta

cheese, the adhesiveness only was affected by breed;

Girgentana

breed exhibited a

signiﬁcant higher adhesiveness than

Local

breed, while no differences were

detected among the others. The lower value of adhesiveness, detected in

Ricotta

cheese made from whey of

Local

breed, may be due to the higher fat/protein ratio

exhibited by this product (Roland et al.

1999).

The sensory attributes are shown in

Fig.

12.

The breed affected some sensory properties of

Ricotta

cheese such as

“softness”, “greasiness” and “granulosity”. Higher “softness” and “greasiness” and

lower “granulosity” and “goat” attributes were found in cheese from G and L breeds

than others.

In our case, the “goat” ﬂavour scores of

Ricotta

cheese made from R and M milk

may be related to the different ratio of lipolysis and/or different frequencies of the

as1-casein locus alleles (see Sect.

3.3).

Large differences in texture and taste among

cheeses issued from milk of different breeds and/or within breed are linked to the

genetic variant of as1-casein in goats (Coulon et al.

2004).

The characteristic “goat”

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The Role of Local Sheep and Goat Breeds and Their Products as a Tool for.

. .

Fig. 12

Effect of goat

breed on sensory proﬁle of

Ricotta

cheese (Pizzillo

et al.

2005)

Girgentana

Red Syrian

Maltese

107

Local

softness

milk

cooked

granulosity

greasiness

goat

sw eet

bitter

ﬂavour of goat milk products originates from milk fat and from the rate of fat

hydrolysis; moreover, Grosclaude et al. (1994) have emphasised on the genetic

dependence (see Sect.

3.3)

of the variation of goat ﬂavour intensity.

4.3

Conclusion

The results indicate that sensory properties and FA composition of

Ricotta

cheese

vary according to the goat breed. The higher MUFA and PUFA levels, found in

Ricotta

cheese made from whey of

Girgentana

goats, are beneﬁcial to human

nutrition. Moreover, the greater “softness” and the lower sensor scores for

“granulosity” and “goat” odour exhibited by this product could satisfy consumer

demand for a cheese with adequate sensory and nutritional properties. The pecu-

liarities of the

Girgentana

breed may motivate the use of this breed, and they are a

tool for amplifying the sustainable use.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Innovative Use of Jenny Milk from

Sustainable Rearing

Carlo Cosentino, Rosanna Paolino, Mauro Musto, and Pierangelo Freschi

Abstract

Thanks to its chemical composition and nutrient proﬁle, jenny milk is

usually recommended for the needs of newborn, heart and cholesterolemic patients.

Nevertheless, the future use of this product is still to be deﬁned. In the present,

contributions of two promising ways of milk valorisation were discussed: natural

cosmetics and new cheese productions. The results of our studies showed that face

creams made with jenny milk allow a better skin hydration and moisturisation

compared to conventional cosmetics. Moreover, the addition of small amounts of

jenny milk is able to prevent late blowing defects in cow and in ewe cheese making.

The provision of these ﬁndings to farmers may have important socio-economic and

ecological implications.

1 Why a Growing Interest Towards Donkey Rearing?

The Pan-European Strategy on Biological and Landscape Diversity has encouraged

the institution of new protected areas of regional and of national parks aimed to

safeguard the extensive agriculture and the sustainable rearing of autochthonous

breeds in order to reduce the abandon of rural areas. These areas, which include

parks, reserves and marginal areas, have an economy mainly based on agriculture,

livestock production and forestry. Among these activities, livestock production in

general and the raising of autochthonous livestock breeds in particular contributed

signiﬁcantly to create traditional agricultural landscapes supporting a greater vari-

ety of plants and wild animals. Therefore, to maintain and valorise this biodiversity,

it is fundamental to preserve and/or reintroduce autochthonous breeds into these

areas. This, in turn, may have positive implications for protecting and conserving

the natural heritage of these areas (Signorello et al.

2004).

In this context, the pastoral activity and semi-extensive farming of donkey, if

properly managed, may exert a positive inﬂuence on biodiversity. Donkeys are

C. Cosentino (

) • R. Paolino • M. Musto • P. Freschi

School of Agricultural, Forest, Food, and Environmental Sciences (SAFE), University of

Basilicata, Viale dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_8

113

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C. Cosentino et al.

grazers as well as browsers (Aganga and Tsopito

1998).

Their teeth and lips allow

them to graze close to the ground; thus, they can efﬁciently graze short vegetation.

These animals are non-selective grazers (Aganga et al.

2000),

preferring thistles,

rushes and other coarse vegetation to more palatable grasses. Thus, donkeys are

capable of controlling some invasive plant species and those with less appetite

(Cosentino et al.

2012).

In recent years, there has been a renewed interest towards the products (milk and

meat) and social practices (rural tourism, onotherapy, etc.) that this species can

offer, although donkey’s breeding is still poorly widespread (Vincenzetti

et al.

2008).

Concerning milk production, it is well known that jennies provide

milk that shows the closest similarity to human milk (Malacarne et al.

2002).

Thanks to its nutritional characteristics, jenny milk has several applications: in

paediatric sphere, in patients affected by cow’s milk protein allergy and intolerance,

as best alternative to human milk in infant food and in geriatric ﬁeld for the

treatment of ageing diseases (Tesse et al.

2009;

Caffarelli et al.

2010).

According

to the literature, this milk has low levels of casein allergens and high levels of

lactose, of unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic) and of lysozyme. This

enzyme is practically absent in other species (cow, goat, sheep, human) (Miranda

et al.

2004)

and has important physiological functions like inhibition of certain

microorganism growth, anti-inﬂammatory and antitumoural activity and increase of

defence system in early childhood (Monti et al.

2007;

La Torre et al.

2010;

Nazzaro

et al.

2010;

Simos et al.

2011).

Some jenny milk whey proteins (α-lactalbumin, in

particular, and

β-lactoglobulin)

stimulate cytokine production with a considerable

in vitro anti-proliferative activity (Erdmann et al.

2008;

Criscione et al.

2009;

Mao

et al.

2009).

Moreover, thanks to some of its characteristics (vasodilator function,

high calcium content and low energy value), it is indicated in patients affected by

heart disease, osteoporosis and atherosclerosis (Hernandez Ledesma et al.

2006;

Iacono and Scalici

2011).

Another promising valorisation strategy of jenny milk is the use of this product

in cosmetic preparations. Nowadays, the cosmetic trade is mainly focused towards

products made with natural ingredients, and it is oriented to a sustainable consump-

tion without preservatives addition. This has led many companies to increase the

use of natural ingredients in existing preparations or to create new products

(Lundov et al.

2009;

Parente et al.

2011).

Because of their natural origin, milk

components correspond in many ﬁelds to the needs of cosmetology. Proteins and

other components of milk have a strong absorption capacity and water retention,

encouraging a high degree of hydration of the skin and preventing the degradation

of the epidermal cells (Temuujin et al.

2006;

Simos et al.

2011).

Moreover, milk

proteins with a glycosylated part could be largely used in all products developed to

ﬁght against skin ageing. Among these, for example, lactoferrin, which has a high

iron-chelating property, could prevent free radical production by the skin after long

periods of exposure to the sun (Cotte

1991;

Girardet et al.

2004).

In cosmetic preparations, jenny milk is often used as basic constituent. Minerals,

vitamins, fatty acids, bioactive enzyme and coenzyme, lactose and whey proteins

contained in jenny milk prevent skin-ageing process, thanks to the hydrating and

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restructuring action of the dermal intercellular substance (Cosentino et al.

2011;

Orsingher

2011).

It is known that these properties are principally due to the high

lysozyme and to the antioxidant action of fatty acids contained in jenny milk

(Polidori et al.

2009a;

Tesse et al.

2009;

Simos et al.

2011;

Al-Saiady et al.

2012;

Cosentino and Paolino

2012;

Cosentino et al.

2012).

With regard to donkey meat, recent studies (Polidori et al.

2008a, b, 2009b)

demonstrated that this product may be used as an alternative to other red meats and

for the sausages production. The donkey meat has an important chemical and

nutritional value: besides, it has a low content of fat and of cholesterol, a high

protein and unsaturated fatty acid contents and high amounts of potassium, phos-

phorus, sodium and magnesium. Maniaci et al. (2009) showed a high acceptability

for sausage made from only donkey meat compared to sausage made with only

Sicilian pig meat and mixed. Marino et al. (2009), in a study on donkey dried beef,

found a low percentage of saturated fatty acids and a high content of polyunsatu-

rated fatty acids, with higher amounts of

ω-3

compared to dried beef obtained with

cow meat.

Another important aspect related to the raising of donkeys is the possibility of

using this species in important social practices, such as pet therapy. Thanks to its

quite temperament, donkey can play an important role for the treatment of certain

personality disorders (Patti and Gaziano

2007).

To exploit this important “ability”,

in Italy, in recent years, the number of rehabilitation centres and social farms

considerably increased (Cirulli and Alleva

2007;

Rossaro

2009).

2 Main Characteristics of Donkey Farms in Basilicata

Region

2.1

Donkey Population

In the early of the twentieth century, Italy was the second European country with

the largest number (almost one million) of donkeys (Cosentino et al.

2010).

This

result was due to the creation of new farms raising donkeys as well as to the

numerical consolidation of the pre-existent rearing.

The number of donkey farms has historically been higher in south of Italy, where

the species has played an important role in the rural life being a useful travelling

companion between rural and urban residence. This is particularly true for the

Basilicata region, where the species is quite spread, but a well-deﬁned autochtho-

nous genetic type is still absent. Until the 1920s, the Pugliese was the most common

breed of donkey. Indeed, it included several subraces (such as Martina Franca,

Marchigiana, Romagnola, Calabrese and Lucana) sharing many morphological

characters, including the dark colour of coat (Baroncini

1987).

Although some of

these subraces were appreciated for their rusticity, a reduction of their consistency

occurred over the years in Basilicata. However, in recent years, following a national

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116

C. Cosentino et al.

trend, there has been a renewed interest towards this species, especially thanks to

some regional policies aimed at promoting the reintroduction of autochthonous

breeds and the adoption of extensive and sustainable rearing systems, in order to

prevent the abandonment of rural areas and to preserve the naturalistic heritage of

the region (Signorello et al.

2004;

Regione Basilicata

2011).

The study of Cosentino et al. (2010) provided important information relating

to the different aspects of farms raising donkeys in Basilicata. According to the

authors, most of the farms are small sized and family owned, with the farmer

playing a key role in the defence and government of rural areas (Mauri

2007).

A total of 660 donkeys (1.3 % of the national population) are reared in the farms

localised in Basilicata. About 90 % of the farms are situated in the mountainous

areas of the region (ISTAT

2002, 2011),

where there is the greatest number of

donkeys (82 %). Over the past 10 years, there was a reduction of the number of

subjects (from 830 to 660), with the concurrent increase of the average number per

farm (from 2.7 to 4.68). The highest number of donkeys has been recorded in the

province of Potenza, where 403 donkeys are reared in 104 farms. In the province of

Matera, instead, there are 257 subjects reared in 37 farms. The farms can be divided

into the following classes: equestrian with mares (64), reproduction (9), meat with

mares (21) and work (47).

With regard to protected areas of Basilicata, about 50 % of the donkeys are

reared in the Regional and National Parks (National Park of Appennino Lucano Val

d’Agri Lagonegrese, 130 subjects; Pollino National Park, 68 subjects; Regional

Park Gallipoli Cognato, 78 subjects; Regional Park of Matera Chiese Rupestri,

43 subjects). A high number of donkeys were found in some municipalities of the

Parks, such as Calciano (49), Lauria (40), Matera (36), Anzi (33) and San Martino

d’Agri (28).

2.2

Morphological and Biometrical Characteristics of Local

Population

In the past decades, a number of studies on morphological and biometrical charac-

teristics of the species have been carried out to establish for the Italian breeds the

standards for the anagraphic registers (Cecchi et al.

2007).

Other studies, instead,

investigated the genetic relationship among the Italian populations (Di Rosa

et al.

2007).

An important contribution to the deﬁnition of the morphometric characteristics

of donkeys reared in Basilicata is that of Cosentino et al. (2010). In their study, the

authors recorded some morphometric and biometric characteristics of 52 donkeys

reared in semi-extensive farms. Their results showed signiﬁcant gender differences

in terms of withers height, depth and width of chest, shin circumference and

sternum height. In most of the cases, the colour of coat was blackish, whereas in

others, it was grey mouse with both shoulders stripe and bay dark.

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The local population of donkeys had a small size with the cephalic region more

accentuated than trunk. The biometric indexes and the zoometric measurements

indicated a longilinear or dolichomorphic type. These are probably due to the little

interest of small farmers or owners of one or few donkeys in applying rigorous

techniques of breeding or controlled mating according to morphology and geneal-

ogy (Jordana and Folch

1998).

Overall, the local population can be considered suitable to the milk production,

pet therapy and transport in the mountain paths, just as other breeds like Martina

Franca, Amiata and Ragusana (Monti et al.

2007;

Conte and Passantino

2008).

3 Qualitative Characteristics of Jenny Milk

Producing jenny milk may be an interesting, proﬁtable and alternative activity for

farmers, mainly in southern marginal areas. However, in Basilicata, there are still

few farmers that produce jenny milk. This is mainly due to poor farm consistency,

which, in turn, makes it difﬁcult to start this type of production. Moreover, the

regional land conformation does not help the market of the milk, and the cost of

production is much higher than cow milk for limited daily production. Overcoming

these kinds of difﬁculties is fundamental to exploit all the commercial opportunities

that jenny milk can offer.

Considering its unique nutrient proﬁle, jenny milk may be easily employed to

satisfy the nutritional requirements of newborn, heart and cholesterolemic patients.

In particular, cow milk allergy, heart ageing and cholesterolemic diseases are

considered to be increasing problems, and, for these reasons, the acquisition of

new knowledge on jenny milk is very important in clinical and nutritional aspects.

However, little is known about qualitative and quantitative characteristics of jenny

milk. Although the species is a seasonal polyestrous, in south of Italy, jennies foal

every season, probably because of small photoperiod oscillations between different

seasons, and, consequently, milk is available all year (Giosue et al.

2008).

During

lactation, this species has a low but constant daily production (Malacarne

et al.

2002;

Polidori et al.

2009a).

Production level is inﬂuenced by several aspects,

such as stage of lactation, milking technique, presence of the foal and foaling

season (Dell’Orto et al.

1993;

Oftedal et al.

1983).

In particular, during milking,

the presence of foal and the stage of lactation inﬂuence fat and protein content.

Moreover, lactose content is constant during lactation, being independent of breed,

milking time and stage of lactation (Guo et al.

2007).

Jenny milk composition is

similar among subjects from different continents, except for fat content (Blasi

et al.

2008;

Ivankovic et al.

2009).

Cosentino et al. (unpublished data) evaluated some aspects of donkey rearing

that include the inﬂuence of lactation stage (30, 90 and 150 days from foaling) and

of foaling season (spring and summer) on some qualitative aspects of jenny milk, in

a farm situated at an altitude of 700 m a.s.l. in a protected area of Appennino

Lucano National Park. The research was carried out on 23 jennies belonging to a

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118

C. Cosentino et al.

local population and aged between 7 and 10 years. These jennies foaled in two

different periods: spring and summer (12 and 14 jennies, respectively). Milk

samples were collected monthly, in the periods March–August in spring group

and July–November in summer group. During the trial period, jennies were con-

ﬁned in boxes with a large paddock, in order to avoid the effect of grazing on

qualitative characteristics of milk. Animals were offered a diet consisting of ad

libitum oat hay and of an integration of 3 kg of concentrate, characterised by the

following mixture: 37 % ﬂaked corn, 30 % oats, 9 % locust bean crushed, 8 % wheat

bran, 8 % dehydrated alfalfa, 6 % beet pulp dried and 2 % minerals and vitamin

supplement. Diet was dispensed twice a day: during milking and in the evening.

From the second month after delivery, jennies were milked by mechanical milking

(40 kPa vacuum level, 60 pulse per min), at 11:00 am. From 8:00 am to the end of

milking, foals were separated from mares, but were kept in the adjacent box

maintaining the visual and the acoustic contact.

Immediately after collection, on milk individual samples were measured: pH and

titratable acidity, protein, fat, lactose, dry matter and ash content. In addition,

somatic cell count (SCC), expressed as somatic cell score (SCS, log

1,000/

mL), was determined.

The groups showed a milk production trend similar to that observed in literature

by other authors (Giosue et al.

2008;

Santos and Silvestre

2008).

Milk production,

protein, ash, SCS and pH resulted highest in summer at 30 days; protein and pH

resulted highest in summer also at 90 and 150 days, respectively (Table

1).

Ash

content in tendency decreased during lactation. The highest mineral content, at the

start of lactation, is particularly important for the ﬁrst growth stage of the young

foal (Csap-Kiss et al.

1995).

During lactation, pH values varied signiﬁcantly

between groups. SCS values observed from other authors ranged from 3.94 to

4.34 (Beghelli et al.

2009;

Finocchiaro and Conte

2009;

Ivankovic et al.

2009).

spring group, protein content was high at the start of lactation, decreased to a

minimum at 90 days and increased at the end of lactation, as observed by Guo

et al. (2007); instead, summer lactation showed two peaks at 30 and at 90 days.

Protein content resulted lower than the values reported by other authors that studied

the effects of seasons on jenny milk characteristics: 19.3 g/L in spring and 18.1 g/L

in summer in Sicilian breeds (Giosue et al.

2008)

and 16.5 g/L in spring and 14.3 g/

L in summer in Croat breed (Ivankovic et al.

2009).

Fat content was signiﬁcantly

highest in summer group at the end of lactation. The average fat content of jenny

milk was similar to mare milk and was much lower than other mammals; other

authors observed values in the range 0.01–1.8 %. Lactose content and dry matter

resulted signiﬁcantly the lowest in summer only at 30 days. In the other periods,

lactose was not inﬂuenced by the considered factors, as reported in literature

(Oftedal and Jenness

1988;

Santos and Silvestre

2008);

dry matter content was in

agreement with values reported in the literature for equine milk (Malacarne

et al.

2002;

Miranda et al.

2004);

Ivankovic et al. (2009) observed in Croat jenny

values that ranged from 8.61 to 9.13 %. Titratable acidity (SH

) resulted highest in

summer lactation at 90 and at 150 days, value lower than in cow’s milk, attributable

to the low content in casein and in phosphate (D’Auria et al.

2005;

Guo et al.

2007).

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Table 1

Jenny milk parameters (mean

SE)

Days post-foaling

Spring

1.05

0.03

12.65

0.18

4.00

1.30

60.60

0.37

81.09

1.20

3.80

0.09

6.80

0.03

2.48

0.16

3.31

0.03

Spring

1.38

0.15

12.00

0.18

2.10

0.20

58.50

1.20

74.90

1.20

3.80

0.20

6.86

0.04

2.09

0.12

3.62

0.03

150

Spring

0.91

0.11

12.50

0.09

2.30

0.28

59.10

0.28

77.75

0.50

3.80

0.10

6.77

0.02

1.86

0.12

3.90

0.04

Parameters

Milk production (L/day)

Protein (g/L)

Fat (g/L)

Lactose (g/L)

Dry matter (g/L)

Ash (g/L)

TA, SH

SCS, log

1,000 (mL)

Summer

1.47

0.12

13.76

0.84

4.10

0.7

50.20

1.30

72.60

3.50

4.60

0.18

6.95

0.05

2.32

0.15

4.37

0.06

Summer

1.13

0.18

12.90

0.18

1.60

0.10

58.50

0.70

77.00

0.28

3.90

0.20

6.70

0.05

2.32

0.14

4.28

0.08

Summer

0.93

0.12

12.70

0.09

4.80

0.65

58.00

0.37

79.30

1.80

3.90

0.10

7.02

0.01

2.32

0.20

4.30

0.02

Means within periods with different superscripts signiﬁcantly differ: a, b

0.05; A, B

0.01

119

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120

C. Cosentino et al.

3.1

Cosmetics Made with Jenny Milk

The ﬁrst representation of the donkey species was found in Egypt in a bas-relief of

2500 BC, and from the time of Herodotus (V century BC), donkey began to be

appreciated for the therapeutic properties of its milk (Melani

1998;

Paolicelli

2005).

Some historical texts, such as the

De Materia Medica

of Dioscoride and the

Naturalis Historia

of Pliny the Elder, describing various uses of milk in cosmetics,

and Ovid also, in his

Medicamina Faciei Femineae,

suggest beauty masks made

with donkey milk (Virgili

1989).

Today, thanks to the properties of milk components, there are several products

made from milk of different species in the cosmetic market. Cow milk preparations

(face and body creams, cleansing milk and tonic) are the most known by con-

sumers. However, there are cosmetics made from other ruminants like camel

(Kalejman

2011),

sheep (Drader

2005)

and goat (Ribeiro and Ribeiro

2010)

from monogastric species like horse and donkey (Medhammar et al.

2012;

Song

2012;

Cosentino et al.

2013a).

Mare’s milk is considered as an ingredient in

Mongolian cosmetics because of its high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids,

which make it readily absorbed by human skin (Temuujin et al.

2006).

It is known

that jenny milk properties are principally due to the high lysozyme and to the

antioxidant action of fatty acids contained in jenny milk (Tesse et al.

2009;

Al-Saiady et al.

2012;

Cosentino and Paolino

2012;

Cosentino et al.

2012).

Notwithstanding the beautifying beneﬁts of the jenny milk have been histori-

cally acclaimed (since Cleopatra), few studies have been conducted on its perceived

quality in cosmetics or on its actions about skin-ageing process hydrating and

restructuring the dermal intercellular substance (Orsingher

2011;

Paolino and

Cosentino

2011).

Cosentino et al. (2014) preliminarily evaluated whether the use of a face cream

made from milk jenny affected the perception of some sensory aspects. The test was

conducted on 80 regular female consumers of cosmetic cream, subdivided

according to their skin type: dry (25), normal (30) and oily (25). Consumers were

given two types of creams: a control and a treated cream, with the latter created by

adding pasteurised jenny milk (30 % on total weight). Both creams were packaged

in 50-mL containers and given to consumers with a ballot consisting of 11 questions

about attributes of appearance, fragrance and effectiveness and the overall satis-

faction of each cream. Consumers tested both face creams at home, for a period of

15 days; they were asked to apply the face cream every evening and to rate the

attributes presented in the questionnaire for each face cream at the end of trial. The

results showed that treated cream resulted appreciated by dry skin consumers for

the following sensory aspects: spreadability, total appearance, smoothness,

moisturisation and total effectiveness (Fig.

1).

The overall judgement also resulted

highest for face cream made with jenny milk. The other consumers expressed a

good acceptability for both tested creams. These results conﬁrm that jenny milk

could be a cosmetic component suitable for all skin types thanks to its balancing

skin moisture (Salimei and Fantuz

2012).

A recent study on a face cream containing

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121

TOTAL

EFFECTIVENESS

oily

normal

dry

oily

normal

dry

EFFECTIVENESS

MOISTURIZATION

ADHESIVENESS

oily

normal

dry

oily

normal

dry

oily

TOTAL FRAGRANCE

SMOOTHNESS

normal

dry

oily

FRAGRANCE

VOLUME

normal

dry

oily

IMPACT

normal

dry

TOTAL

APPEARANCE

oily

normal

dry

oily

APPEARANCE

THICKNESS

normal

dry

SPREADABILITY

oily

normal

dry

Control

Treated

Fig. 1

Sensorial aspects of control and treated (made with jenny milk) face creams at the end of

the trial (mean

SE)

lyophilised jenny milk (Orsingher

2011)

showed a lot of beneﬁts, such as wrinkle

reduction, new collagen formation, restoration of the skin’s natural defences against

external agents, prevention of inﬂammatory processes in the case of dermatitis and

increased elasticity. These results are probably related to the effectiveness of jenny

milk components like proteins, minerals, vitamins, essential fatty acids and lyso-

zyme, which allow the skin a balanced nourishment and a proper hydration (Guo

et al.

2007).

Lactose, particularly high in jenny milk, is an important emollient and

moisturiser (Temuujin et al.

2006;

Polidori et al.

2009a).

The beautifying properties in calming the irritation symptoms (Blasi et al.

2008;

Vincenzetti et al.

2012)

and in restructuring skin-ageing process (Nazzaro

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122

C. Cosentino et al.

et al.

2010;

Al-Saiady et al.

2012)

of its whey proteins (β-lactoglobulin and

lysozyme) and of its essential amino acids are also well known. For this reason, it

could be much more proﬁtable if use in higher water content cosmetics (body and

after-shave lotions, shampoos, hair conditioners and cleansing milk), in which a

larger use of milk is possible.

These results clearly show that jenny milk could be a valuable and innovative

ingredient for cosmetics. The marketing of cosmetics made with jenny milk could

help to preserve local donkey genotypes and the marginal areas in which they are

reared. A major challenge for the marketing of these kinds of products is the

consumer’s knowledge about jenny milk and sustainable farms. In this context,

packaging may have an important communicative function thanks to iconic and

textual elements (Topoyan and Zeki

2008).

The measurement of packaging attri-

butes is very difﬁcult because a package generally induces a wide variety of stimuli:

visual, tactile and even olfactory. For example, visual and tactile stimuli affect the

consumer choices at time of purchase.

Cosentino et al. (2011) evaluated consumer knowledge on some qualitative and

quantitative aspects of jenny milk cosmetics. Their main aim was to identify some

packaging factors that inﬂuence consumer liking. The study was conducted using

the quantitative method by interviews with a one to one questionnaire, consisting of

18 questions, that has been randomly administered to 450 people residing in the test

area. The age of sample was in mean 40 years, since people in this age range are the

most strongly concerned to counteract skin-ageing process and the appearance of

wrinkles. The results showed that about 70 % of the surveyed consumers were

willing to purchase a product labelled as “new generation cosmetics”, probably

because this cue refers to innovation and modernity in their imagination. These

cosmetics could absorb a signiﬁcant portion of the market for natural cosmetics

based on milk. Descriptive survey put in evidence that customers knew jenny milk

and expressed willingness to buy cosmetics made with this kind of milk in the

future. Few consumers were already familiar with jenny milk cosmetics and had

already bought this kind of product. In general, consumers showed a willingness to

buy cosmetics in low price classes. However, many consumers were willing to pay

more for these cosmetics if produced in sustainable rearing system and in the

respect of animal welfare.

More recently, Cosentino et al. (2013a), in a study on the acceptability of

different types of packaging for exalting the quality of cosmetics with jenny milk,

found that consumers preferred the one evoking the concept of natural. A total of

300 consumers, aged in mean 33 years, evaluated the preferences by using a scale of

values from 1 to 5. In order to identify the most preferred packaging, the naming,

the type of packing paper and the communication aspect of packaging were studied

(Fig.

2).

The naming has been developed starting from the concepts of delicacy and

of naturalness, with the direct representation of the product source, like the donkey

with a speciﬁc soft brown tone coat. The name “Asinella” was the most preferred by

a jury of 50 habitual cosmetic consumers; the farmers also identiﬁed it as the best

choice (Fig.

2).

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Innovative Use of Jenny Milk from Sustainable Rearing

123

Fig. 2

Types of packaging

Consumers were asked to evaluate different types of packing paper: matte,

glossy and glossy embossed with texture (Fig.

2).

Matte paper was the most

preferred, because it evoked the perception of natural, more than the glossy

paper, which is usually used by the competitors (Asilac, Milk drops and Dahl). In

addition, consumers were more willing to buy cosmetics packaged with matte

paper.

The communication aspect of packaging proposed was A, “Asinella”; B,

“Asinella” + “Natural product”; and C, “Asinella” + “Natural product” + “Made in

Basilicata” (Fig.

2).

Consumers considered packaging information important to

induce to purchase and judged the message of type B more persuasive than the other

two communication forms of packaging, probably for the reliability of the product.

They also considered the most persuasive combination in purchasing the name

“Asinella”, with the text label “Natural product”. From the consumer perspective,

naming is an important quality cue and makes it easier to infer quality. In addition

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124

C. Cosentino et al.

to this parameter, traceability systems, branding and labelling can help consumer’s

choice (Grunert

2002).

3.2

Jenny Milk as Inhibitor in Cheese Making

Late blowing defects on ripened semihard and hard cheese are an important

problem with a high negative economic impact in dairy production. The causes

depend on both technological and microbiological factors. Technological factors

include milk quality, heat treatment, hygiene practices, manufacture technology,

compositional parameters and ripening temperature/moisture, which inﬂuence

ˆ´

cheese making and ripening (Bogovic Matijasic et al.

2007).

Microbiological

factors are the most difﬁcult to control, because undesirable microorganisms,

such as coliforms, yeasts, heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria and spore-forming

bacteria, may cause early or late blowing defects in cheeses (Little et al.

2008;

Gmez-Torres et al.

2014).

Late blowing defect in semihard and hard cheeses has

been attributed to the outgrowth of strains of

Clostridium

spp. (mainly

C. butyricum

and

C. tyrobutyricum),

capable of fermenting lactic acid with production of butyric

acid, acetic acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen (Garde et al.

2012).

Clostridium

spores are ubiquitous, much more resistant to heat, chemicals, irradiation and

desiccation than vegetative cells, and its growth in cheese is affected critically by

different factors such as salt concentration, pH, ripening time and temperature as

well as by the presence of other microorganisms (Garde et al.

2011).

Many studies have attempted to prevent late blowing by physical treatments

(bactofugation or microﬁltration prior to processing), or by the use of additives

(nitrate or lysozyme), or by the addition of strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB)

producing bacteriocins, active peptides displaying a bactericidal mode of action

towards speciﬁc Gram-positive bacteria (Wasserfall and Teuber

1979;

Vissers

et al.

2007;

Martınez-Cuesta et al.

2010;

Schneider et al.

2010).

Among the above prevention methods, the use of lysozyme as a commercial

additive is the preferred one since 1983. Lysozyme, which is typically extracted

from hen egg white (HEW, 3.5 % of the egg white proteins), has been approved as a

preservative (E1105) in the entire European Community, according to the Directive

No. 95/2/EC (quantum

satis

in ripened cheese) (Pellegrino and Tirelli

2000;

Scharfen et al.

2007;

Schneider et al.

2011).

In Italy, the use of lysozyme is quite

widespread: this enzyme has been employed in the process of making several

cheeses, such as Grana Padano cheese, grated hard cheese mixtures (Iaconelli

et al.

2008;

Panari and Filippi

2009)

and semihard goat and ewe cheeses (Dragoni

et al.

2011;

Schneider et al.

2011).

The content of lysozyme from egg in cheese

ranges from 50 to 350

μg/g

of cheese, with the maximum of 400

μg/g

of cheese

depending on the type of cheese and the production process (Pellegrino and Tirelli

2000;

Avila et al.

2014).

In recent years, the use of lysozyme from egg as a prevention agent has waned,

since some studies have shown its allergenic effect in consumers allergic to egg,

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Innovative Use of Jenny Milk from Sustainable Rearing

125

due to its content in ovomucoid, ovalbumin and conalbumin (Fremont et al.

1997;

Perez-Caldero et al.

2007).

In the last decade, a number of severe allergic reactions

have been recorded due to the presence of lysozyme E1105 in semihard cheeses.

Fremont et al. (1997) found patients allergic to eggs to show a severe reaction after

eating Gruyere cheese. Kerkaert et al. (2010) reported that 5 out of 21 case studies

of allergic reactions to eggs were attributed to the presence of this additive in cheese

and that this additive was likely responsible for episodes of severe edema (Perez-

Caldero et al.

2007).

For these reasons, in the recently changed EC legislation, the

use of lysozyme as an additive has to be declared on the label (EC legislation in

Europe 2003/89/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC).

Jenny milk may be a possible alternative to the use of lysozyme from egg during

cheese making. In fact, jenny milk is characterised by a high lysozyme content,

ranging from 1.0 to 3.7 mg/mL, according to the lactation stage and the production

season (Zhang et al.

2008;

Vincenzetti et al.

2012).

The content of lysozyme in

jenny milk is much higher than cow (0.13

μg/mL),

ewe (0.20

μg/mL)

or goat milk

(0.25

μg/mL)

(Fratini et al.

2006;

Scharfen et al.

2007;

Cosentino and Paolino

2012).

Moreover, in jenny milk, lysozyme shows the highest activity at an optimum

temperature of 37

C and is stable up to a temperature of 50

C, decreasing to 50 %

of activity at 70

C. Recently, Galassi et al. (2012) described the addition of jenny

milk as a substitute for egg lysozyme to prevent late blowing in Grana Padano

cheese. The authors found that the addition of 10 L of jenny milk in 500 L of cow

milk reduced signiﬁcantly physico-chemical and microbiological defects of cheese.

Cosentino and Paolino (2012) studied the effect of lysozyme from jenny milk on

blowing defects in artisanal ewe cheese caused by clostridia and coliforms, usually

present in ewe cheese produced in traditional cheese factories. When adding jenny

milk to ewe milk, no late blowing defect on cheese was observed (Fig.

3).

There-

fore, lysozyme contained in jenny milk was found to be an important inhibitor agent

against coliform bacteria, although its addition to ewe milk did not affect the

number of

Clostridium butyricum

spores (Cosentino and Paolino

2012;

Cosentino

et al.

2013b).

The lower content of coliforms in treated ewe cheese was in

agreement with results from the literature on reduced growth of

C. butyricum

Grana Padano (Iaconelli et al.

2008;

Dragoni et al.

2011)

and Gouda cheese (Bester

and Lombard

1990).

Martınez-Cuesta et al. (2010) observed a higher contamination

Clostridium

in Manchego control cheese compared with that treated with

lysozyme HEW.

Cosentino et al. (unpublished data) also evaluated whether increasing additions

of jenny milk to pasteurised cow milk reduced the late blowing defect in semihard

cheese caused by

C. tyrobutyricum.

To verify this hypothesis, the authors made two

types of cheeses, control and treated, with the latter being deliberately contaminated

with approximately 3 log spores/mL milk of

C. tyrobutyricum

CLST01, in order to

induce butyric acid fermentation and consequent blowing defect. Both control and

treated cheeses were made by adding different aliquots of jenny milk to cow milk.

The addition of jenny milk resulted in a sporostatic effect on both control and

treated cheeses. Visual and odour inspections during ripening demonstrated that all

cheeses contaminated with

C. tyrobutyricum

developed signs of late blowing

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126

C. Cosentino et al.

Fig. 3

Signs of late blowing defects in ewe cheese (from ﬁrst to third row) and cow cheese (from

fourth to sixth row) at the end of ripening

defect, except the cheese containing the highest aliquot of jenny milk. This product

presented a uniform texture without cracks and splits (Fig.

3).

The content of

lysozyme was high in both control and treated cheeses (1.57 and 1.52 mg/kg,

respectively). Avila et al. (2014) found that 40

μg/mL

of lysozyme was the

concentration required to completely inhibit the growth of vegetative cells of

C. tyrobutyricum

strains. Cosentino et al. (unpublished data) also found that the

acceptability of cheeses was not affected by the addition of jenny milk, since

consumers did not found differences between the products made with only cow

milk and those made also with jenny milk. These results are in line with the ﬁndings

of Galassi et al. (2012).

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Innovative Use of Jenny Milk from Sustainable Rearing

127

4 Conclusions

The 21st agenda item of World Summit carried out in Rio in 1992 emphasised the

intrinsic value of biological diversity and its ecological, genetic and socio-

economic components, recognising that the fundamental need for the preservation

is the in situ safeguard of ecosystems and of natural habitats. In recent years,

diversity preservation has become an important topic, as shown by different

strategies and action plans, such as “Countdown 2010” and “Forests 2011” for

European and national governments and for productive sectors.

In this context, the jenny rearing ﬁnds its ideal placement thanks to its peculiar-

ities capable to fulﬁl the requirements of a wide range of consumers, from newborn

nutritional needs to those of elderly people.

The present contribution provides a wide discussion of the above aspects,

highlighting alternative ways of valorisation of this precious animal production.

Among them, one of the most promising is the use of jenny milk for making

innovative products (new cheese productions and natural cosmetics), which, in

turn, may led to the expansion of donkey rearing for milk production, even in

more vulnerable areas, such as Natura 2000 Network sites.

Acknowledgements

These researches were supported by:

Onocosmesi Project “Conservation and Preservation of the species mules through the exploi-

tation of marginal areas in onocosmesi products from milk of donkey” by the Agriculture, Rural

Development, and Mountain Economics Department of Basilicata Region

MIBAF Project by PIF—Rural Development Programme Basilicata Region 2007–2013, Fund

FEASR, Board 1, Measure 124–PIF Green Farms: “Together to raise, transform, marketing and

grow in quality with Green Farms”

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Disease

Defence of Traditional Crops in Southern

Italy: The Case Study of Tomato Cherry

Protected by

Trichoderma harzianum

T-22

Against

Cucumber Mosaic Virus

(CMV)

Antonella Vitti, Adriano Sofo, Antonio Scopa, and Maria Nuzzaci

Abstract

Nowadays, crop production is at risk due to global warming, especially

in Mediterranean areas where the increase of air temperature and/or reduction of

precipitation is relevant. Climate changes that are occurring can severely prejudice

plant defensive mechanisms during host-pathogen interactions by modifying

growth and physiology of the host plant. In particular, viral diseases cause serious

economic losses destroying crops and reducing agronomic productivity, and, in

some cases such as tomato crops, they become the limiting factor production of

both open ﬁeld and under greenhouse cultivation systems. This is because plant

viruses are obligate parasites and require living tissue for their multiplication and

spread. Therefore, they are able to interfere with plant metabolism and compete for

host plant resources, so determining a decrease of plant growth and productivity.

Severe outbreaks of

Cucumber mosaic virus

(CMV) and other viruses caused

disruption of tomato plants in the Mediterranean region and in Southern Italy

since the 1970s. In such a scenario, it is necessary to introduce new strategies for

controlling plant pathogens and parasites in order to help maintain ecosystems and

to boost sustainable agriculture. The aim of this work is to give an up-to-date

overview on the recent breakthroughs in the use of microorganisms on plants for

improving crop yields, quality and plant tolerance against pathogens. In particular,

here we report a case study regarding an innovative strategy to control a viral

disease (CMV) in tomato, based on the use of rhizosphere microorganism

(Trichoderma

harzianum,

strain T-22) as an antagonist biocontrol agent (BCA).

A. Vitti • A. Sofo • A. Scopa • M. Nuzzaci (

)

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata,

Via dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_9

133

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134

A. Vitti et al.

1 Introduction

In the Mediterranean basin, horticultural crops have a great economic relevance. If

we think of the Mediterranean diet, which is considered as one of the healthiest

amongst world cuisines, above all since November 2010, when it was inscribed on

the representative list of the intangible cultural heritage of humanity of UNESCO,

tomato (Solanum

lycopersicum)

is certainly the vegetable most widely consumed.

In Italy, in particular in the South, tomato is not only the ﬁrst vegetable employed

for fresh consumption, but it also represents the principal ingredient of many dishes,

and it is above all used cooked to prepare sauces. The importance of tomato consists

in its nutraceutical properties, due to the presence of an antioxidant substances

mixture, such as lycopene, ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, ﬂavonoids and

vitamin E. For this reason, nowadays tomato is cultivated both in open ﬁeld and

under greenhouse conditions in order to be always available for both fresh con-

sumption and industrial processing.

Unfortunately, crop production is at risk due to global warming, especially in

areas where the increase of air temperature and/or reduction of precipitation is

relevant. In addition, climate changes can prejudice plant defensive mechanisms

and increase the risk of illness, through growth and physiology alteration of the host

plant and also by modifying host-pathogen interactions. In particular, viral diseases

cause serious economic losses destroying crops and reducing agronomic produc-

tivity. In many Mediterranean coastal areas, several viral infections have become

the limiting factor in the tomato production of both open ﬁeld and under greenhouse

cultivation systems. For example, in Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece, the cultiva-

tions are at risk due to

Tomato spotted wilt virus

(TSWV) infections (Pappu

et al.

2009).

Another important example is

Tomato yellow leaf curl virus

(TYLCV), which caused serious economic problems in the eastern Mediterranean

basin in the 1970s, and it is still now a threat (Lapidot et al.

2014).

In late summer

2000, more than 30 ha of Greek tomato greenhouses (Avgelis et al.

2001)

were

affected and the disease incidence by TYLCV, in 2001, in most cases, was

80–90 %, or even 100 % (Dovas et al.

2002).

In the same the 1970s,

Cucumber

mosaic virus

(CMV) severe outbreaks caused disruption and death of tomato plants

in the Mediterranean region (Gallitelli et al.

1991).

Tomato necrosis epidemic

occurred in the eastern coastal area of Spain in the late 1980s and early 1990s

(Garcıa-Arenal et al.

2000).

During this period, in Southern Italy (Puglia, Basilicata

and Campania regions), some high-quality varieties of tomato, i.e. San Marzano,

were severely affected by the strong CMV epidemic (Valanzuolo et al.

1999).

Indeed, plant viruses are obligate parasites because they require living tissue for

their multiplication and spread, interfering with plant metabolism and/or competing

for host plant resources, and all this is translated as decreasing of plant growth and

productivity. The ability of viruses to signiﬁcantly interfere with physiological

processes of plants is closely related to a range of symptoms caused by an abnormal

growth, as stunting, galls, enations and tissue distortions. In particular, CMV is the

plant virus with the largest host range of all RNA viruses; therefore, its spreading on

crop plants may cause serious economic damages. It infects more than 1,200 plant

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Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Disease Defence of Traditional Crops.

. .

135

species in 100 families (Edwardson and Christie

1991)

and has been widely studied

because it represents an interesting model from a physico-chemical point of view,

as it causes a wide range of symptoms, especially yellow mottling, distortion and

plant stunting (Nuzzaci et al.

2009;

Whitham et al.

2006).

In such a scenario, the present work contributed to elucidate the importance in

the use of sustainable agricultural practices in disease defence. In addition, here we

report a case study regarding an innovative strategy to control a viral disease

(CMV) in tomato cherry, based on the use of rhizosphere microorganism

(Trichoderma

harzianum,

strain T-22) as an antagonist biocontrol agent (BCA).

2 Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Disease Defence

During the last decade, the studies on alternative environmental friendly technol-

ogies have received a strong impulse and have proposed a wide range of options,

including agronomical, physical and biological control means. Recently, it was

growing the idea that the plants have enormous self-defence potentiality, and this

would allow a natural disease control with positive effects on environmental and

human health safeguard (Sofo et al.

2014).

Many factors, both biotic (pathogens, insects, nematodes) and abiotic

(e.g. wounds, pollutants, thermal, water and nutritional imbalances, environmental

contaminants) are causes of plant stress. Plants can react to these stressors through a

series of constitutive and/or inductive mechanisms which result in the elimination

or the limitation of the negative effects induced by the adverse factors. The studies

on these biochemical mechanisms allow to individuate control strategies against

plant pathogens and parasites, based on the exploitation of the natural mechanisms

of plant defence. One of this type of mechanism, already documented by Ross

(1961), is known as systemic acquired resistance (SAR). It is effective against a

wide range of pathogens and its action differs in relation to the inducer agent.

Actually, the SAR represents a valid opportunity in plant natural protection, and,

therefore, the research activities are oriented to the use of biocontrol agents as

inducers of SAR in agronomically important species against some of their most

severe pathogens (Sofo et al.

2014).

In fact, research data accumulated in the past

few years have produced a completely novel understanding of the way by which

bacteria and fungi interact not only with other microbes but especially with plants

and soil components. This has opened an avenue of new applications, both in

agriculture and biotechnology, that exploit the ability of some microorganisms to

change plant metabolism and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses (Woo

et al.

2006).

Generally, as a response to diseases, plants may compensate with a

broad range of cellular processes by up- or down-regulating certain genes; changing

the levels of substances implicated in plant defence pathway; increasing the levels

of reactive oxygen species (ROS); activating speciﬁc transcription factors, defence-

regulated genes and heat shock proteins; and enhancing the transport of macromol-

ecules, enzymes and phytohormones involved in defence signalling pathways [e.g.

salicylic acid (SA); jasmonic acid (JA); ethylene (ET); auxins, such as indole-3-

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136

A. Vitti et al.

acetic acid (IAA); cytokinins (CKs); abscisic acid (ABA); gibberellic acid (GA)]

(Bari and Jones

2009;

Vitti et al.

2013).

On the other hand, all physiological process

changes of plants as response to pathogens negatively affect the crops’ yield with a

loss of billions of euros each year not only for direct productivity decrease but also

for the consequent managing of the pests. In addition, the use of traditional methods

such as chemical pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer is not an eco-friendly approach,

and their continued employment resulted on contamination of water, atmosphere

pollution and the release of harmful residues in soils (Naher et al.

2014).

A safe method to reduce plant disease incidence without collateral damages to

the environment and to human health induced by synthetic chemicals is the

biological control (Tucci et al.

2011).

In such a way, it is possible to manage

pests by means of a sustainable approach where biocontrol agents can be used either

alone or with other chemicals in an integrated practice of disease defence,

according to European legislation Directives establish. The use of microorganisms

for controlling plant pathogens has been shown to be very efﬁcacious for some

fungi of the genus

Glomus, Streptomyces, Trichoderma

and some species of

bacteria (e.g.,

Agrobacterium radiobacter

and

Bacillus subtilis).

In particular,

some of these fungi interact with other fungi in a mechanism called

mycoparasitism, wherein one fungus directly kills and obtains nutrients from

other fungi. Mycoparasitism is one of the most important biocontrol mechanisms

Trichoderma

spp. (Mukherjee

2011),

which is considered the most versatile

amongst all biocontrol agents and, for this reason, has long been used for managing

plant pathogenic fungi (Vinale et al.

2009;

Weindling

1934;

Wells

1988).

It was

demonstrated that some fungal diseases can be also prevented when plants are

treated with the conidial suspensions of

Trichoderma

spp. (Harman et al.

2004a).

Fungi belonging to the genus

Trichoderma

are used as biocontrol agents to antag-

onize plant pathogens through a series of mechanisms including, in addition to

mycoparasitism, competition for nutrients and space, fungistasis, antibiosis and/or

modiﬁcation of the rhizosphere (Benıtez et al.

2004).

Trichoderma

spp. are some of

the most abundant fungi found in many soil types and are able to colonise plant

roots and plant debris (Harman et al.

2004a).

They are agriculturally important also

for their beneﬁcial effects on plant growth and development and for their capability

to induce plant defence responses against pathogens, damage provoked by insects

and abiotic stress (Yedidia et al.

1999;

Harman et al.

2004a;

Woo and Lorito

2006).

For this reason, more than 60 % of all registered products used for plant disease

control are

Trichoderma-based

and they are a major source of many biofungicides

and biofertilizers (Verma et al.

2007;

Kaewchai et al.

2009).

In particular, the strain T-22 of

T. harzianum

(here called T22) represents the

active ingredient of registered products widely employed in plant disease control. It

is known that T22, by working as a deterrent, protects the roots from the assault of

pathogens fungi (e.g.

Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia

and

Sclerotinia).

Establishing itself in the rhizosphere, T22 can grow on the root system, along

which it establishes a barrier against pathogens. The action of T22 is not to produce

something toxic to the pathogen but to induce the plant to change its physiology and

metabolism to ameliorate its resistance to that disease (Harman et al.

2008).

It was

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Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Disease Defence of Traditional Crops.

. .

137

demonstrated that T22 improves growth in maize plants, increasing root formation

(size and area of main and secondary roots) and, at the same time, rising crop yields,

drought tolerance and resistance to compacted soils (Harman

2000;

Harman

et al.

2004b).

This improvement in growth was probably due to direct effects on

plants because of a better solubilization of soil nutrients or by a direct enhancing

plant uptake of nutrients linked to the presence of T22 in the agroecosystems

(Yedidia et al.

2001).

The beneﬁcial effects of T22 application depend on the

treated plant genotype, as recently demonstrated by Tucci et al. (2011) on tomato

plants.

3 The Case Study of Tomato Cherry Protected by

Trichoderma harzianumT-22

Against CMV

In the context of plant defence by biotic stresses, understanding biochemical and

molecular mechanisms deriving from the host-pathogen-Trichoderma interaction is

without doubt essential for investigating the dynamics of infectious processes. This

knowledge can be very useful for the development of new approaches for control-

ling phytopathogens, particularly viruses, against which chemical treatments have

no effect (Vitti et al.

2015b).

Thanks to recent studies, new strategies have been

based on the use of peptaibols, a class of linear peptides biosynthesized by many

species of

Trichoderma

(Daniel and Filho

2007).

For example, it was demonstrated

that trichokonins, antimicrobial peptaibols isolated from

Trichoderma

pseudokoningii

SMF2, can induce tobacco systemic resistance against

Tobacco

mosaic virus

(TMV) via the activation of multiple plant defence pathways based on

an elicitor-like cellular response: production enhanced in tobacco plants of super-

oxide anion radical and peroxide; production enhanced of enzymes involved

tobacco resistance, as peroxidase (POD); up-regulation of antioxidative enzyme

genes, known to be associated with the ROS intermediate-mediated signalling

pathway; and of SA-, ET- and JA-mediated defence pathway marker genes (Luo

et al.

2010).

This ﬁnding implies the antiviral potential of peptaibols, supporting the

hypothesis to using them as biocontrol antiviral agents. Therefore,

Trichoderma

spp., already used as BCAs against bacterial (Segarra et al.

2009)

and fungal

phytopathogens (Vinale et al.

2009;

Akrami et al.

2011),

it was hypothesized

could be advantageously used also in the control of virus diseases.

Trichoderma

spp. and/or their secondary metabolites were able to induce resistance mechanisms,

similar to the hypersensitive response (HR), SAR and induced systemic resistance

(ISR) in plants (Benıtez et al.

2004;

Harman et al.

2004a),

regulated through a

complex network of signal transduction pathways involving not only the above-

mentioned molecules, such as ROS, SA, JA and ET but also the crosstalk between

them (Kunkel and Brooks

2002)

and the so-called pathogenesis-related (PR) genes,

a series of marker genes for the activation of SA, JA and ET signalling, involved in

these defence transduction pathways (Bouchez et al.

2007).

At this regard, Hermosa

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138

A. Vitti et al.

et al. (2012) assert that the expression of defence-related genes of the JA/ET and/or

SA pathways may overlap just because of the dynamics in the

Trichoderma-plant

crosstalk.

To date, the effects of

Trichoderma

spp. in the induction of plant defence against

CMV were poorly known. Only studies conducted by Elsharkawy et al. (2013)

demonstrated that

Arabidopsis

plants were exploited against CMV by using

Trichoderma asperellumSKT-1.

In particular, when the researchers used barley

grain inoculum, the fungus induced SAR, while ISR was elicited when

T. asperellum

was utilized as culture ﬁltrate. On the other hand, the biochemical

and molecular mechanism involved in this kind of three-way crosstalk between the

plant, virus and antagonist agent has still to be well elucidated.

In such a scenario, our work represents the starting point to improve the knowl-

edge on the possible underlying mechanisms involved in plant-pathogen-antagonist

interactions and, at the same time, to develop an innovative strategy against CMV

infection in tomato plants, based on the activity of a biocontrol agent (Vitti

et al.

2015a).

Trichoderma harzianum

strain T-22 (T22) was the antagonist microorganism

used in this study. It was utilized as a granule formulation (Trianum G, Koppert,

Berkel en Rodenrijs, the Netherlands).

Cucumber mosaic virus

strain Fny

(CMV-Fny) was propagated in tobacco plants, puriﬁed as described by Lot

et al. (1972), so that the puriﬁed CMV-Fny was used to mechanically inoculate

tomato plants (Solanum

lycopersicum

var. cerasiforme).

As shown schematically in Fig.

tomato plants were treated with T22 and/or

inoculated with CMV, according to the following six conditions: control plants

untreated and healthy (PA); plants only treated with T22 (PB); plants only inocu-

lated with CMV (PC); plants ﬁrst treated with T22 and after 7 days inoculated with

CMV (PD); plants simultaneously treated and inoculated with T22 and CMV (PE);

and plants ﬁrst inoculated with CMV and after 1 week treated with T22 (PF).

During the entire cycle of plant’s life, symptom observations were monitored.

Fourteen days after CMV inoculation (that is when the plants were at 1 month of

age) and when the plants were 5 months old, leaves were collected and used for the

following analyses: histochemical staining of O

and H

in leaf discs, in order

to study the involvement of ROS and total RNA extraction from leaf tissues

followed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis,

for the veriﬁcation of the presence of CMV in tomato seedlings, or by real-time

reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR), in order to analyse the transcript levels of

the genes implicated in plant defence, such as genes encoding for antioxidant

enzymes and for pathogenesis-related protein (Vitti et al.

2015a).

In addition,

here we report the yield evaluation for each experimental condition, determined

since plants started to produce ﬂowers and fruits (3 months of age) and until plants

were 5 months old.

T22 showed the ability to control CMV infection on tomato cherry plants by

modulating the viral symptoms during the entire life cycle of the plants and also by

inhibiting the presence of CMV in 5-month-old plants. Furthermore, an involve-

ment of ROS in plant defence against a viral disease when

Trichoderma

is applied

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Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Disease Defence of Traditional Crops.

. .

139

Fig. 1

Scheme of the experimental set-up. Treatments with

Trichoderma harzianum

T-22 (T22)

were performed by incorporating Trianum G (Koppert, Berkel en Rodenrijs, the Netherlands)

granules in the substrate used for planting (750 gm

À3

), according to the application and dose

suggested by the company. Ten micrograms of puriﬁed

Cucumber mosaic virus

strain Fny

(CMV-Fny) was used to mechanically inoculate tomato cherry plants at the four-leaf stage. Plants

were treated with T22 and/or inoculated with CMV in order to gain the six conditions PA, PB, PC,

PD, PE and PF, as reported in the text

was demonstrated. In fact, it can be hypothesized that the interaction between CMV

and tomato plants results in an oxidative burst and hence elevated ROS production,

which becomes toxic for the plants. Conversely, during the CMV-tomato-T22

interaction, ROS are implicated as secondary messengers of the host’s defence

responses against the viral pathogen, mediated by the fungal biocontrol agent. In

addition, an indication on the fact that a particular combination whereby plants ﬁrst

inoculated with CMV and then treated with T22 could guarantee the best control

against CMV has been speculated. Finally, results obtained could also indicate an

SAR-related response by the tomato plants against CMV attack, but further inves-

tigation is required to conﬁrm these ﬁndings (Vitti et al.

2015a).

Tomato fruits were harvested from bottom branch of 3-month-old plants. As

reported in Fig.

plants treated only with T22 (PB) showed the best size fruit and

also the best root development, as expected. On the contrary, the control plants

inoculated with CMV alone (PC) showed the smallest fruits, with delayed ripening,

accompanied by the worst root development. Plants treated with T22 and inoculated

with CMV (PD, PE and PF) were similar to the controls (PA), considering both size

fruit and root development.

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140

A. Vitti et al.

Fig. 2

Three-month-old tomato cherry plants. In each panel, a representative fruit (above) and

roots (below) are shown.

healthy control tomato plant;

plant treated with only T22;

plant inoculated with CMV;

plant treated with T22 and, a week later, inoculated with CMV.

plant simultaneously treated and inoculated with T22 and CMV;

plant ﬁrst inoculated with

CMV and, a week later, treated with T22. Scale units for both abscissa and ordinate are of 1 cm

Fig. 3

Evaluation of the effect induced by T22 treatment on yield, determined as number of

ﬂowers and fruits per plant, observed from 3 to 5 months of plant’s age.

healthy control tomato

plant;

plant treated with only T22;

plant inoculated with CMV;

plant treated with T22

and, a week later, inoculated with CMV;

plant simultaneously treated and inoculated with T22

and CMV;

plant inoculated with CMV and, a week later, treated with T22. Each

bar

indicates

the mean value

SD of 16 plants observed for each condition

As clearly showed in Fig.

in terms of yield, considered as production of

ﬂowers and fruits in 3–5-month-old plants, those treated only with T22

(PB) showed the highest values, as expected. Conversely, plants inoculated with

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Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Disease Defence of Traditional Crops.

. .

141

CMV alone (PC) not showed the lowest yield, as we expected. This is because the

number of fruits was not low, but they resulted in an important reduction in size, as

Fig.

shows, accompanied by chlorotic/necrotic spots when they were ripe,

conﬁrming the observations previously made by Vitti et al. (2015a). Instead, as it

is possible to see in Fig.

plants treated with T22 and also inoculated with CMV, in

particular in the case of co-inoculation/treatment (PE), showed an increase in yield

respect to that inoculated with only CMV (PC), except for plants ﬁrst treated with

T22 and then inoculated with CMV (PD).

4 Conclusion

In conclusion, data produced in the case study here reported demonstrate that

Trichoderma harzianumT-22

stimulates the induction of defence responses against

CMV-Fny in

Solanum lycopersicum

var. cerasiforme, by the clear involvement of

ROS, as well as an enhancement in yields and root development. Furthermore, the

knowledge on the molecular and biochemical aspects of the plant-virus-biocontrol

agent interactions, in combination with the dynamics of application, has been

improved. In this way, a new system based on the use of T22 as a microbial

antagonist could be made available for the protection of tomato against CMV

disease, which can be also extended to other plant species. Furthermore, a routine

utilization of T22 in the agricultural practices in disease defence could surely bring

to a reduction of the use of fertilizers and fungicides in agricultural production, with

consequent beneﬁts for the environment. Today, more than ever, this is necessary to

help maintain ecosystems and to develop sustainable agriculture.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by a grant from University of Basilicata, Potenza,

Italy.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Development of Integrated Disease Control

Measures for the Valorisation of Traditional

Crops in Southern Italy: The Case Study of

Fagioli di Sarconi

Pietro Lo Cantore, Annalisa Giorgio, Bruno Campion,

and Nicola Sante Iacobellis

Abstract

The cultivation of

Fagioli di Sarconi

(FS), a pool of traditional varieties

protected with the mark PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) cultivated in the

National Park of Agri Valley in Basilicata (southern Italy), is limited by common

bacterial blight (CBB), caused by the seed-borne bacterium

Xanthomonas

axonopodis

pv.

phaseoli

(Xap) and

X. a.

pv.

phaseoli

var.

fuscans

(Xapf), whose

control is difﬁcult because of the lack of safe bactericides. Hence, studies were

undertaken to assess the susceptibility/tolerance of selected varieties toward the

pathogens and to develop eco-compatible measures for the disease management.

Five

varieties showed a differential response to inoculations with virulent strains

of the pathogens, and hence, two tolerant cultivars were selected for the introgres-

sion of CBB resistance characters. Among the main active components of some

essential oils, eugenol determined a highly signiﬁcant reduction of

Xap

density on

bean seeds, though at the higher dosage, the seed germination reduction was

observed. These data indicate eugenol as potentially useful for bean seed disinfec-

tion from

Xapf,

though further studies appear necessary. Among 162 bacterial

isolates from bean rhizosphere, six caused a clear reduction of lesions size ranging

from 30 to 66 % suggesting that induced systemic resistance may be involved in

that feature.

P. Lo Cantore (

) • A. Giorgio • N.S. Iacobellis (

)

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali, Universit degli Studi della

Basilicata, via Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; nicola.

[email protected]

B. Campion

CRA, Unit di Ricerca per l’Orticoltura, Montanaso Lombardo, LO, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_10

145

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146

P. Lo Cantore et al.

1 Introduction

Common bean (Phaseolus

vulgaris

L.) is one of the most important legumes due to

its commercial value and its high content of quality carbohydrates, proteins,

minerals and vitamins. FAO data (FAO Statistics Division

2014)

on bean produc-

tion in Europe indicate that in 2012, Belarus, Spain and Italy were the main bean

producers. In fact, bean production was 227.259 t in Belarus (only for dry beans),

175.300 t in Spain (165.400 for string and 9.900 for dry beans) and 145.933 t in

Italy (134.124 for string and 11.809 for dry beans). In Italy, besides the commercial

cultivars, there is an abundance of traditional varieties with unique nutritional

features and for which there is a traditional market (Dinelli et al.

2006).

This is

the case of the

Fagioli di Sarconi

(FS), a pool of traditional high-value traditional

varieties, selected from various landraces (Masi et al.

1999;

Piergiovanni

et al.

2000)

and protected by the European Union (Reg. CEE No. 1263/96) with

the mark PGI (Protected Geographical Indication).

are cultivated in the National Park of the Agri Valley in Basilicata (southern

Italy) for dry seed production (Brandi et al.

1998).

The germplasm, preserved on

farm by the

Consorzio di Tutela dei Fagioli di Sarconi,

has been extensively

characterised for its biochemical and nutriceutical traits (Piergiovanni et al.

2000;

Lioi et al.

2005;

Dinelli et al.

2006)

but nothing is known about its response to

diseases. As a matter of fact, the above varieties are plagued by the common

bacterial blight (CBB), caused by

Xanthomonas axonopodis

pv.

phaseoli

(Smith)

Dye (Xap) and

X. a.

pv.

phaseoli

var.

fuscans

(Xapf) (Vauterin et al.

1995),

and

since 2002, there have been several severe outbreaks of this disease. Bean ﬁeld

surveys in 2001–2002 showed that at the end of the production cycle, nearly 100 %

of the plants were infected, with the consequent heavy crop loss. The disease is

endemic and some evidences indicate its introduction by long time. The use of bean

seed grown on farm, possibly infected and/or contaminated by the pathogens, the

limited copper sprays and the use of overhead irrigation have facilitated the

dissemination of the pathogen and the maintenance of a high level of the inoculum

potential. Year by year, bacterial disease outbreaks have been greatly facilitated by

the particular climatic conditions which, as observed in the above years, were

characterised by heavy rains during the periods from July to September

(Lo Cantore et al.

2004a).

CBB pathogens infect all the plant organs and the disease

development is favoured by warm temperature (25–35

C) and humid conditions

(Gilbertson and Maxwell

1992;

Saettler

1989).

CBB symptoms on foliage are

water-soaked spots that enlarge forming dark brown necrotic lesions often

surrounded by chlorotic zones. Infected pods exhibit circular water-soaked areas

that turn to reddish-brown lesions. Pod infection often causes discoloration, shriv-

elling and bacterial contamination/infection of seeds though in some cases, they

may appear healthy (Saettler

1989).

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Development of Integrated Disease Control Measures for the Valorisation of.

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147

The causal agents of CBB,

Xap

and

Xapf,

are distinguished from each other only

because

Xapf

produces a brown pigment when grown on some speciﬁc agar media

(Schaad et al.

2001).

Nevertheless, there is considerable genetic diversity between

Xap

and

Xapf

(Chan and Goodwin

1999;

Mkandawire et al.

2004;

Lpez et al.

2006;

Mahuku et al.

2006),

as recent AFLP analyses have conﬁrmed (Lo Cantore and

Iacobellis

2007;

Alavi et al.

2008;

Lo Cantore et al.

2010b).

For that, a revision of

the two pathogens classiﬁcation has been proposed (Schaad et al.

2005, 2006).

Dissemination in the ﬁeld is mainly determined by wind-driven rain and over-

head irrigation, but also by insects, ﬁeld workers and contaminated equipment

(Gilbertson and Maxwell

1992;

Saettler

1989),

which may play an important role.

Common bacterial blight is the major seed-borne disease of common bean world-

wide (Tarlan et al.

2001;

Miklas et al.

2003),

and the best way to manage CBB

includes the use of pathogen-free seed (Zanatta et al.

2007).

In order to control

CBB, the use of bean cultivars with genetic tolerance/resistance to the disease is the

most practical method (Coyne and Schuster

1974;

Yoshii et al.

1978)

though the

availability of CBB-resistant cultivars is limited. In most of the cases, the resis-

tance/tolerance of traditional varieties to CBB is unknown. This is the case of

varieties. Furthermore, pathogen-free seed is a prerequisite for a healthy crop, but to

date no efﬁcient disinfection method is available (Lo Cantore et al.

2009).

Antibi-

otics, in fact, are actually restricted or forbidden in the agricultural practices in

many countries (McManus et al.

2002)

and the use of copper compounds, because

of their general toxicity and impact on the environment, is constrained in Europe

(EU rule no. 473/2002). Furthermore, chemical disinfectants such as chlorine,

inorganic acids, organic acids and heat treatments have been used for disinfection

of potentially contaminated seeds surface or to cure infected seeds, but seed

devitalisation has been reported (Claﬂin

2003).

The above consideration prompts the need to assess, ﬁrst, the response of the

selected

bean varieties to CBB with the ﬁnal aims to select resistant/tolerant

traditional varieties and to introgress tolerance/resistance characters into the

varieties of interest. Moreover, of interest was the development of alternative

methods for the control of CBB to be used in integrated crop management as well

as in bio-organic agriculture. Several studies have pointed out the possibility to use

essential oils and/or their components in medical and plant pathology as well as in

the food industry for the control of microorganisms pathogenic to consumers and/or

responsible for food spoilage (Seow et al.

2014).

Nevertheless, most of the studies

are mainly focused on the

in vitro

assessment of the antimicrobial activity

(Si et al.

2006;

Terzi et al.

2007),

and the exploitation of essential oils for the

control of plant diseases is still in its infancy (Tinivella et al.

2009;

Kotan

et al.

2010).

Another opportunity for plant defence towards diseases is the use of

beneﬁcial bacteria inhabiting plant rhizosphere. In several works, it was demon-

strated that some bacteria belonging to

Pseudomonas

and

Bacillus

genera are able

to provide different mechanisms (direct or plant mediated) for suppressing plant

diseases (Saharan and Nehra

2011).

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P. Lo Cantore et al.

In this chapter, we report some of the results obtained in studies aimed to

develop methods for integrated control of CBB.

2 Response of

Fagioli di Sarconi

Varieties to CBB

The objective of the present work was to evaluate the response to CBB of ﬁve

traditional bean varieties (Tondino

bianco, Verdolino, Cannellino, Tabacchino

and

Ciuoto)

of the

variety pool, in comparison to four available resistant bean

breeding lines (VAX-4, USDK-CBB-15, ABC-Wiehing and USCR-CBB-20)

(Singh et al.

2001;

Miklas et al.

2006, 2011;

Mutlu et al.

2008).

Aliquots of bacterial

suspensions of the highly virulent

Xap

and

Xapf

strains were inoculated into the ﬁrst

trifoliate mesophyll of bean plants (Lo Cantore et al.

2010a).

The traditional varieties

Tondino bianco, Cannellino, Verdolino, Ciuoto

and

Tabacchino

showed the typical CBB symptoms, and, in particular, at the inocula-

tion sites, tiny water-soaked lesions 14 days after inoculation which then expanded

and turned into necrotic spots surrounded by chlorotic halos were observed

(see Fig.

1a, c).

As expected, necrotic lesions of the hypersensitive reaction were

observed on the CBB-resistant breeding lines (see Fig.

1b, c).

Twenty-eight days after inoculation, the

varieties statistically differed in their

susceptibility depending on the pathogen strain used (see Fig.

2).

Indeed, while

strain USB749 (ICMP14929) of

Xapf

caused on

Tondino bianco, Cannellino

and

Verdolino

lesions signiﬁcantly larger (P

0.0001; LSD.05

5.14 mm) than those

ones on cv.

Ciuoto

and

Tabacchino

(see Fig.

2a),

Xap

USB771 (ICMP14932)

caused lesions on

Tondino bianco

and

Tabacchino

signiﬁcantly larger (P

0.001;

LSD.05

1.82 mm) than those on

Verdolino, Ciuoto

and

Cannellino

(see Fig.

2b).

The lesions on

Ciuoto

and

Cannellino

did not differ signiﬁcantly from the lesions

Fig. 1

Symptoms on the traditional variety

Verdolino

(a–c) of

Fagioli di Sarconi

and hypersen-

sitive necrotic lesions on the CBB-resistant breeding line ABC-Wiehing (b–d) 21 days after

syringe inﬁltration with 10

CFU ml

À1

suspensions of the highly virulent strain USB749

(ICMP14929) of

Xanthomonas axonopodis

pv.

phaseoli

var.

fuscans

(a–b) and of strain

USB771 (ICMP14932) of

X. a.

pv.

phaseoli

(c–d). Adapted with permission from Lo Cantore P,

Figliuolo G, Iacobellis NS (2010) Response of traditional cultivars of

Fagioli di Sarconi

beans to

artiﬁcial inoculation with common bacterial blight agents. Phytopathol Mediterr 49:89–94. Copy-

right 2010 Firenze University Press

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Development of Integrated Disease Control Measures for the Valorisation of.

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149

Lesion size

Time

Tondino bianco

USCR-CBB-20

Cannellino

Verdolino

Vax 4

Ciuoto

Time

Tabacchino

USDK-CBB-15

ABC Wiehing

Fig. 2

Response given by the traditional bean varieties of the

Fagioli di Sarconi

and by CBB-

resistant breeding lines 28 days after syringe inﬁltration of 10

CFU ml

À1

suspensions of the

highly virulent strain USB749 (ICMP14929) of

Xanthomonas axonopodis

pv.

phaseoli

var.

fuscans

(a) and of strain USB771 (ICMP14932) of

X. a.

pv.

phaseoli

(b). Adapted with permission

from Lo Cantore P, Figliuolo G, Iacobellis NS (2010) Response of traditional cultivars of

Fagioli

di Sarconi

beans to artiﬁcial inoculation with common bacterial blight agents. Phytopathol

on the breeding lines USDK-CBB-15, ABC-Wiehing and VAX-4, but they signif-

icantly differed from those on USCR-CBB-20 (see Fig.

2b).

In conclusion, the ﬁndings that the varieties

Ciuoto, Tabacchino

and

Cannellino

appeared to be less susceptible or tolerant to CBB are positive since it is well

established that the use of pathogen-tolerant germplasm, rather than resistant one, is

advisable in order to avoid the selection of the pathogen population overcoming the

resistance. The above varieties, apart from their agronomic, biochemical and

nutriceutical traits, appear good candidates for the introgression of CBB resistance

characters in a breeding programme.

The results further suggest that the inoculation procedure is suitable to evaluate

the susceptibility/tolerance and the resistance of bean cultivars and/or breeding

lines. However, the response of the traditional bean varieties to CBB pathogens

inoculation needs to be further conﬁrmed by using different plant parts (i.e. pods)

since the degree of resistance/susceptibility of

Phaseolus

spp. depends on the plant

organ (Aggour et al.

1989;

Rodrigues et al.

1999;

Marquez et al.

2007).

The development of new bean breeding lines genetically resistant to

Xapf

was

another aim of this work. The selection applied to these breeding lines should tend

to combine, in their genetic background, the gene of resistance and all agronomic

and nutriceutical traits present in the old varieties. The bean traditional varieties

Tabacchino

and

Ciuoto,

and bean breeding lines VAX-4 and USCR-CBB-20

carrying the resistance to

Xaf

(Singh et al.

2001;

Miklas et al.

2011),

were used in

the breeding plan.

Numerous

♀Ciuoto

x USCR-CBB-20♂,

♀Ciuoto

x VAX-4♂,

♀Tabacchino

x USCR-CBB-20♂ and

♀Tabacchino

x VAX-4♂ crosses and related reciprocals

were made in greenhouse. All F

plants were grown in the ﬁeld until the production

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150

P. Lo Cantore et al.

of eight groups of F

seed progenies. F

seeds obtained from F

plants selected for

Xapf

resistance were sown in the ﬁeld and related plants submitted to agronomic

selection/evaluation. The choice of the best single plants was based on production

capacity, plant hardness and health, and pod and seed quality. Only three types

(groups) of crosses, out of the eight performed (♀Ciuoto x VAX-4♂,

♀Tabacchino

x VAX-4♂,

♀Tabacchino

x USCR-CBB-20♂), produced progenies with good

plant and seed traits. The seed progenies are at F

generation level.

Fagioli di Sarconi

Seed Disinfection

Our previous studies showed the antibacterial activity of coriander, caraway and

cumin essential oils towards 29 bacterial pathogens of plants, including strains of

Xap

and

Xapf

(Iacobellis et al.

2005;

Lo Cantore et al.

2004b).

The objective of this

study was to evaluate the

in vitro

antibacterial activity of the 19 main components

of the above essential oils and to assess their potential use for bean seed disinfec-

tion. In disc diffusion assay (Lo Cantore et al.

2009),

terpenoids and

phenylpropanoids, having phenol and alcohol functionalities, showed a high bac-

tericidal activity, inhibiting the growth of all bacterial strains used in this study,

whereas a lower activity was shown by monoterpenes containing ketone, aldehyde

and ester functionalities and the phenylpropanoids anethol. Monoterpenoids and

sesquiterpenoid caryophyllene showed a lower activity and only on a limited

number of the target bacteria. Based on the above results, eugenol was chosen in

order to evaluate its disinfecting effects on the

variety

Ciuoto

seeds artiﬁcially

contaminated with

Xapf

(Lo Cantore et al.

2009).

Eugenol seed treatments (1, 2,

4 and 8 mg ml

À1

) caused a statistically signiﬁcant reduction (P

0.0001) of the

bacterial population on bean seeds relative to the control sample (see Fig.

3).

Assays with different bacterial densities bearing seeds and treatments with

4 mg ml

À1

eugenol emulsions conﬁrmed the higher efﬁciency of this essential oil

to reduce bacterial population densities on bean seed surface when compared to the

tetracycline treatments at a comparable MIQ value (100

μg

À1

). However,

eugenol emulsions at concentration equal or superior to 2 mg ml

À1

caused a

signiﬁcant reduction of the seed germination compared to the control (see Fig.

4).

In conclusion, essential oils and/or pure components appear to be good bactericides

as alternatives to antibiotics for the control of seed-borne plant pathogen bacteria.

The use of eugenol instead of complex oil mixtures may be desirable since this

avoid the variability of essential oils and, furthermore, the possible toxicity of other

no bactericide essential oil components. The reduction of bean seed germination

after treatments with eugenol was already reported (Asplund

1968;

Reynolds

1987;

Oosterhaven et al.

1995),

but the limited effect on bean seed germination observed

at eugenol lower concentrations indicates a starting point for a possible ameliora-

tion of the disinfectant formulation and disinfection method.

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Development of Integrated Disease Control Measures for the Valorisation of.

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151

CFU/see

Treatments

Fig. 3

Bacterial populations of the spontaneous mutant resistant to rifampicin of strain ICMP239

Xanthomonas campestris

pv.

phaseoli

var.

fuscans

on bean seeds bearing about 2.6

CFU

per seed after different treatments (A

control, no treated seeds; B

control, seeds treated with

water containing 0.01 % Tween 20; C, D, E and F

seeds treated with 1, 2, 4 and 8 mg ml

À1

eugenol in water emulsions containing 0.01 % Tween 20, respectively; G, H and I

seeds treated

with 50, 100 and 200

μg

À1

tetracycline solutions containing 0.01 % Tween 20, respectively).

Bars

on the columns correspond to the standard error of the mean. Means of bacterial populations

on bean seeds after eugenol and tetracycline treatments, evaluated by the

t-test

in comparison with

the means of bacterial populations on bean seeds of the controls A and B, are statistically different

(P 0.002). Adapted with permission from

‘Lo

Cantore P, Shanmungaiah V, Iacobellis NS (2009)

Antibacterial activity of essential oil components and their potential use in seed disinfection.

100

Germinability

24 h

48 h

72 h

Treatments

Fig. 4

Germination of bean seeds after different treatments with eugenol (A

control, no treated

seeds; B

control, seeds treated with water containing 0.01 % Tween 20; C, D, E and F

seeds

treated with 1, 2, 4 and 8 mg ml

À1

of eugenol in water containing 0.01 % Tween 20, respectively).

Bars

on the columns correspond to the standard error of the mean. The

t-test

of data at 72 h showed

that means of geminated seeds after eugenol treatments (8, 4 and 2 mg ml

À1

), in comparison with

the controls (A and B), are statistically different (P

0.0001) and (P

0.02), respectively. No

statistical differences were observed in the case of treatments with 1 mg ml

À1

eugenol emulsion.

Adapted with permission from

‘Lo

Cantore P, Shanmungaiah V, Iacobellis NS (2009)

Antibacterial activity of essential oil components and their potential use in seed disinfection.

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152

P. Lo Cantore et al.

4 Beneﬁcial Rhizobacteria as Biocontrol Agents of CBB

Fagioli di Sarconi

Rhizobacteria are microorganisms living plant rhizosphere and some of them are

able to reduce plant diseases by several direct mechanisms (i.e. niche exclusion,

competition for nutrients, siderophore-mediated competition for iron, antibiosis and

production of extracellular hydrolytic enzymes) (Martinez-Viveros et al.

2010)

indirectly by stimulating the basal plant defence mechanisms, phenomenon called

induced systemic resistance (ISR) (Van Loon

2007).

As already discussed, CBB is difﬁcult to manage via the conventional methods.

In an integrated view of CBB control, the biological one based on the use of

antagonist rhizobacteria may represent another opportunity.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of selected rhizobacteria

isolated from bean rhizosphere to protect plants against CBB in

in vitro

and

greenhouse conditions. In total, 162 rhizobacteria were isolated from bean rhizo-

sphere in the National Park of Agri Valley (Basilicata, southern Italy) and screened

in dual-plate assays for their potential capacity to antagonise the growth of CBB

pathogens. Sixty out of 162 rhizobacteria inhibited

in vitro

the growth of

Xap,

and

38 of these were also active against

Xapf;

thus, they were assayed for hydrolytic

enzyme production. Subsequently, they were evaluated, when applied to seeds

before sowing, for their possible effect on

Xapf–plant

interactions. The results of

these assays have allowed selecting six bacterial isolates that were capable to

protect, with diverse efﬁcacy, bean plants artiﬁcially inoculated,

in vitro

and

greenhouse assays, with a highly virulent strain of the mentioned pathogen. Indeed,

the reduction of lesions size ranged from about 25 to 55 %

in vitro

and from about

35 to 65 % in greenhouse experiments compared to the controls (see Fig.

5).

The six

selected isolates were identiﬁed by partial PCR ampliﬁcation of 16S rDNA as three

strains of

Pseudomonas brassicacearum

subsp.

brassicacearum,

two strains of

Fig. 5

Symptoms of common bacterial blight on trifoliate leaves developed 21 days after syringe

without needle inoculation with suspension (10

CFU ml

À1

) of strain USB749 (ICPPM 14929) of

Xanthomonas axonopodis

pv.

phaseoli

var.

fuscans.

Comparison between bean plants obtained

from not bacterised (left) and bacterised seeds (right). In (a) and (b), bean plants from seeds are

treated with bacterial suspensions (10

CFU ml

À1

) of

Pseudomonas brassicacearum

subsp.

brassicacearum

strains (USB2101, USB2102)

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Development of Integrated Disease Control Measures for the Valorisation of.

. .

153

P. putida

and one of

Bacillus megaterium.

The antagonist bacteria were then further

characterised for phosphate solubilisation (Nautiyal

1999),

nitrogen ﬁxing activity

(San Yu et al.

2011),

production of indole compounds (Gordon and Weber

1951)

and siderophores (Schwyn and Neilands

1987),

haemolytic capacity (Lo Cantore

et al.

2006)

and production of ammonia (Cappuccino and Sherman

2010)

and of

hydrogen cyanide (Lorck

1948).

Finally, bacteria were evaluated for adaptability to

salinity, pH and temperature gradients (Giorgio

2014;

Giorgio et al.

2013).

The mechanisms underlying bean plant protection are not completely understood

so far. At the base of the pathogen control exerted by the six mentioned bacteria, some

likely explanations exist. In the pathogenicity assays, the rhizobacteria and the

challenging pathogen were apparently spatially separated and this may suggest that

the observed effect may result from the activation in bean plants of induced systemic

resistance (ISR) (Van Loon

2007).

The ability to trigger ISR by some of the above

rhizobacteria has been ascertained in further parallel studies in the pathosystem

Arabidopsis thaliana–X. campestris

pv.

amoriaceae

(Giorgio

2014;

Giorgio

et al.

2013).

Molecular studies leading to determine the occurrence of ISR in bean–

Xapf

pathosystem are in progress. However, a direct effect of rhizobacteria on the

pathogen at the infection site cannot be excluded since it has been reported that

bacteria applied to soil or on seeds colonise rhizosphere and then may move up to

the phylloplane (Nautiyal et al.

2002)

or to behave as either facultative or opportu-

nistic endophytes (Hardoim et al.

2008).

Some characters shown by rhizobacteria

under study may be the responsible of the possible direct antagonism exerted on the

pathogens. In fact, the haemolytic activity shown by these bacteria may depend on the

production of antimicrobial substances affecting biological membranes which is a

quite common feature in plant-associatedPseudomonas spp. and

Bacillus

spp.

(Ongena and Jacques

2008;

Raaijmakers and Mazzola

2012).

Furthermore, of great

interest is the fact that strains of

P. b.

subsp.

brassicacearum

produce HCN reported as

inhibitor of cytochrome C oxidase in the respiratory chain (Knowles

1976)

and

binding metalloenzymes (Blumer and Haas

2000)

determining deleterious effect in

microorganisms inhabiting the same ecological niche and nonproducers of HCN. On

the other side,

P. putida

strains appeared to produce ammonia that accomplishes

several biological roles and, in particular, its toxicity is well known (Weise

et al.

2013).

The six antagonistic rhizobacteria showed also desirable plant growth-

promoting ability since they can supply inorganic phosphate to plants (Schachtman

et al.

1998)

via phosphatase activity which leads to the production of organic acids that

decrease soil pH (Rashid et al.

2004),

so that this may limit some soilborne phyto-

pathogenic organisms, as demonstrated in the case of

P. ultimum

and

F. oxysporum

(Alhussaen

2012).

Moreover, in this regard, important is the fact that the six

rhizobacteria produce also indole compounds that promote bacterial environmental

adaptation during stress conditions such as UV, salt and acidity (Bianco et al.

2006).

Finally, their siderophore production may contribute to plant growth-promoting

activity by depriving pathogens of iron accomplishing, in this way, their antagonistic

activity (Kloepper et al.

1980).

In conclusion, the fact that numerous mechanisms may

be involved in leading to the observed effects makes worthwhile a deeper investiga-

tion on the system considered.

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154

P. Lo Cantore et al.

5 Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, the ﬁndings that the

Fagioli di Sarconi

traditional varieties

Ciuoto,

Tabacchino

and

Cannellino

appeared to be less susceptible or tolerant to CBB are

positive since it is well established that the use of pathogen-tolerant germplasm,

rather than resistant one, is advisable in order to avoid the selection of the pathogen

population, leading to the resistance being overcome. The introgression and

stabilisation of CBB resistance characters into some of the above tolerant tradi-

tional varieties, in the breeding programme still in progress, may bring about to

highly agronomic and nutriceutical values varieties with potential economic

impact.

Essential oils and/or pure components such as eugenol appear to be good

bactericides as alternatives to antibiotics for the sanitation of bean seeds from

CBB pathogens as well as for the control of other seed-borne plant bacterial

pathogens. However, studies either on formulations or on the application method

of eugenol appear necessary to avoid undesirable toxic effect on seeds and plantlets.

Lastly, of highly value is the ﬁnding that strains of

Pseudomonas

brassicacearum

subsp.

brassicacearum, P. putida

and

Bacillus megaterium,

iso-

lated from bean rhizosphere, are capable of protecting bean plants artiﬁcially

inoculated with the CBB pathogen. Also in these cases, further studies appear

necessary to transfer these potential antagonists in the agriculture practices.

Acknowledgements

This research was in part supported by the Ministry of Agricultural Ali-

mentary and Forest Politics (project PROM, C.I.P.E. Resolution 17/2003). Dr. Phillip Miklas, of

the Vegetable and Forage Crops Research Laboratory, USDA, WA, USA, and the

Consorzio di

Tutela dei Fagioli di Sarconi

are acknowledged for the generous supply of CBB-resistant breeding

lines and traditional cultivar seed lots.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Sustainable Climate Change Adaptations in

Developing Countries: A Case Study of the

Turkish Cypriot Community’s Adoption of

Pomegranate Farming

Clare M. Finnegan and Omer Gokcekus

Abstract

Climate change is a growing issue for developing countries, as they

typically lack the technical and ﬁnancial inputs to implement the necessary agri-

cultural adaptations. These countries also suffer from the classic collective action

problem; although they are able to identify the issue and a potential solution, their

individual resources are not substantial enough to enact change. This article dis-

cusses north Cyprus’ 2006 adoption of pomegranate production and its relationship

to climate-related agricultural concerns. We argue that the Turkish Cypriot com-

munity would not have been able to start an effective pomegranate agribusiness

without third-party ﬁnancial and technical assistance. As a post-conﬂict developing

community, they lacked the resources necessary to collectivize on their own and

initiate crop switching. Thus, Turkish Cypriot farmers needed external resources in

order to launch a sustainable development project. The programme was a successful

example of sustainable peacebuilding as it required local ownership.

1 Introduction

Climate change used to be an abstract, futuristic problem. Although there was some

awareness of the need to adapt one’s lifestyle to be more “environmentally

friendly”, the problem lacked urgency and was perceived as an issue that the

coming generation would tackle. Now it seems to be an inescapable reality.

Developed countries with abundant resources, like the USA, have been able to

implement certain adaptations to mitigate some of the adverse effects of climate

change. How have other less afﬂuent countries adapted?

Any information not directly cited is attributable to interviews and personal correspondence

with Berna Berberolu, the deputy project manager of the Economic Development and Growth

for Enterprises (EDGE) programme, and ˙brahim Kahramanolu, the managing director of Alnar

Narcılık Ltd.

C.M. Finnegan • O. Gokcekus (

)

School of Diplomacy and International Relations, Seton Hall University, South Orange,

NJ 07039, USA

e-mail:

ﬁ[email protected]; [email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_11

159

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160

C.M. Finnegan and O. Gokcekus

As what Gokcekus and Bengyak (2014) discuss in regard to corruption, climate

change has the most severe ill effects on those members of society (or the world)

that are least capable of preparing themselves for its impact. Often still largely

agriculturally based, the economies of many developing countries are especially

vulnerable to environmental changes. Limited ﬁnancial resources create a collec-

tive action problem; while the individual members of a developing society may

know that the adaptation or modiﬁcation of existing processes can help combat

climate-related issues, they lack the resources—technical and ﬁnancial—to adopt

these changes. The problem of adaptation is particularly acute in post-conﬂict

regions that have been isolated from beneﬁcial economic relationships, such as

north Cyprus.

North Cyprus has been a de facto separate country since Cyprus was partitioned

by the “Green Line”—a UN buffer zone—in 1974 due to conﬂict between Cypriots

of Greek ancestry and those of Turkish (BBC

2011).

Under the internationally

recognized Republic of Cyprus, Greek Cypriots were able to interface with the

EU and the greater international community. North Cyprus was isolated, and its

economic development has lagged behind that of the Republic of Cyprus. On

average, Greek Cypriots have a 61 % higher per capita income than Turkish

Cypriots (Gokcekus

2008,

p. 15). This paper will explore how intervention by a

third party helped the Turkish Cypriot community (TCC) adapt its agricultural

industry to the constraints of climate change and simultaneously overcome its

collective action problem. Speciﬁcally, this paper explores USAID’s 2006 agri-

business programme that assisted the TCC with starting commercial production of

the nutritional superfruit pomegranate.

2 Crop Switching and Sustainable Peacebuilding

Why does climate change matter? Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn (2008) try to

predict the impact of climate change on farms’ output and revenue in 11 African

countries. Under one climate change scenario—the Canadian Climate Centre

(CCC) model in which the studied regions become hotter and drier—predicted

revenues for the year 2100 would decline by nearly 70 % if farmers did not

participate in crop switching (p. 122). In an alternative climate change scenario—

the Parallel Climate Model (PCM) in which the climate of the studied regions

becomes mild and wet—revenues were actually expected to signiﬁcantly (82 %)

increase. Which of these two models most closely predicts future conditions is

currently unknown. In order to avoid a potential 70 % loss of revenue, the authors

suggest crop switching; under the CCC’s conditions, crop switching could reduce

losses to only 6 %.

Seo and Mendelsohn (2008) also explored crop choice and its relationship to

climate change, focusing on South American farms. As in Africa, crop choice in

South America generally had an identiﬁable, signiﬁcant relationship with temper-

ature and precipitation. The one exception to this was maize, a crop with many

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varieties that are adaptable to most South American climates. Seo and Mendelsohn

(2008) did not predict the economic impact of not crop switching, but instead

assumed that farmers—making a rational economic decision—would switch.

Huda et al. (2005) suggest measures that farmers, community workers, and

policy agencies can take in response to changing environmental conditions. Huda

et al. were primarily concerned with the possible mismatch between crop phenol-

ogy and water availability caused by climate change. Without an understanding of

phenology, crop adaptation proves difﬁcult as crops with certain phenologies only

thrive in speciﬁc ecosystems. Huda et al. (2005) therefore recommend several

strategies, such as changing the time of planting and adopting alternative crops,

that could help mitigate mismatch between crop phenology and water resources

(p. 142).

Farmers can only combat climate change by employing crop switching if “there

are no barriers to the adoption of appropriate crops” (Kurukulasuriya and

Mendelsohn

2008,

p. 123). Seo and Mendelsohn (2008) echoed this warning,

speciﬁcally mentioning that farmers may not be able to crop switch “if the adjust-

ment requires a heavy capital investment” (p. 115). Lobell et al. (2008) argue that

while “switching to an existing crop variety may moderate negative impacts, the

biggest beneﬁts will likely result from more costly measures.

. .”

(p. 607). In

addition to potential ﬁnancial constraints, the measures advocated by Huda

et al. (2005) generally require signiﬁcant technical or scientiﬁc acumen, knowledge

that is often in short supply in developing nations.

These ﬁnancial and technical constraints only exacerbate the collective action

problem, which is particularly acute when resources are scarce. In a society with

limited inputs, the participation of many actors (a group effort) is often necessary in

order to secure opportunities or goods that enhance the collective beneﬁt. As Olson

(1965) details, large groups are particularly prone towards free-ridership, since

members of the group believe their non-participation will be overlooked. This

tendency is especially detrimental to projects in developing countries; the

constrained resources of individual members in these countries often require that

collective goods be provided through larger-sized groups with high levels of

participation.

How can developing countries, particularly post-conﬂict societies like Cyprus,

solve these challenges? Gokcekus et al. (2014) suggest that the solution lies with

intervention by an outside actor. In their study of Turkish Cypriot beekeepers,

Gokcekus et al. found that the beekeepers needed EU ﬁnancial and technical

assistance to overcome their collective action problem, meet the EU’s health

standards for commercial honey, and initiate trade across the Green Line. The EU

provided the initial impetus for change; once the Turkish Cypriots beekeepers

understood the standard requirements for trade and had the ﬁnancial resources to

meet these standards, they were able to collectivize and increase their level of

economic development. In other words, although the process of updating their

beekeeping practices to meet EU standards was instigated by the EU, Turkish

Cypriot beekeepers accepted local ownership of the remainder of the development

process.

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162

C.M. Finnegan and O. Gokcekus

As Donais (2009) notes, local ownership is relatively rare in post-conﬂict

development initiatives, since the external actors tend to reserve “most key

decision-making authority” (p. 4). Perhaps the interaction between the beekeepers

and the EU can best be described as an example of what Donais terms “sustainable

peacebuilding” (p. 14). Sustainable peacebuilding requires “negotiated hybridity”

between both insiders and outsiders “in which the division of responsibilities

between outsider and insider is constantly calibrated and adjusted as a means to

advancing the peace process” (p. 14, 21). Like the case of the beekeepers, the

decision of Turkish Cypriot farmers to commence pomegranate production is likely

another example of sustainable peacebuilding.

The case of pomegranate production in north Cyprus can be approached from

several perspectives. This paper concentrates on intersection of two of those: (1) the

adoption of pomegranates as a form of crop switching and (2) the adoption of

pomegranates as a result of overcoming a collective action problem through

sustainable peacebuilding. By promoting local ownership and sharing responsibil-

ity, an external actor helped the TCC surpass the capital and technical barriers that

had previously prevented the implementation of a climate change solution.

3 Climate Considerations in Cyprus

Climate change has exacerbated Cyprus’ water shortages (Shoukri and Zachariadis

2012;

Zachariadis

2010;

EEA

2009)

Cyprus has experienced extended periods of

drought since the 1970s; increased demand has made the issue of water availability

particularly acute (BBC

2010).

In an attempt to rectify this issue, north Cyprus

agreed to the construction of an underwater freshwater pipeline connected to

Turkey. Referred to as Barıs Su (“Peace Water”), this pipeline was expected to

be completed sometime in 2014; however, it was slightly behind schedule and just

over halfway completed in October of that year (Gies

2013;

Sands

2014).

addition to political concerns over heightening north Cyprus’ reliance on Turkey,

there are also worries that the pipeline will only increase demand (Gies

2013).

Water shortages have been particularly challenging for the agricultural sector.

Citrus fruits, Cyprus’ third most lucrative agricultural export, place considerable

stress upon Cyprus’ limited water resources; they originated in the tropics and have

the greatest water consumption of Cyprus’ irrigated crops (Sofroniou and Bishop

2014;

Dworak and Berglund

2012).

With Cyprus’ continuing water limitations,

relying on water-intensive crops like citrus fruits to drive the economy is not a

sustainable development strategy.

The TCC’s adoption of pomegranate farming was a response to climate change.

Cyprus’ competitive edge in the citrus market had been undermined by countries

that do not share its climate constraints; farmers needed to implement crop

switching to alleviate the growing expense and inefﬁciency of citrus production.

By supporting the commercial pomegranate venture with ﬁnancial and technical

resources, an external actor helped the Turkish Cypriot realize crop switching and

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163

overcome the monetary and informational barriers to climate adaptation identiﬁed

by Seo and Mendelsohn (2008) and Huda et al. (2005).

We argue that the Turkish Cypriot farmers, like the Turkish Cypriot beekeepers

studied by Gokcekus et al. (2014), were constrained by the classic collective action

problem. The individual farmers did not have the resource capacity to transition to

an alternative crop. They lacked the necessary training and technical background to

implement a successful crop-switching programme, and they also faced ﬁnancial

constraints. Furthermore, their resource challenges made collectivization unlikely

as both technical and ﬁnancial leadership were absent. Once the collective action

problem was overcome, we attribute the success of the pomegranate programme to

its incorporation of sustainable peacebuilding (Donais

2009).

An external actor

provided technical knowledge and the initial investment funds, but Turkish Cypriot

farmers quickly accepted local ownership of pomegranate farming. With external

assistance, the domestic actor was able to solve the collective action problem.

4 The EU and USAID

Although the EU has committed to assisting north Cyprus’ economic development

in the hope of the eventual reuniﬁcation of north and south Cyprus, it was not the

primary external actor involved in the development of north Cyprus’ new pome-

granate industry. Managing Cyprus’ political divisions has required delicate

manoeuvring by the EU. Until 2013, the EU was actually “unable to set up a

delegation in the Turkish-controlled half. Instead, it had to establish a

headquarters-based task force in the south with a local programme support ofﬁce

in the northern part of Cyprus” (Nielsen

2012).

With this in mind, the EU’s

relatively behind-the-scenes involvement in the pomegranate initiative is under-

standable. Through its Economic Development and Growth for Enterprises (EDGE)

programme, USAID was actually the main actor facilitating the adoption of pome-

granate farming. The EU’s involvement was mostly restricted to providing funding

through grants.

Under EDGE, the multinational consultancy ﬁrm BearingPoint was awarded a

six million dollar contract to assist the TCC with economic development. In the

completion of this contract, BearingPoint released certain online reports—includ-

ing a 127 page ﬁnal report—detailing the development of alternative crop

programmes in north Cyprus. According to the EDGE reports, “the US Govern-

ment’s primary policy objective in Cyprus” was fostering a “durable settlement”

between the divided Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities (EDGE

2008b,

p. 5).

To facilitate this settlement, EDGE was commissioned “to improve banking prac-

tices, to strengthen business associations and services, and to provide ﬁrm-level

assistance to promote enterprise competitiveness” (EDGE

2008a,

p. 4). The

programme was redeﬁned to focus on sector-level initiatives after ﬁrm-level efforts

failed to have a substantive impact on improving north Cyprus’ competitiveness

(EDGE

2008a,

p. 6). Within the agricultural sector, EDGE focused on ﬁve

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164

C.M. Finnegan and O. Gokcekus

alternative crop programmes: pomegranates, capers, cactus fruit, salicornia, and

passion fruit. The pomegranate programme, initiated in 2006, was the ﬁrst of these

to be implemented.

5 Selecting Pomegranates

The decision to support the switch from citrus to pomegranate production was not

so much related to the amount of water consumed by pomegranate trees as it was

driven by the

type

of water they use. In fact, pomegranates trees require approxi-

mately the same amount of water as citrus trees (Sheets et al.

2013;

Sauls

1998;

FAO

2013).

What makes pomegranates a viable solution for Cyprus’ climate

limitations is their ability to “endure greater water salination than citrus trees”

(EDGE

2008a,

p. 16). Pomegranates trees are hardier than citrus and can better

process salt-contaminated water. As an island in a frequent state of drought,

Cyprus’ freshwater resources are limited. Additionally, Cyprus has contaminated

much of its available groundwater through over-extraction. As groundwater has

been over pumped, freshwater aquifers have become salinated (Anastasi

2012,

p. 14). EDGE reports speciﬁcally acknowledged the “salination of the ground

water,” as a contributing factor in Cyprus’ declining citrus market competitiveness

(EDGE

2008b,

p. 87). Guzelyurt (its Greek name is Morphou), a region in north

Cyprus, had been particularly affected by the increased salinity levels of the

groundwater as it had signiﬁcant citrus orchards. EDGE ofﬁcials subsequently

concentrated their initial pomegranate ventures in this region.

To further heighten the resource gains of the crop switch, the pomegranate

varieties chosen by EDGE’s commissioned experts were ones that ﬂourished in

drier climates and required fewer water resources. EDGE invited Agro Consultant

and Agricultural Engineer Shlomy Raziel to provide expertise on the pomegranate

programme. After analysing Cyprus’ climate constraints, Raziel suggested that the

phenology of the Wonderful variety might be best suited to the project as it had

proved successful in similarly dry climates, such as Israel (EDGE

2008b,

p. 66).

Two other pomegranate varieties—the Herskovitz and the Acco that were both

developed for Israel’s climate—were also selected to be planted along with the

Wonderful variety.

EDGE reports cited pomegranates’ “consistent[cy] with the TCC’s climate,

topography and

marketing

[emphasis added] potential” as the reason they were

selected to be the alternative crop initiative’s prototype (EDGE

2008a,

p. 33). As

discussed, pomegranates had climate and environmental advantages over citrus

fruits. However, the programme’s ultimate success was also attributable to the

market advantages of switching. Heightened competition from countries without

the production difﬁculties of Cyprus’ environmental constraints meant citrus pro-

ducers were experiencing declining rates of return on their investments (EDGE

2008b,

p. 87). Simultaneously, demand for pomegranates increased due to the

fruit’s designation as a nutritional “superfruit” (Cassell

2012).

Despite being a

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165

relatively new venture, market demand for the pomegranates produced through the

EDGE programme has been such that participants have repeatedly sold the entirety

of their yearly crop. All ﬁrst quality fruits (those with traits most attractive to

consumers) are consumed by the international market. The environmental gains of

switching to pomegranate production were signiﬁcant; the market beneﬁts were

equally important.

6 Programme Design and Implementation

Pomegranates are not a new fruit to Cyprus. During the nineteenth and early

twentieth century, they were actually one of Cyprus’ primary articles of export

(Kahramanoglu et al.

2014;

Usanmaz

2013,

p. 2). The conﬂict that separated the

island ended this trade and pomegranate orchards declined. Before the implemen-

tation of EDGE’s alternative crops programme, pomegranates were either grown

mostly for personal usage or “only remained around other fruit orchards as wind

barriers” (Usanmaz et al.

2014,

p. 62).

Prior to publicly advertising its alternative crop programmes, EDGE consultants

exerted considerable effort in pre-emptively alleviating public backlash against

perceived “replacement” crops (EDGE

2008b,

p. 86). To protect the pomegranate

programme from critics who claimed that it would subvert the livelihood of citrus

growers, EDGE required that the land used by the growers be “unused, arid land”

(p. 86). This stipulation meant that EDGE personnel had to devote additional

resources to identifying land that ﬁt this criteria and assisting the farmers with

funding and developing drip irrigation systems to make the land productive.

However, it did succeed at reducing local suspicions and had a positive long-term

impact in the sense that in increased the amount of productive land available to

Turkish Cypriot farmers. EDGE began publicly advertising its alternative crop

programmes through various local channels in 2006. Of the ﬁve proposed projects,

pomegranates received the greatest community interest. Twenty-two Turkish Cyp-

riot farmers responded to the initial outreach efforts with 17 agreeing to EDGE’s

programme requirements. Farmers participating in the programme had to agree to

the following:

(a) sign a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) that outlined their responsibilities, (b) put

some of their own monetary resources into the project, which usually came in the form of

purchasing the plants, and (c) allow EDGE experts access to the alternative crops ﬁelds/

orchards to inspect the crops and offer advice on how to achieve the best harvest. (EDGE

2008b,

p. 86)

The programme’s

Phase One

focused on planting the pomegranates. EDGE

arranged for Shlomy Raziel to visit the pomegranate orchards every 6–8 weeks in

order to provide the farmers with on-site technical expertise (EDGE

2008b,

p. 86).

Prior to the actual planting of the pomegranate trees, EDGE required the farmers to

attend training sessions on ﬁnancial management, orchard establishment, and tree

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166

Table 1

Timeline of pomegranate production

Year

2006

2006–2008

2006–2007

2007

2008

2010

2011

Step

C.M. Finnegan and O. Gokcekus

EDGE develops agribusiness programmes

Presented the programme to interested growers

Signed MOUs with the 17 participants in phase 1

Training for growers

Establishment of the orchards

Planted pomegranate trees

Installed irrigation systems in orchards

First harvest

Establishment of Alnar Ltd

Alnar awarded EU rural development grant

Establishment of the Alnar processing facility

First international export of pomegranates

planting. After the 17 participating farmers planted the 18,750 trees on 51 acres of

formerly arid land, EDGE supplemented Mr. Raziel’s assistance with additional

sessions on fertilizer application, pest management, winter pruning, and ﬂower

thinning (EDGE

2008b,

pp. 117–118).

Phase Two

of the programme expanded the

number of participating farmers to 22, the planted acreage to 62 acres, and the

number of trees to 22,450 (EDGE

2008b,

p. 87).

Phase Three

and

Four

of the programme were designed to develop the business

side of this agribusiness programme. Under

Phase Three,

EDGE worked with the

farmers to establish a fruit processing facility, while

Phase Four

focused on

ensuring the sustainability of the growers’ business model. Within

Phase Three,

19 of the farmers incorporated the limited liability company Alnar Narcılık Ltd, and

then using an EU grant of 150,000

€,

they built a pomegranate processing and

storage centre. Through Alnar, the farmers have been able to export their products

to ﬁve EU countries: Sweden, England, Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands.

The collective has plans to extend their international reach beyond these countries

and to expand their internationally available product line to include pomegranate

juice. Table

provides a summary timeline of the pomegranate programme’s

various components.

7 Sustainable Peacebuilding

The pomegranate programme has proven to be an archetype upon which to base

future sustainable agribusiness development programmes. As the farmers have

become more adept at growing pomegranates, the amount of fruit produced per

tree has doubled from that of the initial yield (FreshFruit

2014).

Exports have grown

to almost ﬁve times Alnar’s preliminary offering of 49 t; in

2013

Alnar exported

232 t of fresh pomegranates (Alan

2013).

The collective now produces around

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30,000 L of pomegranate juice; since the producers do not use preservatives in their

purely natural pomegranate juice, this is currently only consumed by the local

market (FreshPlaza

2012).

However, the company is exploring alternative means of

bottling their juice in order to access new markets.

EDGE’s pomegranate programme ﬂourished due to elements of sustainable

peacebuilding, like “negotiated hybridity” and “local ownership”, that were built

into the project. From the beginning, EDGE required the local actors to accept

ownership of the programme through ﬁnancial and organizational commitments.

The monetary resources committed to the programme by the farmers were not

insubstantial. Although USAID did provide some funding, its ﬁnancial resources

were mainly put towards training sessions and providing the farmers with technical

assistance. As mentioned, the EU gave the Alnar collective a 150,000

€

grant for

the building of the processing plant. However, the entire project cost 450,000

€;

after EDGE personnel assisted the farmers with developing a preliminary business

plan, the local farmers were responsible for developing their own marketing

strategy and contributing the remaining 300,000

€

to the programme.

The local farmers were encouraged by the EDGE consultants to collectivize in

order to foster long-term accountability among the farmers, develop local leader-

ship, and ensure the sustainability of the programme. According to Ibrahim

Kahramanoglu, managing director of Alnar, the producers collectivized in order

to have ownership over the programme’s business decisions. EDGE personnel

suggested that Alnar apply for GLOBALGAP. certiﬁcation, an independently

evaluated standard designation that is often required by EU buyers. EDGE assisted

Alnar with the initial application; recertiﬁcations have been handled by Alnar’s

personnel. After obtaining their initial certiﬁcation, Alnar negotiated with the

Cyprus Pomegranate Producers Union (a body of 36 pomegranate producers that

has signiﬁcant overlap with the producers of the Alnar collective) to handle

exportation of their crops and extend Alnar’s certiﬁcation to cover the pomegranate

products of the Union. Through Alnar, the pomegranate producers were able to

develop the local leadership necessary to sustain and surpass what they achieved

under the guidance of an external actor.

8 Policy Implications

Cyprus is certainly not the only country facing climate-related development chal-

lenges nor is it the only developing country with a collective action problem. Thus,

the strategies that worked to foster sustainable pomegranate farming should be

largely applicable elsewhere and to other agricultural products. From the case of

pomegranate farming, the importance of the following factors is apparent.

When implementing crop switching, the market reputations of suggested

replacement products carry considerable weight in determining whether one prod-

uct is adopted over another. Both EDGE and the local farmers cited pomegranate’s

rapidly expanding reputation as a superfruit as an important factor in its selection.

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168

C.M. Finnegan and O. Gokcekus

Even with the programme’s success, the director of Alnar complained that Europe

lacked a “pomegranate culture” and that pomegranate products were still far from

reaching optimal market recognition (FreshFruitPortal

2014).

Although the Turkish

Cypriot farmers did have an interest in pomegranates prior to external involvement,

identifying products that are both environmentally and market friendly is poten-

tially an area in which developing countries need assistance.

The case of north Cyprus also demonstrated that locals were more likely to

view crop-switching programmes favourably if they were initially perceived as

augmenting, rather than replacing, traditional crops. EDGE’s approach of planting

pomegranates only on unused, arid land was able to mitigate any complaints from

citrus producers. However, this approach did require signiﬁcant exertion on the part

of the external actor to both identify the available land and then provide the

technical resources to make this land arable.

Local awareness of the suggested alternative crop also impacted the

programme’s overall success. Of the ﬁve alternative crop programmes developed

by EDGE—pomegranates, cactus, fruit, salicornia, capers, and passion fruit—the

pomegranate programme has been most successful. Its success is at least partially

attributable to the farmers’ familiarity with pomegranates; the passion fruit

programme has not inspired nearly as much interest among local actors. In inter-

views, the director of Alnar stressed that the pomegranate programme only

succeeded (and was able to become highly successful) because of the awareness

and enthusiasm of the local farmers for pomegranates. In addition to selecting crops

that are both market and environmentally friendly, external actors also need to

consider local preferences when designing development projects.

Local ownership is critical to achieving successful, sustainable peacebuilding

through development. As is evident from the experience of the pomegranate pro-

ducers, one of the simplest ways in which to inspire ownership is to require

signiﬁcant monetary commitments from the local participants. Overcoming the

collective action problem that often characterizes developing societies does require

ﬁnancial input by the external actor (in order to pay for the necessary technical

specialists); however, this input should be matched (within reason and considering

circumstances) by local contributions. Equally important as the technical training it

provided was the assistance EDGE gave the farmers in creating a business strategy.

Motivated by EDGE, the producers were able to capitalize on their training and

expand into exporting. Thus, in the case of Cyprus, the most important factor was

not how much money was given, but how that money was used.

9 Concluding Comments

Pomegranate farming in north Cyprus might appear to be a rather niche case.

However, it highlights a real problem that both developing and developed countries

will soon—if they have not already—confront, namely, climate change. As the

evidence from Cyprus indicates, post-conﬂict developing countries need ﬁnancial

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Sustainable Climate Change Adaptations in Developing Countries: A Case Study.

. .

169

and technical intervention from an external actor in order to implement even the

simplest of climate change adaptations, such as crop switching. Additionally, post-

conﬂict states are often hobbled by the classic collective action problem and need

an outside impetus to inspire them to accept local ownership of a development

programme. Sustainable development is therefore a function of external and local

actor coordination; using its superior resources, the external actor helps initiate the

programme, and since the local actor also makes a signiﬁcant contribution, the local

actor commits to ensuring the programme’s success.

The sustainability of similar climate change programmes can be further

enhanced by selecting crops that are at least somewhat familiar to the local

community and are also desired by the external market. A crop’s phenology

might be ideally suited to a certain region, but the local farmers need to also support

its production. Identifying suitable crops will require the combined effort of

external and local actors. Ultimately, enacting successful climate change adapta-

tions requires both parties to share leadership responsibilities (Fig.

1).

Fig. 1

A sign indicating

that this is a GLOBALGAP

certiﬁed pomegranate

orchard, in Morphou area,

Cyprus

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170

C.M. Finnegan and O. Gokcekus

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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The Role of Women in the Sustainability of

the Wine Industry: Two Case Studies in Italy

Graziella Benedetto and Gian Luigi Corinto

Abstract

The chapter aims at analyzing whether female entrepreneurs have some

distinctive capacities than men in managing business within the Italian wine

industry and if these skills are useful for the sustainability of their farms and the

whole sector. After the sketch of the women situation in the Italian agriculture and

in the wine sector, we have analyzed two case studies located in two wine regions,

Tuscany and Sardinia, by having meetings and interviewing two wine women. The

two regions are quite different for the general condition of winemaking and for the

internationally perceived image. Furthermore, the two informants have different

family histories and manage different dimensioned farms. Our ﬁndings are that

these two female entrepreneurs, even starting from different general conditions,

have been able to use their own leading capabilities in the improvement of business

and in collective regional and national initiative of wine promotion. Basing eco-

nomic decisions on formal and/or contextual training, they have introduced inno-

vations in farming, winemaking, and marketing in a speciﬁc way. We can say they

have been someway slower, less hasty, and even more effective than men in

involving collaborators with a charismatic heading and attracting other entrepre-

neurs in doing business. The role of women in farming has been too long underrated

by society and the policymakers, who, on the contrary, should provide more speciﬁc

attentions to the female capacity to foster the sustainability of their own farms and

the wine Italian industry.

G. Benedetto (

)

Department of Science for Nature and Environmental Resources, University of Sassari,

Sassari, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

G.L. Corinto

Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism, University of Macerata, Macerata,

Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_12

173

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174

G. Benedetto and G.L. Corinto

1 Introduction

Even recent researches (Piacentini

2013)

show persisting gender differences in

labor market all over the world. Entrepreneurship is the dimension where gender

differences are the most marked, and still today, business women are much less than

men, and their ventures are usually small and operate with little capital. Italy is not

an exception and not the Italian agriculture.

For decades the increasing presence of women in the Italian agriculture has been

interpreted as a signal of loss of competitiveness since the term “feminization” has

been often used in combination with the “senilization” (aging) of farmers indicating

the weakening of entrepreneurial capabilities within the farmers (Bandini

1967).

The traditionally underrated role of women in farming has been determined––

among other causes––by the hereditary system of land property that privileged

the masculine line and even more by the social role of raising children and

preparing and serving food, usually performed by housewives (Mennell et

al.1992; Couniham

2004).

The large diffused

mezzadria,

i.e., the sharecropping

land tenure, underlined the dependent role of rural housewives in the household

economy, with a clear division between male and female duties, and otherwise it

was also the basis for extensive socioeconomic mutations (Ciuffoletti and Contini

1994).

In Central Italy, farming systems and the landscapes are strictly intertwined,

and both refer to a particular organization of the agricultural habitat within, with

functional relations between housing and farming, settlement and the countryside,

and houses and cultivated ﬁelds being detectable (Polidori

2013).

The speciﬁc

objective of this kind of land tenure was to have enough foodstuffs both for the

farming family and the landowner and his family. Indeed, the middle-upper class of

landlords aimed at living “off one’s own means,” and thus, the overall land tenure

was oriented to self-consumption (Jones

1980).

The role of women was clearly

subordinated, both in working class and in landowners.

The traditional role of rural women faced a striking change in the half of the

twentieth century, when masses of rural people abandoned farming employment

and rural residences (De D’Attorre and Bernardi

1994)

to live in cities and work in

nonagricultural industries following the general social mutation of the Italians

(Corinto

2014).

The agricultural and rural exodus interested both men and

women, regarding younger and more skilled and willing to risk people, being

agriculture clearly viewed as a poor sector for weaker entrepreneurs and workers,

i.e., women and the elders (Bartoli et al.2011).

According to Barberis (1963), the feminization of agriculture, already started in

the 1950s and 1960s, is to be considered as the factual emersion of the female self-

employed farming, a phenomenon previously near invisible. At the end of the past

century, in 1997, the European Commission (Commissione Europea

2002)

showed

the highest percent of female farm managers was localized in the Southern Italy

(Abruzzo, Molise, Campania, Basilicata, all ranking between 28 and the 41 %). In

particular, in Sardinia, the female emancipation has a long history, due to the

centuries-old absence of male shepherds (the husbands) from the family house

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The Role of Women in the Sustainability of the Wine Industry: Two Case.

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175

and the subsequent establishment, as a matter of fact, of a matriarchy and a female

mayor propensity to training studies (Barberis

2009).

During the 1990s, feminization of agriculture “became a female sound presence

in the guide and proper managing of the farm with several innovative characteris-

tics” (Tazza

2010,

p. 119). Today this “feminizing” trend continues, and women are

more numerous than in the past, both among workers and farm owners and

managers. Recently, a study performed by the Italian Minister of Labor enlightened

some general traits of women entrepreneurs: “it emerges a model of a female

entrepreneur/manager that mainly privileges a cooperative network system that

includes business, community and family, fostered by the relational skills typical

of women. Female entrepreneurial styles are characterized by ﬂexible solutions in

relation to the different phases of the woman’s life and the difﬁculty of the diverse

works and private/family timing of tasks, especially when women have kids.

Otherwise, there are still copious facts that hinder the women/labor-market rela-

tionship, regarding women both entrepreneurs and workers” (Unioncamere

2011,

13).

An important point to underline is the generally stronger capacity of the female

enterprises to face the current economic crisis. “At the national level, the increasing

number of female enterprises […] during the crisis has more than balanced the

decreasing of the male ones” (Unioncamere

2011,

p. 13).

Women have different skills than men in terms of perception/sixth sense, or in

organizational jargon “emotional intelligence,” and in managerial jargon “multi-

tasking” abilities due to the daily necessity to face simultaneous different respon-

sibilities (Goleman

2001).

According to Rea (2009), a “women diversity” actually exists, stated in mana-

gerial studies and social psychology (Piccardo and Baiunco

2007;

Piccardo et

al.2008) that have put in light the female diversity in comparison to the male

leadership. The female leadership shows “communal” features, such as coopera-

tiveness, generosity, and empathy. The male leadership shows more “agent” fea-

tures, such as self-conﬁdence, assertiveness, and control.

A recent study (Rea

2009)

realized that the distinction between “transactional

and transformational leadership” (Burns

1978;

Bass

1985)

ﬁts well for analyzing

the female entrepreneurship. Indeed, women show a “transformational leadership”

oriented to the commitment and creativity of collaborators, while men more

frequently act as “transactional leaders,” willing to correct/reward/punish collabo-

rators in relation to the obtained goals (Rea

2009).

The transformational leadership

could be the expression of a “soft-power” (Nye

2004),

while men, performing a

“hard-power,” actually use a top-down management. Moreover, Arlenghi (2014)

reported the soft aptitudes of women are most wanted by modern companies,

organized in reticular and less hierarchical schemes.

Then, our case studies aim at analyzing the role of women managers in the

Italian winemaking sector, focusing in their innovation capabilities and the effects

on sustainability as stated even in the Europe 2020 strategy and in particular in the

Italian wine industry.

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176

G. Benedetto and G.L. Corinto

In Italy, the Italian Association

Le Donne del Vino

(The Women of Wine) was

born in 1988 aiming at gathering all women committed to the realm of wine. They

are female winemakers, marketers, managers of wineshops, sommeliers, restaurant

owners, journalists, academicians, and researchers on the wine sector. From the

origin up to today, the number of women of wine has increased from 8 to 800.

Five years ago, a dedicated study on the female perception of wine consuming

behavior modiﬁcations has been performed (Rea

2009),

just using the “universe” of

the Women of Wine association. This study enlightened the female tendency to use

the marketing leverages of communications and events organization, within the

singular farm and involving the territory (Rea

2009).

We have adopted a different research perspective, more focused on the nexus

between female entrepreneurship, innovation, and sustainability.

Therefore, the chapter reports results of two case studies, performed by deep

face-to-face interviews to female entrepreneurs acting in the Italian wine industry.

We describe and interpret the ongoing role of women in the wine sector, giving

some enlightenments on economic and social reasons of the importance of women

as wine entrepreneurs.

The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. Section

reports the overall

situation of farming, winemaking, and rural tourism, even sketching the presence

and role of women and female entrepreneurs. Section

reports background liter-

ature and research focus, questions, and method. Section

reports the narrative of

the two case studies, the Fattoria del Colle and Tenute Olbios, respectively located

in Tuscany and Sardinia, as resulted from the interviews. Section

is dedicated to

discuss our ﬁndings and Sect.

gives the conclusions.

2 Background: The Overall Situation of Farming,

Winemaking, and Rural Tourism in Italy

Between 2000 and 2010, years of the 5th and 6th Agricultural Italian Census

(ISTAT

2002, 2010),

the owned farming land tenure continued to prevail over the

waged-labor-based one (Table

1),

but farms have reduced by 533,000 units

(−24.7 %). In particular, female holdings decreased by 107,000 units (−16.7 %),

while male ones showed a stronger reducing equal to 426,000 units (−28.1 %),

almost in all the geographical zones of Italy. This data proves the general tendency

of women’s resistance against the crisis even in agriculture, so that the percentage

of women in farming increased from 29.8 % to 33 % (Table

and from 28.0 to 33.2

in tourist farms (Table

3).

The latest Agricultural Census (ISTAT

2010)

showed in 2010 that there were

1,630,420 agricultural holdings. The total agricultural area (TAA) was

17,277,023 ha and the utilized agricultural area (UAA) was equal to

12,885,186 ha. Agricultural holdings are mainly managed by individuals or

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The Role of Women in the Sustainability of the Wine Industry: Two Case.

. .

Table 1

Italy. Land tenure in

2000 and 2010

Land tenure

Owned farming

Waged labor based

Others

Sources:

ISTAT (2002,

2010)

Table 2

Italy. Farm managers per gender and variations in 2000 and 2010

Farm managers

Men

1,512,169

1,086,619

−28.14

70.20

67.00

Women

641,555

534,265

−16.72

Total

2,153,724

1,620,884

−24.74

2000

95.4

4.5

0.1

177

2010

95.0

4.3

0.7

Year

2000

2010

Variations (%)

29.80

33.00

100

Sources:

ISTAT (2002,

2010)

Table 3

Tourist farm managers per gender and variations 2000–2010

Farm managers

Men

8,924

12,902

44.58

72.00

66.8

Women

3,472

6,402

84.39

Total

12,396

19,304

55.73

Year

2000

2010

Variations (%)

28.00

33.2

100

Sources:

ISTAT

2002, 2010

families (96 %), and the manager is the landowner himself/herself (95 %) or runs

family lands (65.5 %).

Among the tree crops, viticulture is practiced by 383,645 companies, 23.5 % of

the total, and covers 632,000 ha, equivalent to the 4.9 % of the UAA. The average

size of vines is 1.6 ha, increasing by 0.7 ha in comparison to 2005.

The Italian wine sector is in very good health, as stated by Mediobanca (2014).

For this research institute, the turnover in 2013 increased by 4.8 %, due more to

export (+7.7 %) than the inner market reaching 24.1 % over the 2008 level. The

level of employment has increased between 2008 and 2012 in countertendency to

the downsizing of the beverage sector (−5.2 %) and the manufacturing industry as a

whole (−6 %). In 2013, Italy is still the main wine producers in the world with a

total of 44.9 million hectoliters, preceding France (44.1 million) and Spain (40.0

million). The total value is estimated to be 9.1 billion euro.

In 2013, the top three Italian companies were Cantine Riunite-GIV (534 million

of turnover), the Caviro Group (327 million), and the wine division of Campari (228

million). We must underline that at the fourth position, there is the Antinori

company (with 166 million euro) that has three women at the top management

and strategic marketing ofﬁce.

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178

G. Benedetto and G.L. Corinto

Some details about agricultural tourism and the quality productions are given. In

the abovementioned decreasing number of agricultural holdings, agricultural farms

showed a clear opposite tendency. Between 2003 and 2012, tourist farms increased

from 13 to 20.5 thousand units (+57.3 %), and female-conducted ones increased

from 4.3 to 7.3 thousand (+67.9 %) while male-conducted ones from 8.7 to 13.2

thousand (+51.9 %). In tourist farm, owning the rate of women increased from 33.2

to 35.5 %.

Data show that farm tourism is clearly increasing and the female percentage

contribution is quite higher than the masculine one (Adua

2014).

In conducting farms of AOC and PGI chains, the female managers are in average

less young than men and have less UAA but, on the opposite, work more in the

organic farming, have a higher degree of instruction, and live more frequently in the

hilly countryside (Adua

2014).

3 Background Literature and Research Focus, Questions,

and Method

According to recent scholars’ statements, the past vision of “feminization” as a

negative attribute “is inadequate to understand the today variation of farm tenure

and managing in Italy” (Sabbatini

2006,

our translation). Today, “even multifunc-

tionality and generational turnover in agriculture are fostered by women”

(Sabbatini

2006,

p. 20, our translation).

Rosenberg (1963) deﬁned technological innovation as a major ingredient of

long-term economic growth, characterized by a high degree of uncertainty. In this

sense, innovations introduced by female rural entrepreneurs (in particular in

winemaking and wine tourism) deal with technological and market uncertainty

and have many ingredients of sustainability having surely a long-term vision.

In this line, the role of social capital and human capital (according to Becker

1962, 1975;

Schultz

1960, 1964)

and their reciprocal interrelations matter and have

been tested in the Italian rural development (Benedetto

2011).

The updating of agriculture by the modiﬁcation of the different forms of human,

physical, and organizational capital (as stated mainly by Shultz) is an important

research topic and a means for the sustainability even for wine farms.

Thus, our research focus is on the role of female entrepreneurs in using their

speciﬁc capabilities and skills for the sustainability of their farms and the territories

where they live and make business. Our research questions are as follows:

– Do women have a speciﬁc attitude in making business in the Italian wine

industry?

– Are they able to perform feasible farming and marketing decisions in order to

design a sustainable development of their business?

– Can they reconcile their family responsibilities to perform a charismatic

leadership?

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The Role of Women in the Sustainability of the Wine Industry: Two Case.

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179

In order to ﬁnd data useful to answer the research questions, we made two case

studies following the qualitative method, gathering informations indirectly from

press and the Web and directly from face-to-face interviews (Tremblay

1955;

Kvale

1996;

Marshall

1996;

Bradburn et al.

2004)

to women entrepreneurs engaged in the

managing of vineyards and wine farms.

We have chosen to perform the interviews in two quite dissimilar Italian regions:

Tuscany and Sardinia, which do actually represent very far wine poles in the Italian

panorama. Thus, the comparison will help us in verifying the female behavior and

the women perception of their own managerial “diversity” in utmost different

socioeconomic environments.

4 Case Studies

The two case studies have been carried out following the abovementioned literature

and aiming at focusing:

– A general picture of the wine farm and the history of the female managing

– Main issues of the winemaking and selling with a speciﬁc attention to sustain-

able goals

– The actual female contribution to the “organizational form” and innovation of

the farm

– The interviewee’s perception about the distinctive capabilities of a female

managing

4.1

Fattoria del Colle, Interview to Mrs. Donatella Cinelli

Colombini

The Fattoria del Colle farm is located in the municipality of Montalcino, province

of Siena, and has a very long story and is linked to a famous and renowned red wine,

the Brunello di Montalcino.

The ﬁrst testimonies of the farm house have roots in the twelfth century. Over

time, the whole real estate faced several changes and today has 336 ha lying on the

hills in front of the village, where wines such as Brunello, Chianti Classico, and

Nobile di Montepulciano have their historical growing place.

In 1998, Mrs. Donatella Cinelli Colombini inherited the farm house Fattoria del

Colle, where she today manages 160 ha of cereals, 6 ha of olive tree yards, and 22 of

vineyards, cultivating varieties of Sangiovese, Merlot, Traminer, and Foglia Tonda,

which is an old vine, neglected for centuries. The Foglia Tonda variety remained in

obscurity for a long time, but was rediscovered in the 1870s by Giuseppe Conti de

Rovasenda, one of Italy’s famous early ampelographers. It was ﬁnally admitted to

Italy’s Registro Nazionale delle Varieta di Vite (national register of wine grape

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180

G. Benedetto and G.L. Corinto

varieties) in May 1970, still being neglected. Today, one of Foglia Tonda’s stron-

gest advocates as a blending ingredient is the Donatella Cinelli Colombini winery,

whose Sangiovese-based Cenerentola wine (Orcia DOC) includes a greater portion

of Foglia Tonda with each vintage that passes.

Mrs. Donatella Cinelli Colombini was born in 1953 into a family of Brunello di

Montalcino’s producers. Today, she manages two wineries, the Fattoria del Colle

and the Casato Prime Donne, in the municipality of Trequanda and Montalcino,

respectively, both in the province of Siena.

This real estate pertained to the ancestors of Mrs. Donatella yet in 1592, and in

more recent year, it has been owned by her grandmother and then by her mother

Francesca and in the future will be inherited by her daughter Mrs. Violante Gardini,

in an evident female line.

In 1993, Donatella Cinelli Colombini, daughter of Francesca, the “Lady of

Brunello,” invented the ﬁrst edition of Cantine aperte (Open Cellars) after the

research proposed to Magda Antonioli Corigliano (1999) and the publication of

the ﬁrst identikit of wine tourists. Following this initiative, the Wine Tourism

Movement took place in an increasing successful tendency over time. This speciﬁc

feminine innovation was continued by Donatella Cinelli Colombini who started in

1998, the ﬁrst Italian cellar with an entire female staff, the Casato Prime Donne, in

Montalcino. In 2000, for the Christian Jubilee, Women of Wine presented “2,000

wines from Women of Wine,” and the same Woman of Wine in 2001 organized the

ﬁrst edition of Calici di Stelle (Calices of Stars) during the ﬁrst decade of August.

“I had the duty from VIDE––Italian Excellence Vine-growers––to promote public

relations, almost with no budget. I adopted a questionnaire for visitors of VIDE farms.

I realized it was the very ﬁrst time anyone entered such a survey. So I proposed the new

event Cantine aperte (Open cellars). In 1998 I was searching for an enologist. All the male

enologist graduated in Siena were employed by main producers, and there were many

unemployed women. That’s matched to my goal to have an entire female staff” (Donatella

Cinelli Colombini).

The success of the movement and the associationism initiative has been clear,

also due to the increasing interest about women’s behavior in wine consuming.

Today, the associated women are nearly up to 700. Young and trained women (with

an academic degree in agriculture and enology) as associated members are increas-

ing, and many women enter the world of wine not due to a family heritage but as a

choice of life.

Within the family, Mrs. Donatella is the farm manager and is directly responsi-

ble for the communication. Her daughter, Mrs. Violante, is the executive sales

manager for the wine.

“My Grandfather, Giovanni Colombini, was the person that inﬂuenced me more. He taught

me the value of typical products, the importance to develop the entire supply chain up to the

ﬁnal consumer. Form pigs to the selling of cold cuts, from sheep to cheese, from vineyards

to the exportation of our bottles with our brand. He was the ﬁrst who opened the cellar to

public visits, even starting a farm restaurant salami, still in the 80s” (Donatella Cinelli

Colombini).

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The Role of Women in the Sustainability of the Wine Industry: Two Case.

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181

The total wine production of the winery is sold abroad for the 60 %, while the

24 % in Italy and the 16 % at the cellar. All the vineyards are grown organically

even if not certiﬁed, and the farm beneﬁts from solar panels for producing about a

quarter of the total energy needs.

The entrepreneurial activity of Mrs. Donatella has also evident public facets, at

the national level in the life of the Movimento delle Donne del Vino and at the local

level being the President of the AOC Orcia Consortium, fostering the project

“Orcia, the most beautiful wine in the world.” This initiative aims at transforming

the million visitors of the area in the “Orcia wines” estimators and consumers.

In view of this goal, all the wineries will improve the linkages between land-

scaping and wine growing, building belvedere (beautiful panoramas), and hosting

trekkers. The communication plan will be made by setting advertising totems in the

car parkings, distributing a 100,000 of leaﬂets and 30,000 maps, and making a

pushing Internet and social media marketing.

When Mrs. Donatella assumed the executive direction of the Fattoria del Colle,

in 1998, within the village of Trequanda, there were no wineries, while today there

are ﬁve. The publishing of a cooking recipes book as well as other continual

initiatives of press ofﬁce and public relations made the place more known and

visible worldwide, inducing a tourist ﬂux, encouraging other people to make

investments and businesses.

In the area of Montalcino, the innovating action is less incisive than in that of the

Orcia Valley, because the willing to innovate is less strong, probably due to the

well-developed brand of the territory in comparison to the last one. Nevertheless,

the Benvenuto Brunello (Welcome Brunello) event, which takes place every year in

February, presenting to the press the new wines on the market since the beginning

of the new year, has been welcomed by everyone.

In concluding the narrative of Mrs. Donatella Cinelli Colombini, a peculiar

ﬁnding must be underscored about the idea of a “speciﬁc female organizational

form” of the enterprise, as perceived by her:

“The

‘female’

managing is little centralized and very ﬂexible. There is a very high

propensity to reconcile personal needs with the business. Every decision and initiative is

the result of a team effort and a collective

‘laboratory

of ideas.’ We invest in the training

and external partnerships that can bring innovation.”

4.2

Tenute Olbios, Interview to Mrs. Daniela Pinna

The Tenute Olbios (from the root of a Greek word meaning “felix, rich, and fertile

land”) is a young farm located in the municipality of Olbia, in the province of

Sassari, within the zone of Gallura, the very birthplace and sole productive area of

the CGDO Vermentino. The locality is named Venaﬁorita (due to the presence of

good water) in the countryside of Olbia, just in front of the northern coast of

Sardinia, yet being very close to the city of Sassari, in a particularly favorable

location.

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182

G. Benedetto and G.L. Corinto

The farm has 60 ha of vineyards, managed by Mrs. Daniela, who was laureate in

Agricultural Sciences at the University of Sassari. She self-provided a specializa-

tion in vine growing and wine processing, following a personal aptitude, and

choosing selected specialized courses and a speciﬁc ﬁnal dissertation, because the

university had not yet established an autonomous Degree in Food and Wine

technologies. Her speciﬁc goal was to manage the owned farm having competen-

cies in winemaking and marketing.

The mother ﬁgure was “for better or for worse,” very fundamental to the choices

of Mrs. Daniela. On the one hand, her mother has been always attached to the land

property, even when left alone, a widow with three children, always rejecting any

favorable buying offer for the farm. “In Sardinia hardly someone sells the land”

(Daniela Pinna).

On the other hand, the mother showed a strong opposition to the training of

Daniela in agriculture and winemaking, emphasizing all the difﬁculties she could

meet as a female entrepreneur.

In 2003, Mrs. Daniela became the farm manager and built together with her

husband the Tenute Olbios wineries, with very few funds. The business increased,

still slowly, as happens “when you have small monetary funds. This is the typical

case of many historical wineries, which have a slow evolution over time, not having

a sudden success, yet avoiding an equally sudden decline” (Daniela Pinna).

First, she bought secondhand machineries for pressing and refrigerating phases,

performing different tests of wine production mainly with the Vermentino di

Gallura grape, in order to have the ﬁrst production of wine. The company proﬁt is

always reinvested in the farm.

An old industrial stazzo (a traditional one-story rural building of Gallura),

already within the center of the farm and with high ceiling, has been refurbished

for the wine vats settlement.

The development project was quality and environmentally oriented and the

farming still follows the organic principles.

Mrs. Daniela retained all her mother’s employees, because they were the mem-

ory of the farm, and allowed her to know everything that has been made within the

rows of the vines, even if she perceived difﬁculties in their acceptance of innovative

techniques. She used proﬁtably her scientiﬁc training, albeit with prudence and

diplomacy, introducing gradually all technical innovation she decided.

In 2006, Daniela introduced the bottling plant and started production with a

single selection, the Vermentino di Sardegna DOC Lupus in Fabula, dedicated to

her mother.

In 2007, she started to produce red wine, after replanting over time 10 ha of

vineyards, choosing native red grapes and updating the winemaking techniques.

After doing tests for red and rose wines, the Nessuno (Nobody), a full-bodied wine

with a very intense ﬂavor, was born. The brand name was derived from the name of

Ulysses, as recent studies stated the Greek hero passed by the Northern Sardinia

during his journey.

In 2008, the fourth new selection, a pure Vermentino di Gallura sparkling wine,

has been produced by using the champenoise method. Its soft and velvety taste

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The Role of Women in the Sustainability of the Wine Industry: Two Case.

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183

reminded her of the silk texture, so Mrs. Daniela thought of the Sardinian Bisso (a

natural ﬁber produced by a Sardinian fan mussel) and chose that brand name for the

sparkling wine.

Just during her meetings with Chiara Vigo, the last master of the marine silk, the

Bisso, Mrs. Daniela has been hit by the discourse of Chiara that in Sardinia, women

have provided the preservation of the female arts, from food recipes to weaving and

much more.

Mrs. Daniela has always been very careful to recover the island traditions,

usually combining her wines with local typical products in the farm tasting room.

Moreover, she has involved many Sardinian artists in designing the wine bottle

labels.

Recently, she has introduced new services, such as the possibility to book a

dining at the farm, in collaboration with two Sardinian chefs she hosts in the farm

kitchens. Then she organized Cooking Classes for teaching bread and pasta making,

with the collaboration of a professional who was a University mate of her. The farm

participates in the Tourism of Wine Movement and has organized events such as

Cantine aperte (Open Cellars) and Cinema in cantina (Movies in the Cellars).

Another crucial element is the abatement of any architectural barriers to allow

disabled people to visit throughout the farm.

The Tenute di Olbios sells near all the production only through the HORECA

chain and frequently hosts sommeliers who visit the place of wine production, in

order to be able to make a speciﬁc storytelling to ﬁnal consumers. Mrs. Daniela, in

the role of executive sales manager, had implemented the commercial network with

agents, distributors, and importers in Italy and worldwide.

From 2010, Mrs. Daniela Pinna is the President of the CGDO Vermentino di

Gallura consortium. In this role, she has contributed to an important law innovation,

allowing the past prohibited use of alternative caps than corks and inducing even

the modiﬁcation of the Vermentino production disciplinary.

She has been the second Italian winemaker who used the glass stopper for wine

bottles, considering the exclusive capabilities in maintaining the wine safety during

oversea transportation and when the wine oxygenation is not necessary, and above

all the overuse of preservatives should be prevented.

The next innovation Mrs. Daniela is going to introduce is in wine pricing,

whether clients will undertake to turn back the bottles for recycling, in order to

improve the mission of sustainability the farm has undertaken since its establishment.

Telling about the female distinctive aptitudes, Mrs. Daniela Pinna declared some

clear perceptions. She asserted that women have without a doubt more reﬁned

sensibility and a manner able to introduce innovation softly and elegantly. More-

over women are very disposed to disabled persons, the diffusion of the sense of the

place, the involvement of staff also during not working activities (lunches after

harvest, participation in family celebrations), and concern for workers’ families.

Women have a greater resourcefulness and determination in making decisions. Her

idea of using glass stoppers has been opposed by male entrepreneurs, who were

saying, “We are in Sardinia, the homeland of cork,” but results have rewarded her

innovative idea.

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184

G. Benedetto and G.L. Corinto

5 Discussion

We have had the possibility of interviewing two female entrepreneurs active in two

very different Italian wine regions, Sardinia and Tuscany. Only Mrs. Cinelli

Colombini is the member of the Italian Women of Wine movement. They both

have inherited the property of real estates and vineyards through a female line, yet

in quite different farming and economic dimensions. Mrs. Donatella Cinelli

Colombini belongs to a very ancient family of century-old landowners, farmers,

and winemakers. Mrs. Daniela Pinna’s family is someway “younger” in farming,

and even her farm and winery are younger. The ﬁrst lady didn’t encounter the

opposition of the family to undertake the farming venture, while the second one has

had to deal with her mother’s opposition in becoming a farmer and an entrepreneur.

Nevertheless, in both cases, the start-up of the female enterprise is to be considered

as factually born within the family.

Even the socioeconomic local environments they must face are quite different.

They both live in wine regions, but Sardinia certainly suffers major limitations in

wine traditions than Tuscany, especially about the national and international repu-

tation of branded wines and

terroirs,

and even for the same whole image of the

region. Nevertheless, they both showed a strong personal orientation to farming and

marketing––and in particular to communications and public relations. Mrs.

Donatella Cinelli Colombini invented some collective national level events (Open

Cellars and Chalices of Stars), then followed by many of the Italian wineries over

time, besides the recovery of old vines in winemaking and the continuing attention

in improving the control of quality and the entire supply chain of any production,

including hospitality. Today, she heads an “all-female staff” in her wineries, being a

singular and atypical Italian case.

The Sardinian case study is particularly useful in reﬂecting the importance of the

human capital (a

Schultz) in the performances of the business. Thus, the acquired

formal training allowed the accumulation of skills which have been essential for the

adoption of technical innovations, including the decision to have a farm wine

processing, bottling, and distribution. This is in evident accordance with the

research of Barberis (2009) on the evidence of a mayor density of graduated

women in Sardinia than in the rest of Italian rural areas.

Mrs. Daniela Pinna even adopted some strong technical innovations such as the

use of glass stoppers, showing courageous capacity in a cork-producing region such

as Sardinia.

We can, thus, argue that their distinctive capacities in “leadership” and in

“making community” led both of them to the apical role of President in CGDO

wine consortiums.

We can link innovation capabilities surveyed in the case studies to sustainability.

The two female entrepreneurs did “sustainability” in different manners, even

though they both have adopted organic farming without requesting an ofﬁcial

certiﬁcation. The “sustainability” they try to achieve is their own farm’s long-

lasting future life, even by means of an evident communication program. In this

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The Role of Women in the Sustainability of the Wine Industry: Two Case.

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185

sense, we cannot state that female speciﬁcity does actually exist, being evident that

any competing ﬁrm must struggle against its own capital stock obsolescence

(including human skills) if it wants to continue to have proﬁts.

Moreover, a female-speciﬁc “resilience” against competition, and then for the

sustainability of the ﬁrm’s long-run life, should be better found in the “soft and

elegant” capacity to manage leadership, as stated in general and sectoral literature

and conﬁrmed by our informants. The two interviewed women clearly showed soft

and solid capacity in involving the internal farm staff and even in managing social

relations to improve the role of winemakers, not only women, in the policy of the

sector. They focused not only on improving winemaking techniques, or introducing

farm hospitality, but even on branding, labeling, wine naming and showing the

willingness to care about the necessity of laborers and families, as in the case of the

Tenute Olbios.

To be considered as having a broader validity, our ﬁndings should be compared

in a larger-scale survey, performing and comparing more than two case studies.

Nevertheless, the particular choice of the informants, which have different histories

but both having been able to reach leading roles in the realm of the Italian wine

industry, gives sense to our ﬁndings, especially for future deepening on the same

topic.

6 Conclusion

Our case studies do conﬁrm the modiﬁed role and mayor persistence of women than

men in the Italian wine industry. Even when starting from a weaker or “marginal”

position, in terms of capital endowment and initial minor technical skills, women

seems to be perfectly able to improve their training and to introduce innovations in

managing their farms in order to ensure a long-run perspective to their businesses.

We can say that, at least in the two reported cases, women show some distinctive

capabilities. These are retrievable in the capacity to perform leadership in soft and

elegant manners, preferring a “transformational” to a “transactional” leadership in

order to achieve a charismatic heading.

Both the cases are a testimony on the importance of formal and informal and

contextual training in increasing skills and competencies of female entrepreneurs,

as either the family or the university can be a source of entrepreneurial capacity

improvement.

The multitasking aptitudes of women have been conﬁrmed, as well as their

capacity in performing public relations with high-level goals, maintaining the

family cohesion as an important and not a secondary target.

Policymakers have not always shown a dedicated attention to the female capac-

ity to make business, and the agricultural sector is even the most effective example.

Our study can help policymakers in paying more attention to women’s capacity to

give a speciﬁc form of resilience to the entire sector of agriculture.

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186

G. Benedetto and G.L. Corinto

Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to Mrs. Donatella Cinelli Colombini and Mrs.

Daniela Pinna for their valuable contribution during the interviews, subtracting time to their

activities. Their ﬁeld experience has been not substitutable for our research aims, and helped us

in improving our knowledge on the research topic we wanted to investigate.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Part II

Natural Resource Systems and

Environment

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The Effects of Climate Change

on the Multifunctional Role of Basilicata’s

Forests: The Effects Induced on Yield

and CO

Absorption

Severino Romano, Luigi Fanelli, Mauro Viccaro, Francesco Di Napoli,

and Mario Cozzi

Abstract

The ﬁrst studies on the possible impact of climate change on European

forests and the development of adaptation and mitigation strategies began in the

1990s and resulted in the identiﬁcation of risk assessment models and forest

management tools. The prediction of climate change impacts on forests has been

based using

the evidence theory

Dempster-Shafer

(DS)’s

theory,

appropriately

spatialised. The implemented evidence lines refer to the concepts of vulnerability

and resilience. The results of the DS model, applied to the Basilicata region, were

utilised to assess the loss in biomass production capacity and CO

absorption ability

of different forest-derived biomasses. The loss in stumpage value and in the

estimated CO

absorption shows a reduction over time of forest system’s economic

value that is basically higher in 2050 than in 2100. The applied methodological

approach has shown that the high degree of spatial and information detail may be

helpful to produce good predictions to envisage environmental policy strategies for

the monitoring and mitigation of the damages caused by the climate change, with a

view to ensuring the ecosystems’ capacity to produce positive externalities, includ-

ing air carbon sequestration capacity.

1 Introduction

Following the last report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), the rise in greenhouse gases (GHGs) has increased over the last 10 years

more rapidly than over the three previous decades; projections actually indicate a

3.7–4.8

C rise in the average temperature by the end of the century, in the absence

of real mitigation strategies (IPCC

2014).

The main climatic parameters, including

S. Romano • L. Fanelli • M. Viccaro • F. Di Napoli • M. Cozzi (

)

School of Agricultural Sciences, Forestry, Food and Environment - SAFE, University of

Basilicata, viale dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_13

191

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192

S. Romano et al.

the increase in average temperature (Donat et al.

2013),

describe worrying scenar-

ios both for humans and for natural systems. The large-scale extreme events

(Hanley and Caballero

2012),

which have increased over the last few years, are

all undeniable signs of climate abnormalities.

The climate components, i.e. rainfall, temperature and winds, are the major

elements inﬂuencing animal and plant species, by regulating their distribution and

density in space and over time (Maron et al.

2014)

and by interfering, in general,

with the physiology and the behaviour, the life cycle, the geographical distribution

and the composition and interaction of complex systems. This also applies to forest

systems, where the effects are more substantial as compared to multifunctionality

levels (Nijnik and Miller

2013).

Woods are actually the major carbon absorption

sink and the principal means to contrast climate change (Fu et al.

2014).

Therefore,

it is essential to avail of appropriate tools to understand the effects on forests and

develop the adaptation and mitigation strategies required. Simulation models are

the main tool for investigating the climate. These mathematical models can predict

the climate pattern by simulating the main physical processes of the earth system

and testing their functioning based on the simulations of the past climate compared

against recent data. Simulations are run for the possible variations of input param-

eters that in turn depend on other variables (Nakicenovic et al.

2000).

However, the

quality and quantity of the interactions involved in the climate system vary a lot, so

that the results of simulation models are affected by inaccuracies and uncertainties.

This work has produced a dynamic and statistical local climate simulation model

based on the combination of

downscaling

techniques. These methods enable the

transfer of results to a more detailed scale (Giorgi and Lionello

2008;

Rojas

et al.

2013;

Jacobeit et al.

2014)

and, more speciﬁcally, to the territory of Basilicata

region, Italy. As a matter of fact, the Mediterranean region, which includes Basi-

licata, has long been identiﬁed, among the various world areas, as one of the major

climate change

hotspots,

i.e. one of the biogeographical regions most sensitive and

vulnerable to its effects. The implemented simulation model, projected to 2050 and

2100 based on the SRES A1B scenario of the IPCC (IPCC

2007),

has enabled the

assessment of the mean status and the possible climate variations on the local scale.

Based on the results obtained using the applied climatic model, the research was

directed to assessing the effects induced on forest ecosystems. The loss in forest

system multifunctionality attributable to the climate change has been extensively

¨¨

studied over the last few years (Seppala et al.

2009).

In this framework, the

evidence theory has been applied to forestry for assessing new adaptive manage-

ment forms (Ducey

2001;

Yousefpour et al.

2013),

integrated with the fuzzy

approach (Deng et al.

2011),

and for the economic quantiﬁcation of damages

(Bernetti et al.

2010;

Roberts

2008).

For the latter aspect, it is necessary to know

the physical impact of climate change and set an economic value to this impact.

This is difﬁcult to apply, since in many cases there is no monetary value for all

physical damages caused by climate change (Carraro et al.

2007).

Forests actually

produce different environmental externalities (CO

absorption, protection from

erosion, surface runoff control, tourism, biodiversity, etc.) that do not have a

market, so they cannot be monetarised. For this reason, starting from the vulnera-

bility and resilience notions, this work has estimated the economic damage

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resulting from the loss in biomass yield and the reduced CO

absorption by

Basilicata’s forests. The estimates have concerned three time frames, 2100, 2050

and 2012, as reference years.

2 Materials and Methods

Forests and natural systems, in particular, play an important role in rebalancing and

absorbing the effects caused by external disturbances, provided their resilience is

kept constant. Unluckily, the multifunctional essence of forests is not constant over

time, partly due to the climate change. The effects are visible in the variation of

growth and yield rates, the changes in the composition of existing species and

shift

in altitude and latitude, with the subsequent change in the biodiversity level and

absorption function.

The ability to predict events by using climate simulation models can be very

helpful to identify action strategies and management techniques aimed at improv-

ing the climate change adaptation capacity. The applied methodology, summarised

in Fig.

basically analyses the concepts of vulnerability and resilience of forest

stands, using DS theory.

Climate

Change

Risk

Hazzard

Resilience

Degree of Belief,

fuzzy measures and linguistic

quantifier

Aspect

Slope

Wood

vigour

Phytoclimatic

Zone

Aridity

Managed

Wood

Woodland

acces

Protected

forest areas

Sylvicoltural

system

Species

Richness

Aggragation

Belief

m (h)

Dempster-Shafer

Aggragation model

m (s)

Belief Hazzard

Belief Resilience

Uncertainty

Likelihood of

damage to forest

Bel (h) X Economic value of forest

Economic Value of

Forest

Map of the Stumpage

Value 2012

Regional CER Maps

2012

Economic Evaluation

of the Woods

Sum of the values of economic value

spatialized for each forest type

For-Est Model

Fig. 1

Model of environmental impact assessment

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194

S. Romano et al.

Vulnerability is deﬁned as “the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or

unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability

and extremes” (IPCC

1997),

although in the case of forestry, the main factors are

the ecological characteristics of species and the morphological traits of the area

(Bernetti et al.

2010).

Resilience instead has been meant as the capacity of the

systems to react to external environmental variations keeping the same structure

and the same basic functioning mode (IPCC

1997).

Applying the notion of resil-

ience to forests, this may be deﬁned as their capacity to cope with external

environmental variations, maintaining some ecological stability, both for the spe-

ciﬁc composition and the maintenance of the structure, depending on the growth

stage of forest (Bernetti et al.

2010).

The ﬁrst step of the work involved the

standardisation of the variables that contribute to the resilience and resistance of

forest areas, using the

Fuzzy Logic

(Zadeh

1987).

The variables used for the

deﬁnition of vulnerability and resilience (Fig.

have been previously standardised

and then grouped, using the DS theory, into three probability indicators:

Belief

of vulnerability [Bel(h)]

Belief

of resilience [Bel(s)]

3. Uncertainty (U;

h, s)

The DS theory makes it possible to strengthen knowledge by integrating differ-

ent kinds of information and distinguishing uncertainty, in order to understand any

possible risk associated with decision-making.

The assessment of indicators enabled the estimate of the loss in biomass and in

the subsequent stumpage value of Basilicata’s forests, by correlating the vulnera-

bility of forest stands with the loss in wood increment. The wood biomass reduction

was also assessed and expressed in terms of damage caused by the avoided CO

ﬁxation by 2050 and 2100, taking 2012 as reference.

2.1

The Concept of Plausibility According to Dempster-

Shafer’s Theory

Plausibility is a common concept in many situations, ranging from the scientiﬁc

world to everyday life; it also meets the need to manage and reduce uncertainty.

Plausibility can make explicit and formalise given models of appropriate behaviour

and reasoning via other conceptual models, such as, for example, the evidence

theory.

Coping with uncertainty being the principal objective of plausibility, the DS

theory is explicitly targeted at overcoming the limitations of Bayes’ conception: as

a matter of fact, believing in localization

does not imply necessarily believing in

its denial

to the extent of the remaining belief. The DS theory assumes the

theoretical possibility to make use of two distinct opposite values to express both

belief

and belief

Therefore, taking into account the DS notion of plausibility, we

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can state that, while the Bel(h) represents the degree of concrete evidence in support

of an assumption

the plausibility indicates the degree to which the conditions

seem to be adequate for this assumption, although an evidence line in support of it is

lacking or difﬁcult to attribute. Hence for any assumption, the Bel(h) is the lower

limit of our commitment, and the

plausibility

PLS(h) is the upper limit. The range

between the two is the degree of uncertainty to establish either the presence or

absence of this assumption.

The assessment of assumptions is based on three key concepts:

basic probability

assignment

(BPA),

belief

and

plausibility.

Through the BPA, the DS theory distin-

guishes clearly the notion of belief from that of plausibility, but it provides an

explicit representation in terms of probabilistic functions. The BPA is the contri-

bution of a factor (a

) to support a speciﬁc assumption (e.g. the resilience). In this

case, the assessment of the BPA [Eq. (1)] is based on the combination of the fuzzy

functions of environmental and socioeconomic variables, weighted via the

analyt-

ical hierarchy process

technique (AHP) (Saaty

1988;

Malczewski

2004):

BPA

Þ ¼

AHP

Þ*μ

ð1Þ

where

AHP

) is the assessment via AHP of the belief of the effect concerning

damages to forest stands in the hypothetical scenario of climate change with the

variable (a

) and

) is the assessment of the hypothetical environmental effects

of the

variable in the space

The aggregation for the assumption of vulnerability

and resilience to climate changes may be made for pairs of tests, based on their joint

probabilities (Shafer

1976).

All factors are progressively aggregated by pairs so as

to calculate the amount of vulnerable probable mass

m(h)

and the amount of

resilient mass

m(s).

Once the single BPAs are quantiﬁed, the DS technique ratiﬁes

the evidence combination procedure (Shafer

1976),

updating the belief in the light

of the new evidence thanks to the rule of the “orthogonal sum”:

Bel

Þ ¼

Bel

Þ ¼

Þ Á ð

ÞÞ

Þ Á

Þ Á ð

ÞÞ

Þ Á

ð2Þ

ð3Þ

The mix of sources results in a forecast that strengthens the belief (Shafer

1976)

Bel(h) [Eq. (2)] and Bel(s) [Eq. (3)], already expressed by

m(h)

and

m(s),

assuming

both sources are equally reliable.

The model aggregates the two evidences Bel(h) and Bel(s), which are in conﬂict

with each other, standardises their joint nonconﬂicting probabilities and determines

the uncertainty

intrinsic to the assessment.

U(h, s)

shows the point where the

analysis requires further investigations to clarify the uncertainty.

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S. Romano et al.

2.2

Estimating the Stumpage Value of Basilicata’s Forests

The

stumpage value

(SV) is the most likely transformation value of the forest stand.

The estimate of the stumpage value is theoretically related to the contributions

provided by Serpieri (1917), Cantiani (1957), Patrone (1947), Merlo (1991) and,

more recently, Bernetti and Romano (2007). It is the result of an estimate procedure

based on some theoretical-methodological assumptions speciﬁc to appraisal, and it

is targeted at the monetary estimate of the asset. For the determination of the SV, we

can focus on two economic appraisal aspects:

• The most likely market value

• The most likely transformation value

The former is determined by direct comparison with the market prices

recognised to forest stands that are similar to the one under question, in terms of

intrinsic and extrinsic properties (e.g. species, size, site-speciﬁc characteristics,

etc.), and results directly in the formulation of the value judgement. The latter is

based, instead, on an indirect comparison, because the judgement is obtained from

simple market data that do not pertain to the asset but to its formation process, so

that by subsequent analyses, they enable an estimate judgement. Regardless of the

economic appraisal, the applicable procedures may be categorised as:

•

Synthetic:

visual, comparative and by typical values

•

Econometric:

the estimate for unit values and by multivariate models

•

Analytical:

based on the drafting of partial or global business balances

The SV was determined by building the analytical balance of the logging process

of standing woody mass till its transformation in assortments. It is based on the

drafting of the partial balance, including the market value of production in the

assets and the amount of costs required for woody mass transformation till the

allocation of products at the landing in the liabilities. The determination of the SV

[Eq. (4)] is based on the building of the partial balance of the transformation cycle,

in which there are

revenues

(R) and

costs

(C):

ð4Þ

More speciﬁcally, the ﬁnancial ﬂows that are supposed to occur in the period from

the owner’s decision to utilise the stand to its conclusion with the inspection of the

work performed are all included.

The determination of the balance assets

[Eq. (5)] is derived from the

gross

marketable production

(GMP) and the

market price at landing

(MPL) for different

assortments. For assessing the assets of the stumpage value, bibliographic data

(INEA

2012)

have been integrated with the prices recorded at landing across the

regional area for various assortments. Formally there is:

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i¼1

197

¼ �½

GMP

MPL

PMI

ð5Þ

where

is the volume in m

, obtained directly (dendrometric data) and/or indi-

rectly (scaling tables), and

the types of assortment.

The liabilities of the balance have been obtained by distinguishing the costs

[Eq. (6)] of the

forest holding

(FH) from those of the logging company (LC—thus

splitting the transformation process into operational steps) and obtaining the total

transformation cost. For the assessment of balance liabilities, bibliographic data

(Cozzi et al.

2013)

have been integrated with data found out among the forest

holdings operating in the region:

i¼1

ð6Þ

where

are the total costs of the transformation cycle,

K_FH

the costs charged to

the forest holding,

K_LC

the costs charged to the logging company and

. . .,

4 the steps of the transformation cycle. The costs charged to the owner include all

the costs incurred since the decision to cut is taken till the conclusion of cut; they

include the costs concerning the administrative procedures (remuneration of forest

technicians).

The costs paid by the LC are instead mostly concentrated in the implementing

phase. They are traditionally grouped as direct costs (running costs), concerning the

remuneration of labour and of the other production factors directly used, and

indirect costs (overheads).

Direct costs depend on the organisation of the logging system, the type of

expected product, the site-speciﬁc characteristics, the distance from the landing/

loading area and the applied extraction technique (short wood system, length wood

system and full tree system). In general the items of direct costs are the cost of

labour and the running cost/rent of machines.

Overheads

include, instead, the costs for management and surveillance; they are

often implicit costs, calculated (in per cent) in relation to the other cost items.

Once the assets and liabilities of the balance are identiﬁed, a spatialised map of

the stumpage value may be obtained for 2012, chosen as reference year. After-

wards, based on forest stand vulnerability values, the SV has been projected to 2050

and 2100, and the loss in biomass income attributable to the climate change has

been economically quantiﬁed. The stumpage value for future scenarios [Eqs. (7)

and (8)] has been calculated in relation to the present stumpage value (SV

2012

appropriately weighted according to the degree of vulnerability, and assessed for

each land unit considered (pixel) using the following equations:

2050

2012

Á ð

Hazard

2050

ð7Þ

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198

S. Romano et al.

2100

2012

Á ð

Hazard

2100

ð8Þ

The SV

2012

has been calculated from the average increases deduced from the

scaling tables available for each forest type considered; the increment, which is,

in silvicultural terms, an expression of growth of a particular forest system,

represents, in economic terms, the increase in value of forest over time. In proba-

bilistic terms, in a scenario of local climate change and subsequent increase in the

degree of vulnerability of forests, increments would decline together with the

biomass with unfavourable consequences on CO

absorption.

2.3

The Economic Evaluation of the Sink Function

of Basilicata’s Forests

In Kyoto’s Protocol forest, ecosystems are given an important role in the ﬁght

against climate change, as they are able to absorb and store carbon and act as a sink

of CO

. However, the forest capacity to act as carbon sink is not unlimited: ageing,

tree death, natural disasters, etc. result in the release of the previously stored CO

Among the multiple variables that inﬂuence the forest systems’ capacity to absorb

carbon, climate variations are the major cause. As a matter of fact, the variations of

climate act on the biosphere and, in this speciﬁc case, on forest systems, both

directly and indirectly. Starting from the climate simulation model and the regional

forests’ vulnerability and resilience values, the variation in CO

absorption was

assessed at three time instants, i.e. 2012, 2050 and 2100, so as to point out the future

inﬂuence of climate changes on the

sink

function of regional forests.

Carbon absorption in different forest sinks was estimated by the Forest model

(Vitullo et al.

2007;

Federici et al.

2008)

taking into account the following compo-

nents (pool) identiﬁed by the Good Practice Guidance for land use, land-use change

and forestry (IPCC

2003):

•

Living biomass

including both epigeal and hypogeal parts

•

Dead organic matter

including the dead matter and litter

•

Soils

meant as soil organic matter

The forest model enables the quantiﬁcation of growth in the carbon stored in

forests and its subsequent year-to-year variation. CO

storage was estimated using

the regional forest map, drawn by the

National Institute of Agricultural Economics

(INEA), from the average increases deduced from scaling tables for different

species available for Basilicata region. At present the carbon credits generated by

the

land use, land-use change and forestry

(LULUCF) activities have not been

incorporated in the

European Union Emissions Trading System

(EU-ETS), which is

the largest cap-and-trade scheme (of carbon credits) in the world (Bonomi

et al.

2009;

Hamilton et al.

2011).

This exclusion means that

Removal Units

(RMUs) cannot be converted into European Union Allowance (EUA). Due to the

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199

impossibility of conversion, trading these credits is also inhibited. At the national

level, the situation is even more complex because the carbon stored by most Italian

forests (both public and private) has been converted by the National Register of

agroforest carbon sinks in the corresponding RMUs used by the national govern-

ment to comply with the obligation of reducing emissions, without providing any

remuneration to forest owners, thus conﬁning the sink function to a mere externality

of forestry production cycle (Alisciani et al.

2011).

The accounting of RMUs

prevents forest owners from accessing voluntary markets

as a result of double

accounting. At the national level, however, some initiatives, recognised by the

National Government, have been undertaken that enable the trading of credits

generated by forest activities.

Based on these initiatives, the

Certiﬁed Emission

Reductions

(CERs) produced by regional forests and the tradable share in a

hypothetical voluntary market have been calculated. The CERs at 2012 were

obtained using the following formula:

CO2

¼ �½ð

0:85*Im

Þ*ð

Þ À

0:5

ð9Þ

where Im

is the annual average increase for each forest type (m

/ha*year);

is the

reduction coefﬁcient that takes into account the occurrence of any disturbance

related to local-scale ﬁres (d

0.33);

is the annual allowable cut, assessed

according to the regional regulations and equal to 60 % of the Im for forest trees

and 90 % of Im for coppice; 0.5 is the dimensionless conversion factor used to

convert dry biomass into carbon (IPCC

2006);

and 44/12 is the stoichiometric ratio

to convert C into CO

. CO

absorption at 2050 and 2100 was calculated from the

values observed for 2012 deducting the ﬁre hazard and based on the possible effects

caused by the climate change:

CO2

¼ ð

0:85*Im

Þ*

Bel

0:5

ð10Þ

where

f,Bel(h)

includes both the risk associated with ﬁres and the estimated vulner-

ability for forest stands [Bel(h)].

For the economic estimate of the damage caused by the sink function of regional

forests, it has been necessary to analyse the ﬁnancial markets pertaining to the

trading of carbon credits. The diversity of projects, the size and geographical

location and the trading market result in wide price variability. The uncertainty

associated with the selling price of credits generated by regional forests could be

Voluntary markets are widespread in parallel to the regulated market for nonproﬁt enterprises,

associations, public administrations, etc., in order to reduce the GHG emissions of their activities.

Carbomark Project. Available at:

http://www.carbomark.org/

The reduction coefﬁcient

has been calculated considering the forest areas affected by ﬁres from

2008 to 2013 and the national Law n. 353 of 21 November 2000 “Legge quadro in materia di

incendi boschivi” (Framework law on forest ﬁres).

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S. Romano et al.

stabilised through the setting up of a regional voluntary market of carbon credits

that might fetch a higher price compared to the other trading platforms. This

economic mechanism could develop optimally in Basilicata region due to the

presence of both market actors. In particular the demand side could be represented

by the existing oil-drilling companies that could buy the credits generated by

regional forests and partly compensate for the impacts caused by the extraction of

fossil fuels. The supply side would be represented by public and private landowners

and holders of forest areas through forms of sustainable and certiﬁable manage-

ment. This would generate beneﬁts to both market actors: the beneﬁts for demand

would involve a greater social acceptance and the possibility of developing a real

green marketing strategy, whereas for the supply side, the beneﬁts could be

summarised in the increased income-producing activity of forest holdings, the

recovery of marginal lands and, last but not least, the improvement in territorial

and soil defence (Romano et al.

2013).

Based on the above, the selling price of

CERs was assumed equal to 45

€.

3 Results

The vulnerability maps (Bel(h), Figs.

and

show the projections obtained for all

the region’s forest areas. The statistical analysis has pointed out a low risk proba-

bility associated with the climate change, 0.09 at 2050 against 0.10 of 2100, with a

time interval between the ﬁrst and third quartile of 0.10 for 2050 and 0.11 for 2100.

Despite the low risk probability, some regional areas show vulnerability values

above 0.5.

In particular, the forest areas most susceptible to climate change effects are

located in the province of Matera, in an area where the increasing levels of aridity

Fig. 2

Vulnerability, resilience and uncertainty maps at 2050

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201

Fig. 3

Vulnerability, resilience and uncertainty maps at 2100

estimated for 2050 and 2100 are the limiting factors to forest vegetation growth.

Other susceptible areas are found in the north-west, north-east and south-west parts

of the regional territory. For the latter, the problems are mostly related to the poor

management of forest resources.

As to the species, higher probability risks will occur in Mediterranean pine-

woods, with average values of 0.20 and 0.22, respectively for 2050 and 2100. They

are followed by spruce groves (Pollino Mountain, spruce plantation of Laurenzana

and Ruoti), with an average probability of 0.12 at 2050 and 0.18 at 2100, and

chestnut groves with values ranged between 0.15 of 2050 and 0.16 of 2100. For all

other forest types, the average values are below 0.14 for both reference years. As for

the silvicultural system, probability values range between 0.12 at 2050 for coppice

of mesophilic-thermophilic broad-leaved trees and 0.22 for chestnut coppice at

2100. For high forest, instead, values ﬂuctuate between 0.08 for beech groves at

2050 and 0.23 for holm oak groves at 2100.

Depending on the degree of vulnerability observed for different forest-derived

types, the SV declines by 15.1 % and 17.6 %, respectively, for 2050 and 2100 as

referred to 2012. In economic terms, the loss in income and the subsequent damage

attributable to the climate change is about 6 million euros for 2050 and 7 million

euros for 2100 (Table

1).

As for the forest-derived types, the largest variations are

found for mesophilic and mesothermophilic oak groves, contrary to the plantations

and reforestations that show the lowest variations. The size of damages is of course

largely inﬂuenced by the extent of areas and the stumpage price of assortments.

The exclusion of forest owners from the carbon market induces to consider the

sink function of forest areas as an externality, rather than a forest product, tradable

on the market like wood. The problem associated with credit trading and the high

price volatility could be solved by the creation of a regional voluntary market. The

results regarding the function of CO

absorption by Basilicata’s forest resources

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202

Table 1

Stumpage value and economic damages

Surface SV

ha*1,000

108.71

53.64

15.14

1.35

1.39

2.21

19.38

5.70

207.52

2012

Total SV

€*1,000

30,736.24

8,210.13

2,588.15

1,520.94

1,491.13

269.09

2,239.66

632.34

47,687.67

2050

Total SV

€*1,000

26,346.68

7,544.85

2,200.49

1,406.43

1,310.58

230.17

1,799.35

574.68

41,413.22

2012–2050

€*1,000

4,389.57

665.28

387.66

114.51

180.54

38.92

440.32

57.66

6,274.45

2012–2050

€/ha

40.38

12.40

25.60

84.61

129.59

17.64

22.72

10.12

–

2100

Total SV

€*1,000

25,849.44

7,384.28

2,109.41

1,366.58

1,288.18

225.00

1,751.19

555.21

40,529.29

2012–2050

€*1,000

4,886.81

825.85

478.75

154.36

202.94

44.09

488.47

77.13

7,158.39

2012–2050

€/ha

44.95

15.40

31.62

114.05

145.66

19.99

25.21

13.54

–

Species

MTO (cop)

MTO (hf)

BF (cop)

BF (hf)

WP&REP

Total

MTO

mesophilic and thermophilic oak forests,

beech forests,

hygrophilous forests,

WP&REP

wood plantations and reforestations using exotic plants,

Mediterranean pine forests,

mountain pine forests,

cop

coppice,

high forest

S. Romano et al.

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Table 2

absorption for different examined scenarios

Absorption

2012

tonne*1,000

147.35

242.77

476.16

1,449.30

143.21

1,684.71

0.31

388.01

27.72

154.40

50.79

256.20

73.70

496.20

197.61

15.52

2.54

5,806.50

Absorption

2050

tonne*1,000

136.06

208.11

438.27

1,264.26

130.46

1,435.08

0.28

310.97

24.58

134.27

46.80

226.09

66.84

393.79

171.31

13.15

2.29

5,002.58

2050–2012

tonne*1,000

11.29

34.66

37.89

185.03

12.75

249.62

0.03

77.04

3.14

20.13

3.99

30.10

6.85

102.41

26.29

2.36

0.31

803.92

Absorption

2100

tonne*1,000

132.17

199.75

428.55

1,242.36

127.92

1,405.43

0.28

304.39

24.32

132.45

46.48

223.09

64.37

382.60

168.09

12.84

0.312

4,895.42

203

Species

BF (high

forest)

(coppice)

TO (high

forest)

(coppice)

MTO (high

forest)

MTO

(coppice)

CF (high

forest)

(coppice)

HO (high

forest)

(coppice)

MTD (high

forest)

MTD

(coppice)

Total

2100–2012

tonne*1,000

15.19

43.02

47.61

206.93

15.29

279.27

0.03

83.62

3.41

21.95

4.31

33.11

9.32

113.60

29.52

2.67

0.46

909.32

turkey oak, CF chestnut forests,

holm oak forests,

MTD

mesophilic and thermophilic

deciduous forests,

silver ﬁr forests

show a total absorption of about 5.8 million tons at 2012, 5 million for 2050 and 4.8

million at 2100 with a 16 % reduction compared to 2050 and 18.6 % decline in

relation to 2100 (Table

2).

In economic terms, this reduction results in a damage amounting to 3.6 and 4.1

million euros, respectively, for 2050 and 2100. In fact the trading of CERs in a

hypothetical regional market would produce a beneﬁt of 27.4 million at 2012, 23.7

million at 2050 and 23.2 million at 2100

(Table

3).

The values shown concerning the SV, the stock of C and CERs refer to the years 2012, 2050 and

2100 and do not represent stored values.

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204

S. Romano et al.

Table 3

CERs generated by the sink activity of regional forests and related variations

CERs

2012

€*1,000

1,510.52

622.16

4,881.09

3,714.19

1,468.06

4,317.48

3.22

994.38

284.20

395.69

520.68

656.57

755.43

5,086.54

2,025.68

159.07

26.05

27,421.02

CERs

2050

€*1,000

1,394.80

533.33

4,492.72

3,239.99

1,337.33

3,677.76

2.85

796.94

252.02

344.10

479.74

579.41

685.21

4,036.74

1,756.13

134.83

22.85

23,766.77

CERs

2100

€*1,000

1,354.85

511.92

4,393.07

3,183.86

1,311.34

3,601.78

2.83

780.07

249.29

339.44

476.47

571.72

659.88

3,922.06

1,723.90

131.65

21.33

23,234.65

CERs

2012–2050

€*1,000

115.72

88.83

388.37

474.20

130.74

639.72

0.36

197.44

32.18

51.59

40.94

77.15

70.23

1,049.80

269.55

24.23

3.21

3,654.25

CERs

2012–2100

€*1,000

155.67

110.24

488.02

530.32

156.72

715.70

0.39

214.31

34.92

56.24

44.21

84.85

95.55

1,164.48

302.59

27.42

4.72

4,186.37

Species

BF (high

forest)

BF (coppice)

TO (high

forest)

TO (coppice)

MTO (high

forest)

MTO (coppice)

CF (high

forest)

CF (coppice)

HO (high

forest)

HO (coppice)

MTD (high

forest)

MTD (coppice)

Total

4 Conclusions

The high degree of variability and uncertainty of climate changes has induced the

European Union, through the 2009 White Paper, to ask the member states to

develop mitigation and adaptation strategies, with special reference to forestry

and agriculture. In particular, for forestry, mitigation strategies should take into

account appropriate adaptation measures to reduce the vulnerability of forest

ecosystems in relation to the climate change, while emphasising the role of forests

in local economies. The methodology applied in this work has shown that a high

degree of spatial and information detail can actually be a good starting point for

future environmental policies on the monitoring and mitigation of damages caused

by climate change. In fact, the use of methodologies associated with the use of

fuzzy approach of the evidence theory are effective tools for data integration,

forecasts and assessment of the impacts caused by climate change. The applied

approach provides a forecast of forest vulnerability, as well as the economic

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The Effects of Climate Change on the Multifunctional Role of.

. .

205

quantiﬁcation of the impacts induced by a decline in productivity and, as a

consequence, in the sink function.

It results that the mountain and sub-mountain areas of the region show the

highest vulnerability values, in particular for the species deﬁnitely mesophilic,

especially coppiced chestnut groves, mesophilic and thermophilic oak forests and

Turkey oak plantations. Higher vulnerability has also been found in monospeciﬁc

Mediterranean pine forests along the Ionian coastal areas. Lower vulnerability

levels are found for the formations falling within the protected areas and reforested

pinewoods. The greater vulnerability observed for some forest formations leads to a

reduction of the forest economic value. In fact, the analysis on stumpage value and

carbon absorption shows an overall damage—attributable to the climate change—

equal to 9,928,705.94

€

for 2050 and 11,344,760.80

€

for 2100 as compared

to 2012.

To prevent, reduce and/or contrast the problems affecting forest resources, a

preventive approach would be recommended involving an active human action,

aimed at enhancing and strengthening the adaptation capacity of environmental

systems and minimising the adverse effects. For low-resilience populations, spe-

ciﬁc silvicultural actions could be envisaged that might contribute to improve the

ecological-functional levels of forests. To this end, it would be advisable to apply

treatments aimed at increasing interspeciﬁc diversiﬁcation, increase appropriately

the amounts of biomass by extending the turnover and favour the conversion of

monospeciﬁc non-native species into native species in the typical systems of local

vegetation forms.

The major limitation encountered is associated with the components of the

economic value that is looked for. Actually it is largely known that the forest,

meant as mixed asset, accomplishes other tasks that are not directly measurable

within the market. In this framework, it is hoped that the research will be extended

to explore the values associated with further services provided by forest areas, with

a view to identifying the overall impacts and proposing new planning tools.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Wildlife Agriculture Interactions, Spatial

Analysis and Trade-Off Between

Environmental Sustainability and Risk

of Economic Damage

Mario Cozzi, Severino Romano, Mauro Viccaro, Carmelina Prete,

and Giovanni Persiani

Abstract

Over the last few years, wildlife damages to the agricultural sector have

shown an increasing trend at the global scale. Fragile rural areas are more likely to

suffer because marginal lands, which have little potential for proﬁt, are being

increasingly abandoned. Moreover, public administrations have difﬁculties to

meet the growing requests for crop damage compensations. There is therefore a

need to identify appropriate measures to control this growing trend. The speciﬁc

aim of this research is to understand this phenomenon and deﬁne speciﬁc and

effective action tools. In particular, the proposed research involves different steps

that start from the historic analysis of damages and result in the mapping of risk

levels using different tests (ANOVA, PCA and spatial correlation) and spatial

models (MCE-OWA). The subsequent possibility to cluster risk results ensures

greater effectiveness of public actions. The results obtained and the statistical

consistency of applied parameters ensure the strength of the analysis and of cost-

effectiveness parameters.

1 Introduction

Dealing with problems related to the damages caused by wildlife to the agricultural

sector involves environmental and socioeconomic sustainability issues associated

with the management of natural resources.

If, on one hand, farmers are suffering due to the damages caused to crops, on the

other, hunters push towards the growth of wild fauna populations for having greater

hunting opportunities. This has led to conﬂicting interests in many European

(Wenum et al.

2003;

Calenge et al.

2004;

Geisser and Reyer

2004;

Herrero

M. Cozzi (

) • S. Romano • M. Viccaro • C. Prete • G. Persiani

School of Agricultural Sciences, Forestry, Food and Environment - SAFE, viale dell’Ateneo

Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_14

209

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210

M. Cozzi et al.

et al.

2008;

Thurfjell et al.

2009)

and Italian areas (Brangi and Meriggi

2003;

Amici

et al.

2012;

Serrani

2012).

Under the current agricultural-forestry conditions, the pressure exerted on agri-

cultural crops by wild animal populations, in particular ungulates, is a major

problem for the development of rural policies, as it creates a conﬂict between

wild animals and farmers, resulting in growing costs for public administration to

compensate for damages.

From an economic point of view, the damages caused to crops, especially by

ungulates, are dramatically and seriously growing. Unluckily, the national bibliog-

raphy does not report recent data of this phenomenon. The unique national data date

back to 2004 when, according to the estimates provided by the Ungulate National

Database (Carnevali et al.

2009),

the total indemniﬁed compensations amounted to

about 8.9 %

for damages caused by ungulates. When analysing the impact of each

single species, it results that, at the national level, 90 % of damages are attributable

to the wild boar (Sus

scrofa

L.).

In Basilicata region, the observed trends in relation to the economic size of

damages conﬁrm the above data. As a matter of fact, in the 6-year period from 2007

to 2012, the damaged area doubled, shifting from about 2,800 to 5,850 ha; as a

result of this increase, the estimated compensations have more than doubled,

shifting from over 550,000

€

till 1,134 M€. The same proportion does not unluckily

apply to the compensations actually paid to private citizens that shifted from 64.7 to

39.5 % of estimated compensations. At the regional level as well, there is a high

incidence of wild boar that is the major damaging species, with 98 % of damages

caused to crops.

The conﬂict of interest associated with the presence of the wild boar on land,

together with some objective technical difﬁculties (related to the quantitative

estimate of populations), makes the management of this species particularly criti-

cal. Special attention is to be attached to the areas in which the use of land for

agriculture or animal production is particularly important, with a great impact on

crops.

As for the possible actions to undertake in order to control the expansion of wild

animal populations, the literature conﬁrms that hunting is not actually a solution. In

fact, it has been found that the populations subject to strong hunting pressure

increase their proliﬁcacy (Herrero et al.

2008;

Servanty et al.

2009)

by bringing

forward the sexual maturity of females and by increasing to two deliveries per year.

Some authors (Massei and Toso

1993;

Boitani et al.

1995)

state that wild boar is a

very adaptable species following the “r-selection” strategy (many offspring and

relatively low parental care). Due to this kind of reproduction, the expansion of

European wild boar populations cannot be controlled using the traditional hunting

methods.

This amount accounts for 85.56 % of the ascertained damage. It results that the overall amount

ascertained for damages caused by ungulates in 2004 would not be less than about 10.3 %.

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Wildlife Agriculture Interactions, Spatial Analysis and Trade-Off Between.

. .

211

This is true for traditional hunting but not for the selective culling of the species.

In fact, population control strategies can involve both selective hunting techniques

(shooting from ﬁxed positions, using dog teams that chase wild boars towards

hunters (cerca technique), or the so-called girata, where a single bloodhound is

used as “ﬁnder”) applied by appropriately trained operators and “in vivo” catches,

through self-opening fences (closed fencing), where animals are attracted by a feed

bait. Closed fences are highly selective within the social groups of the population

and are used to catch mostly the population of red, striped and adult females (in a

decreasing order), whereas males are caught much less frequently. The selective

action of traps is matching with the objective of the control, since immature and

female boars are the target social groups to control the population dynamics (Toso

and Pedrotti

2001).

Positive effects in the reduction of damage to agriculture have also been

obtained by permanent and mobile electric fences. For the latter type, different

analyses carried out in France by the ONC (Ofﬁce

National de la Chasse,

National

Hunting Service) in the 1977–1980 period have shown the technical and economic

effectiveness of this practice as an active protection of crops from wild boar-caused

damages, provided that some rules for installation and monitoring are

complied with.

Electric fencing may be basically installed by two operational procedures: (a) as

a speciﬁc protection along the boundary of the individual holding and (b) as a linear

protection in boundary areas between large woodlands and typical farmlands, for

separating cultivated from natural lands. If the ﬁrst type might be a good solution

for private landowners, the second could be particularly suitable for public admin-

istrations with an eye to long-term planning.

Among the methods reported in the literature, chemical and noise disturbances

have shown signiﬁcant failure, and this is due to the fact that the species adapts

rapidly to these disturbances. The research is designed to (a) set up a historical

geo-referenced database of the damages caused by wild animals in the area under

study and (b) identify the areas at high risk of damage, on which to focus the

attention and the appropriate actions.

2 Methodology

2.1

ANOVA Test

The analysis has been conducted starting from the inventory of damages recorded at

the regional level in the period from 2007 to 2012. To check on the size of damages

caused by ungulates, the ANOVA (analysis

of variance)

test was applied to the

variable “total estimated compensation”, taking the annualised costs of damage as

source of variation.

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a set of statistical techniques, related to

inferential statistics, used to analyse the differences between two or more groups of

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212

M. Cozzi et al.

data by comparing the variability within and among the groups. The ANOVA test

provides a

ﬁnal balance

(C), given by the ratio of the sum of squares of intergroup

means to the sum of squares of intragroup means, compared with the resulting value

of Fisher’s

with

pÀ1, ntÀp

degrees of freedom, among the different annuities

being compared.

In this study the one-way ANOVA test has been used to assess the differences

between the amounts of compensations in the 6 years under study, both at the

regional level and by reference area.

The test is used to test whether the differences between the means of compen-

sations from 2007 to 2012 are signiﬁcant. In other words, the test enables to

understand whether the dynamics connected with the damages caused by wildlife

are due to unpredictable extraordinary events or to an existing trend.

Moreover, if conducted for different local areas, the ANOVA test enables the

differentiation based on randomness and/or trends. This speciﬁc step has entailed

the choice of the target area.

2.2

Study Area

The area relating the

Parco Nazionale del Pollino

is shared by three provinces and

two regions, Potenza and Matera in Basilicata and Cosenza in Calabria. The total

area covers nearly 193,000 ha, of which 88,650 in the Basilicata hillside.

Basilicata’s 24 municipalities fall within the boundaries of the

Parco’s

territory.

The peculiarity that makes this protected area a unique environment is the sudden

change from the coast to the mountain that creates a very rapid sequence of

environments generating as many habitats and environments suitable for number

of animal and plant species.

The Basilicata’s portion includes the Sinni basin and encompasses large forests,

pastures and farmland areas.

Settlement areas are closely related to farming activities that identify a landscape

featured by rural areas and scattered or grouped houses forming small nuclei, with a

mean population density of 40 inhab./km

(ISTAT

2010).

The areas destined for

primary production have been progressively abandoned: through the last 30 years,

over one third of farmland (37 %) has not been cultivated any longer, and this

surface has further reduced by 13 % over the last decade only. Cultivated crops

include mostly cereals, followed, to a much lower extent, by forage, vegetables,

grapevine and fruit trees. Most crops are not highly remunerative, although there is

a high agricultural biodiversity, made of traditional native species and varieties,

among which annuals and vineyard are at high risk.

This diversiﬁcation of environments forming real mosaics of structural and

morphological components of the landscape combined with the protection levels

ensured “ope legis” to the animal and plant species living in the protected area and

creates a strong concentration of some wild animal species, thus generating severe

damages to the existing agricultural systems.

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Wildlife Agriculture Interactions, Spatial Analysis and Trade-Off Between.

. .

213

2.3

Analysis of Damages

In the

Parco Nazionale del Pollino,

about 700 compensation requests for damages

were submitted from 2007 to 2012. Ninety-nine percent of them were caused by

wild boars. The economic incidence is signiﬁcant with mean values of about

600,000

€

every year.

The requests written by the landowners concerned were computerised in an

electronic spreadsheet. Collected information concerned the cadastral location, the

damaged area and crop, the year, the percentage of damage, the market price of the

agricultural product and the estimated and indemniﬁed compensations. Overall the

database consists of 8,600 requests, each describing 19 variables. For entering the

data drawn from requests in a Territorial Information System, the database was

further broken down so that each record corresponded to a land parcel. Twenty-four

thousand records were thus obtained. A part of them (2,720

records)

were lost when

they were transferred into the GIS that enabled the geographical location of the

damage, once crossed with the regional cadastral database.

2.4

Parametrisation of Damages

Some studies conducted in Europe have shown a correlation between the size of

damages in single geographical areas and the density of wildlife population

(Keuling et al.

2008;

Apollonio et al.

2010);

however, this does not always follow

proportionality criteria (Bleier et al.

2012).

Based on that, the assumption is directed towards checking whether also in the

Italian areas there is a correlation between the size of damages (intensity, perpetuity

and related costs) and the physical and/or structural parameters speciﬁc to the

reference area (Romano and Cozzi

2008).

Table

shows the applied parameters.

The selected parameters result from a more general evaluation, which has been

validated via the statistical correlation with respect to the spatial distribution of

damages.

2.4.1

Principal Component Analysis

To understand the dependence between the identiﬁed variables, the multivariate

statistical analysis was applied using the PCA (Principal Component Analysis)

(Sanguansat

2012;

Bleier et al.

2012).

The PCA transforms data from a multidimensional space to a smaller space. The

PCA per se does not reduce the size of the set of data. It rotates only the axes of data

The trend is deﬁnitely rising. The requests increased from nearly 600 in 2007 till about 900 in

2009 and the estimated compensations from 458 to 829,000

€

from 2007 to 2011.

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214

Table 1

Parameters applied for damage evaluation

Physical parameters

Distance from the main road

Distance from the hydrographic network

Distance from wooded areas

Distance from continuous urban fabric

Distance from urban discontinuous

Type agrarian soil

Structural parameters

M. Cozzi et al.

Contrast-weighted edge density (CWED)

Contagion index (CONTAG)

Percentage of like adjacencies (PLADJ)

Aggregation index (AI)

Simpson diversity index (SIDI)

in the space along lines of maximum variance. The axis of the greater variance is

said the ﬁrst principal component. Another axis orthogonal to the previous and

positioned to represent the subsequent greater variance is called the second princi-

pal component and so forth. The reduction in size is performed only using the ﬁrst

principal components as basic set for the new space, usually the components that

provide an explained cumulative variance between 70 and 90 %. Therefore, this

subspace tends to be small and may be eliminated with a minimum loss of

information. If the problem is well set, the ﬁrst two to three eigenvalues will be

able to explain about 70 % of the data variance. Input data representing different

units and/or orders of magnitude should be previously standardised.

In particular, the T-mode PCA has been applied in our study. This means that

each input image may be considered as a variable and what we obtain as result is not

only the images of the principal components, but also the components of eigen-

values and the synthesis of eigenvectors (the list of eigenvectors associated to each

eigenvalue in a column) and the percentage of explained variance.

The output is the matrix of correlation between variables, a square matrix in

which the rows are the variables and columns stand for the eigenvectors of the

correlation matrix. If multiplying these squared values by the associated eigenvec-

tors, you have the matrix of

loadings

([L]):

⋮

ð1Þ

where the actual coordinates of descriptors are represented on the new axes formed

by the principal components identiﬁed. The value of the eigenvector (in absolute

terms) indicates the weight of each variable, i.e., the importance of each original

variable in that speciﬁc eigenvector, based on which it is possible to choose the

variables to reject.

2.5

Aggregation of Criteria

The analysis of wildlife damage hazard has been conducted by the joint use of MCE

techniques and Geographical Information System (GIS). The integration of MCE

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Wildlife Agriculture Interactions, Spatial Analysis and Trade-Off Between.

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215

techniques-GIS may be useful to solve conﬂicting situations in spatial contexts

(Janssen and Rietveld

1990;

Malczewski

2004)

and constitutes an effective

approach in the analysis of land use suitability/risk (hazard) (Yager

1988;

Carver

1991;

Eastman

1997;

Malczewski

2004;

Thill

1999;

Romano and Cozzi

2006;

Romano et al.

2013;

Cozzi et al.

2014).

This integration may be conceived as a

process that combines and transforms spatial and nonspatial data (input) into a

decision (output), deﬁning a relation between input maps and the output map

obtained from geographical data and decision preferences, handled according to

speciﬁed decision rules (Malczewski

2004).

Among the MCE techniques, the ordered weighted averaging (OWA) was

applied in this work with relative linguistic quantiﬁers (as proposed in Romano

et al.

2013).

There are three principal components in GIS-OWA procedures: (1) criterion

maps (and standardisation procedures associated to them), (2) criterion weights

(and the associated procedures to deﬁne the weights of relative importance between

criteria) and (3) order weights (and the procedures associated to the identiﬁcation of

OWA parameters) (Romano et al.

2013;

Cozzi et al.

2014;

Malczewski and Liu

2014).

In this study, the choice of linguistic quantiﬁers for the deﬁnition of OWA

parameters depends on whether they can best represent the decision maker’s

qualitative information with respect to his/her perception of the relationship

between different assessment criteria. Thus, choosing the appropriate linguistic

quantiﬁers and deﬁning an adequate system of weights result in a wide range of

risk maps (Table

2).

3 Results

The ANOVA test provides a

Final Balance

[5;5344]

3.02;

0.05 between the different annuities being compared. There-

fore, there is a highly signiﬁcant difference between the group means, i.e., between

the total estimated compensations produced by wild boars in the period from 2007

to 2012 on the regional scale.

Table 2

Linguistic

quantiﬁers

Quantiﬁers (Q)

All

Almost all

Most

Half

A few

At least a few

At least one

0.5

0.1

Calculating weights order

jÀ1

k¼1

is the weight order,

is the weight criterion ordered and

the parameter related to the linguistic quantiﬁer

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216

Table 3

ANOVA test results

Land areas

ATC 1

ATC 2

ATC 3

Gallipoli Cognato Piccole Dolomiti Lucane Park

Province of Matera

Oases

Murgia Materana Park

Pollino National Park

Appennino Lucano Val d’Agri-Lagonegrese National Park

General

ﬁnal balance

Fisher

M. Cozzi et al.

2.84

[5;149]

2.27

2.04

[5;334]

2.24

1.48

[5;566]

2.23

1.45

[5;246]

2.25

3.14

[5;1060]

3.03

1.27

[5;8]

3.69

0.33

[5;33]

2.50

13.24

[5;2661]

2.22

5.01

[5;79]

2.33

6.60

[5;5344]

2.22

The results of the one-way ANOVA test applied to land areas (ATC, oases, parks

and provinces) show highly signiﬁcant differences between different annuities for

the

Pollino National Park

and the

Appennino Lucano Val d’Agri Lagonegrese

National Park that fall within no-hunting zones (Table

3).

This information led

the authors to focus on the Pollino National Park.

Results show that the trends of damages in Basilicata are uprising, on average, as

shown in this case by the economic size of this phenomenon.

Within the Pollino National Park, out of a total damaged area of about 7,500 ha,

the estimated compensation was 2.2 M€ over the 6 years. This accounted for 43 %

of the regional estimated compensation, of which about 1.5 million (68 % of the

ascertained damage) has been paid. Cereals are the most common crops, in terms of

cropped area, and are the most affected ones, followed, to a lower extent, by protein

crops, vegetables, grapevine and olive, in addition to some limited cases of woody

crops. Another interesting element concerns the damage frequency on the same

plot. In fact, it has been noted that a particle out of three is involved more than once

by the damage over the 6 years considered. This induces the authors to consider that

there is a systematic approach, a species custom to return to the same plot. This is

maybe due to the fact that the plot shows cropping and localisation conditions that

are favourable to the damage.

This originates the assumption that it is possible to trace back the setting up of an

appropriate logical model, aimed at identifying the areas with a greater propensity

to the damage.

To this end, 15 explanatory parameters have been identiﬁed, including 6 physical

and 9 structural parameters, on which a correlation has been made with respect to

the damages occurred. It results that only 11 are appropriately correlated, as shown

in Table

The correlation equations reported in Table

have been utilised to standardise

the variables.

The assessment of the dependence/overlapping between the variables performed

by the PCA has shown that 78 % of cumulative variance is obtained in the ﬁrst

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Table 4

Physical and structural parameters correlated to the damage

No.

Parameters

Distance from the main

road

Distance from the main

channel

Description

The presence of infrastructures reﬂects a greater presence

of cultivated ﬁelds for accessibility

Flow channels offer a path to the wild boar from the

wooded areas to cultivated lands and are a water source

for drinking and splashing (Cai et al.

2008;

Amici

et al.

2012)

The wild boar uses more frequently the ﬁrst 50–100 m

from the boundary of the wood (Wilson

2004;

Calenge

et al.

2004;

Thurfjell et al.

2009)

The discontinuous urbanised fabrics are represented by

rural houses located close to agricultural soils

The continuous urbanised fabrics reﬂect the siting of

agricultural soils

Three risk classes have been determined based on the

codes of the CLC (Corine Land Cover)

Class 1: 222, 241, 243

Class 2: 231

Class 3: 211, 242

The index assesses the weighted edge density (m/Ha). It

quantiﬁes the edge effect from a functional point of view

It expresses the concept of dispersion and interspersion

and is based on the probability of ﬁnding a pixel of type I

next to a pixel of type J (Li and Reynold

1993)

This is a metrics calculated from the matrix of pixel

adjacencies and equals the sum of the matrix diagonal

elements, namely, the adjacencies per class, divided by

the total number of adjacencies

AI is the ratio of the number of adjacencies observed to

the maximum number of possible adjacencies (in percent)

It expresses a uniform distribution so that the area of

different types of patch achieves the maximum uniformity

Correlation function

¼ À5:96E À

10x

2:56E

06x

3:54E

03x

1:58

0:991

¼ À0:0013x þ

1:0949

0:996

Wildlife Agriculture Interactions, Spatial Analysis and Trade-Off Between.

. .

Distance from wooded

areas

Distance from the dis-

continuous urban fabrics

Distance from the con-

tinuous urban fabrics

Cropping classes of

agricultural soil use

06x

0:0037x

1:5052

0:832

08x

0:0005

1:4216

0:999

09x

0:0001x

1:2929

0:958

0:3858x

1:0811x

0:7707

1:000

Contrast-weighted edge

density (CWED)

Contagion index

(CONTAG)

Percentage of like adja-

cencies (PLADJ)

05x

0:0014x

0:8271

0:811

0:0003x

0:0445

1:6083

0:988

¼ À0:0005x

0:0672x

1:6884

0:790

Aggregation index (AI)

Simpson evenness index

(SIEI)

0:0002x

0:0099x

0:0417

0:958

3:0367x

2:7021x

0:6151

0:937

217

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218

M. Cozzi et al.

component and up to 87 % may be achieved if considering the second component.

The values obtained show that the variables used are not correlated to each other

and, therefore, basically applicable as criteria for the multicriteria analysis. In

particular, based on the ﬁrst two components, the matrix of

loadings

has been

calculated, and a single evaluation criterion has been eliminated (crop

classes of

agricultural land use).

The next step was to attribute to the ten remaining criteria the weights of relative

importance via the Analytical Hierarchy Process, AHP (Saaty

1977, 1980;

Malczewski

2004).

More speciﬁcally, in the attribution of weights to different

criteria, it was considered to take into account the

derived from standardisation

functions: the greater correlation of the criterion to the damage hazard is given a

greater weight and vice versa. It is obvious that since all criteria have not a high

1) so that the aggregation model gives back a reliable result, it is advisable

that all or most criteria are satisﬁed. Based on that, the linguistic quantiﬁers

All,

Almost all

and

Most

have been chosen for calculating order weights and

implementing the OWA aggregation model (Fig.

1).

When comparing the risk

maps obtained by the actual damage data, it is expected that high-risk values

(close to 1) are obtained: based on this consideration, the map connected with the

Most

quantiﬁer has been chosen as the ﬁnal one, since 75 % of higher hazard values

correspond to actual damages.

Reclassifying this map using Chen’s method (Chen and Hwang

1992)

(Fig.

2),

areas may be grouped as areas at no hazard (0–0.25), low hazard (0.25–0.56),

medium hazard (0.56–0.92) and high hazard (>0.92).

It is important to restate that the area under analysis is only the portion of the

parkland sited in Basilicata, but the analysis carried out is intended to be a general

predictive model of the damage hazard.

Based on the guidelines for wild boar management in protected areas, set out by

the INFS (National Institute for Wildlife) for the Ministry of the Environment and

Protection of Land and Sea, the envisaged wild boar management might be

Fig. 1

MCE-OWA maps and

Box Plot

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Wildlife Agriculture Interactions, Spatial Analysis and Trade-Off Between.

. .

219

Fig. 2

Hazard risk reclassiﬁed

implemented by diversiﬁed actions, and methods somehow integrated with each

other.

Therefore, based on the hazard map and considering only the high-risk class,

seven larger areas were identiﬁed (Fig.

and tested for approximate damages

against the costs required to develop an appropriate preventive system to hamper

the transit of wild animals, for which, as previously mentioned, the most reliable

system is represented by artiﬁcial separators, such as fences or electric obstacles.

From the hazard map, the area and perimeter of these systems were extrapolated,

and their semi-perimeters were taken into account, since the area does not require to

be wholly enclosed. The costs have been obtained on the basis of wholesome (and

for large amounts) estimates requested to national tradesmen. The resulting values

are ranged between 500 and 1,500

€/km.

This size has been conﬁrmed by the recent

tests carried out within the 2007–2013

Emilia Romagna Rural Development Plan

that indicates values ﬂuctuating between 765 and 890

€/km,

depending on whether

it is connected or not to the power network.

It results that the total costs, calculated from the seven higher risk areas, where

the total surface covers 155 ha and the semi-perimeter 28 km, range from 21,615 to

24,618

€.

To these values it is necessary to add the cost for the installation and

www.agenter.it/pdf/fuorilafauna.pdf

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220

M. Cozzi et al.

Fig. 3

Cluster areas

maintenance of fences (brush cutting, periodical restoration, repair of any breaks)

that would certainly involve higher costs, if fully outsourced. For comparative

purposes, the equivalent cost incurred by the public administration for compensa-

tion was calculated and resulted to be 32,500

€

on average for about 155 ha,

concerning the surface of considered clusters.

Moreover, for the numerical control of wild boars, a comprehensive action plan

involves a species-selective culling scheme; from the hazard map it is possible to

plan the distribution of selective hunters across the area

based on the high-risk

zones proportioned to municipal areas, so as to optimise the actions and resources

made available by the public administration (Table

and Fig.

4).

4 Conclusions

Based on the historical data of wildlife damages to crops, it results that the

occurrence of this phenomenon is generally raising. The damaged area between

2007 and 2012 has more than doubled, shifting from about 2,800 to 5,850 ha.

The number of selective hunters has been drawn from the “Regulation for wild boar control” N

30 of 29/04/2011 that involves the recruitment of 370 selective hunters across the whole area of

Pollino National Park.

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Wildlife Agriculture Interactions, Spatial Analysis and Trade-Off Between.

. .

Table 5

Distribution of selective hunters across the region

Municipality

Calvera

Carbone

Castelluccio Inferiore

Castelluccio Superiore

Castelsaraceno

Castronuovo di Sant’Andrea

Cersosimo

Chiaromonte

Episcopia

Fardella

Francavilla in Sinni

Latronico

Total

Municipality

Lauria

Noepoli

Rotonda

San Costantino Albanese

San Paolo Albanese

San Severino Lucano

Senise

Teana

Terranova di Pollino

Viggianello

San Giorgio Lucano

Valsinni

221

152

Numbers of hunters

Fig. 4

Distribution of selective hunters by municipality

Besides a growing discontent among farmers, compensation costs have generally

increased for public administrations that, in the case of Basilicata region, amounted

to 1,134 M€ in 2012.

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222

M. Cozzi et al.

It is urgent to take actions to prevent and even control this phenomenon. This can

be done on the basis of a careful analysis of the context area and of the prevailing

trends. In this framework it may be useful to apply spatialised analysis models,

aimed at facilitating land planning and governance choices, so as to optimise the

existing planned actions to mitigate damages to farms.

This study has shown that from the identiﬁcation of land parameters connected

with wildlife damages, it is possible to build a map representing the areas at high

damage hazard, where actions should be targeted.

On the other hand, we need to carry out direct ﬁeld surveys to check the actual

effectiveness of what is proposed by the applied methodology.

The analysis, conducted on the

Pollino National Park,

has resulted in the spatial

identiﬁcation of the agricultural areas most sensitive to wildlife damages.

The results obtained show that targeted actions might be taken to downsize the

effects of crop damages in the long-term perspective. The effectiveness of actions

depends, however, on other factors as well that need to be controlled. For example,

no fence or obstacle could be overcome if there is not sufﬁcient feed supply in

natural environments. Therefore these control actions may be successful only if

they are integrated by other simultaneous or alternative actions throughout the year

(fodder in periods of feed deﬁcit, selective hunting).

Over the last 15 years, despite the actions undertaken by the managing body for

the solution of the problem,

it seems that the applied approach has been directed

towards an “individualist” solution through compensations and/or incentives for

prevention systems addressed to single farmers. No linear protection fencing

systems have been used in the bordering areas between forests and agricultural

zones nor other “community” systems based on long-term planning have been

implemented to know and understand the phenomenon and obtain a detailed picture

of the distribution, the size and the evolutionary trends of the species across the

region (no data are available so far on these parameters). This would be useful to

identify the target densities and the withdrawal densities compatible with economic

damages. In this sense, there are no absolute indications of optimal density and size,

and each environmental site necessitates its own solution, which is to be sought by

trial and error (adaptive management).

Today’s objective is to achieve a kind of “agroecological” balance that means a

sustainable balance between the amount of social and economic costs of crop

damage—in terms of refund and prevention—and a sufﬁcient population size for

maintaining the ecological role of the species in the protected ecosystem (Mattioli

et al.

1995).

In conclusion, managing a wild boar population means adapting its size and

structure to the capacity of the environment while minimising the associated

economic and environmental damages and the subsequent social conﬂicts.

“Regulation for the granting of ﬁnancial aid on the protection of wild boar-caused damages” N

122 of 15/10/1998 and “Wild boar management plan” N

23 of 27/10/2006, N

941 of 06/11/2012

for the granting of ﬁnancial aid aimed at setting up fencing for preventing damages to crops caused

by wild boars and deers in the

Pollino National Park.

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Wildlife Agriculture Interactions, Spatial Analysis and Trade-Off Between.

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223

Future developments of the applied model will involve deﬁning cost-

effectiveness indices to demonstrate the monetary and social effectiveness of

both analyses and proposed actions.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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The Sustainability of Non-renewable

Resources Use at Regional Level: A Case

Study on Allocation of Oil Royalties

Mauro Viccaro, Benedetto Rocchi, Mario Cozzi, and Severino Romano

Abstract

The aim of this work was to assess the socioeconomic impact derived

from the oil royalty allocation on regional development, using a multi-sector model

based on a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM), appropriately implemented for

Basilicata region (Italy), the typical case of a region lagging behind in a developed

economy. Our focus was on how political decisions have inﬂuenced the economic

development of the region and how a different set of choices can be more effective

in transforming public receipts into long-term beneﬁts. Results show clearly that in

the past the allocation of oil royalties to the regional Government (as a whole

990 million euros) generated a much lower impact than expected, in terms of

economic growth and employment. Given the structure of the regional economy,

much of the impact of investments and running expenses ﬁnanced by royalties has

maybe been lost outside the regional boundaries. A greater effect on income and

employment will not be possible unless resources are redirected towards greater

competitiveness of the regional economic system. Better balancing the use of

royalties between social expenditure and production investments would probably

be the ﬁrst step towards a strategy of sustainable development of the regional

economy.

1 Introduction

The countries and regions that use a new natural resource, such as an oil deposit,

usually see an increase in their ﬁnancial resources due to the beneﬁts (both direct

and indirect) deriving from oil drilling. Their ability in managing these additional

resources in a sustainable way inﬂuences the future of their entire economy.

According to the

big push

theory (Rosenstein-Rodan

1943;

Hirschman

1958),

the

new source of income should lead to increase public investments, promote growth

M. Viccaro • B. Rocchi • M. Cozzi (

) • S. Romano

School of Agricultural Sciences, Forestry, Food and Environment - SAFE, University of

Basilicata, viale dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]; [email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_15

225

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M. Viccaro et al.

and result in long-term economic development. However, empirical evidence

reveals a negative correlation between the abundance of resources and economic

growth, known as

natural resource curse

(Sachs and Warner

2001).

Different

studies, concerning not only economic but also political and social aspects, have

provided different possible explanations of this phenomenon (Larsen

2006;

Torvik

2009;

Van der Ploeg

2011).

A preliminary economic interpretation of the negative

relation between the dependence on the exploitation of natural resources and

economic growth is known as the

Dutch disease

(Torvik

2009;

Van der Ploeg

2011).

This expression refers to the decline of production activities observed in the

Netherlands after a large natural gas deposit was discovered at the end of the 1950s.

According to this model, the big inﬂows of foreign capitals resulting from the

export of resources overvalue the actual exchange rate, thus reducing capital and

labour for agricultural and manufacturing activities. As a consequence, production

costs increase, while the competitiveness and exports of the sectors unrelated to the

resource decrease, with a depressing effect on the growth of the whole economy.

Two more aspects seem to be the cause of the

natural resource curse:

(1) the

implementation of non-sustainable macroeconomic policies by Governments, due

to the abundance of resources (Atkinsons and Hamilton

2003),

and (2) the intrinsic

volatility of the international market of non-renewable resources (Van der Ploeg

2011).

The planning and implementation of effective policies to contrast this process is

a challenge for Governments, not an easy one, especially in developing countries;

typical examples are Chad and Brazil where, despite the huge ﬁnancial resources

derived from oil royalties, the living standard of populations has not improved

accordingly (Keenan

2005;

Pegg

2005;

Caselli and Michaels

2013).

Different studies suggest that the appropriate policy to prevent the

curse

developing countries is based on the allocation of the ﬁnancial resources derived

from oil-related activities towards policies aimed at promoting productivity, com-

petitiveness and well-being improvement (Levy

2006;

Breisenger et al.

2010;

Rocchi et al.

2015).

It is worth noting that developing countries are not the unique countries involved

by this

curse,

which may also inﬂuence, to a different extent, the regions lagging

behind in developed economies that start to exploit a new natural resource, such as

oil ﬁelds (Rocchi et al.

2015).

The negative impact in these cases seems to be

mostly due to the following: (1) the opening of the regional economy would result

in the

loss

of most effects derived from the expenditure of royalties out of the

regional boundaries; (2) the sudden increase in the

export base

may conceal the lack

of competitiveness of the regional non-oil exporting sectors in relation to the rest of

the country, reducing the investments required to improve their competitiveness;

(3) part of oil royalties are used in short-term local redistribution policies aimed at

reducing the negative effect of the regional economic gap (including unemploy-

ment and poverty), but are ineffective in improving the competitiveness of the

regional system in the long run. Lastly, if the allocation of these ﬁnancial resources

is not implemented with due appropriateness and transparency, the entailed risks

are bribery or rent-seeking behaviours.

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The Sustainability of Non-renewable Resources Use at Regional Level: A Case.

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227

To prevent these adverse effects and favour the highest possible outfalls on the

areas involved by ﬁnancial investments based on the use of royalties, the priority for

decision-makers is to better focus on the strategic objectives to promote long-term

sustainable socioeconomic development, while compensating for the deployment

in environmental assets resulting from the exploitation of a non-renewable

resource.

The possibility of setting out regional policies, assessing the impact on the main

socioeconomic indicators at the local level and monitoring the effectiveness over

time is largely dependent on the availability of an adequate territorial information

system that should be complete, relevant and coherent both internally and with the

national framework (Carbonaro et al.

2001).

Different authors (Stone

1961;

Seers

1970, 1972)

maintain that the most suitable statistical tool, in terms of information

bases and economic model, is the Social Accounting Matrix (SAM). As a matter of

fact, it has a regional dimension enabling to analyse different economic and ﬁscal

policies within the same country, notably when large internal differences coexist

(Thorbecke

1985).

The aim of this work is to assess the socioeconomic impact derived from the

allocation of oil royalties on the regional development, using a multi-sector model

based on a two-region SAM, specially tailored to Basilicata region, a typical

example of a region lagging behind in a developed economy. After describing—

via different macroeconomic indicators—the regional economic system (see

Sect.

2.1)

and the methodology applied to perform the impact analysis based on

SAM multipliers (see Sect.

2.2),

the allocation of oil royalties is examined from

1997 to 2013, making it possible to implement the model (see Sect.

2.2.1).

Results

are shown in Sect.

and conclusive remarks (see Sect.

close the paper.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1

Case Study: Basilicata Region

The Basilicata region is the typical case of a region lagging behind the rest of the

national economy.

Despite the presence—in its territory—of the largest onshore oil ﬁeld in Europe,

Basilicata’s economy shows strong difﬁculties compared with the rest of the

country, with a poverty index more than double the national average (Fig.

(Istat

2014).

When oilﬁelds were discovered in the Agri valley (in the southwestern part of

the region) in the early 1990s, they were considered as an important opportunity for

the regional economy. The oil regional industry currently produces about 16,137

tons/day of crude oil: in 2013, the production was about 5.48 million tons, i.e. 9.3 %

of the gross national domestic consumption and about 71.7 % of Italy’s total crude

oil production (Ministero dello Sviluppo Economico

2014).

There are indeed good

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228

M. Viccaro et al.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Basilicata

Fig. 1

Relative poverty index

Italy

opportunities for the regional economic development (in addition to the direct

impact on employment) in the form of royalties. Under the agreement between

the State and oil drilling companies, above a given output threshold, the companies

must give 7 % of their earnings to the regions in the form of royalties and an

additional 3 % for safety and environmental monitoring (Ministero dello Sviluppo

Economico

2014).

This has meant that between the start of drilling in 1997 and the

end of 2013, the regional balance has matured over 990 million euros earnings

from oil.

Moreover, a recent national regulation (N

99/2009) allocates an additional 3 %

of earnings to the households living in Basilicata as

vouchers

to purchase fuel

(fuel card).

Surprisingly, oil earnings have not had a great impact on the local economy,

despite the huge quantity of additional ﬁnancial resources channelled into regional

development policies. Figure

shows that the regional GDP grew quite steadily till

2008, when it experienced a decline—partly due to the overall economic reces-

sion—resulting in a decrease of employment to 195,000 labour units recorded in

2012. In accordance with the national trend, the unemployment rate has increased

starting from 2007 till 16 % in 2013 (Istat

2014).

This results in a loss of competitiveness, in terms of labour productivity (Fig.

3).

While the average productivity of the other southern Italy regions has slightly

decreased, between 1995 and 2009, the Basilicata region has seen a considerable

decline: although the regional employment till 2003 has grown more rapidly than in

the neighbouring regions, this has not resulted in a substantial increase in terms of

productivity.

It is evident that oil exploitation has not generated the expected beneﬁts

according to the

big push

theory, due maybe to all of the causes that contribute to

explain the so-called natural resource curse (Van der Ploeg

2011).

It is thus crucial to understand how resources are allocated and to assess their

impact on the socioeconomic system for trying to provide an explanation of the

current situation.

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The Sustainability of Non-renewable Resources Use at Regional Level: A Case.

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12,000

11,000

10,000

9,000

210

225

220

215

229

8,000

205

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

200

195

190

GDP

Fig. 2

GDP (M€) and labour unit (K)

102

100

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Basilicata

Southern Italy average

Fig. 3

GDP per labour unit—ratio between different areas

2.2

SAM: A Two-Region Model

A model based on SAM has been used to assess the impact of the allocation of the

oil royalties earned by Basilicata region since the start of drilling till now. The SAM

(Pyatt

1991a, b, 1994a, b, 1999;

Pyatt and Round

1977, 1985)

is a two-entry matrix

that records the ﬂows occurring between all actors of an economic system, in a

given place and for a given time period (usually 1 year). Each raw/column pair

represents, respectively, the inﬂows and outﬂows of a given account, so that by

deﬁnition the matrix is balanced (the row totals equal the column totals). It may be

considered as an expansion or a generalisation of Leontief’s input–output table

(1936). While in the latter emphasis is laid on the production system, in the SAM

the perspective is larger. The simultaneous representation of the accounts of

production activities, production factors, institutions (households, businesses and

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M. Viccaro et al.

public administration), capital formation and exchanges with the rest of the world

makes it possible to follow the formation of value added and its distribution and

redistribution in the form of income to the institutions.

The utilisation of SAMs in the analysis of development is by now a well-

established branch of the economic literature (Stone

1961;

Pyatt and Round

1977,

1985;

Pyatt

1991a, b, 1994a, b, 1999;

Round

2003;

Miller and Blair

2009).

Applications refer both to developed and developing economies, because it is not

only an important tool to improve the consistency of national accounting estimates

(United Nations et al.

1993)

but also the ﬁrst step for the calibration of impact

simulation multi-sector models, both linear and computable general equilibrium

ones (Pyatt

1988).

Through the implementation of a linear model based on the

calculation of multipliers (Miller and Blair

2009),

it is possible to calculate the

impact that variables have on the economic system; endogenous accounts normally

include the institutional sectors of households and ﬁrms; the unique accounts that

are considered, either alternatively or simultaneously, exogenous to the model are

those of Government, of the rest of the world and of the capital account. Deciding

which and how many of these three accounts are exogenous means establishing the

“closing rule” of the model based on the SAM (Miller and Blair

2009).

The SAM used in this study is a two-region matrix, referred to 2010, in which the

existing ﬂows between Basilicata region and the rest of Italy are represented with a

high level of detail. The structure of the matrix includes 301 accounts, subdivided

into 37 production activities, 54 production factors and 3 institutions (households,

businesses and Government). The household sector is subdivided by income deciles

into ten groups, whereas the Government is distinguished as local and central.

There are of course also the accounts entitled to the capital formation and to the rest

of the world.

The advantage of a two-region model lies in the possibility of considering the

rest of Italy as being endogenous to the model; this makes it possible to break down

impacts and estimate not only the total but also the intraregional and interregional

ones (spillovers and feedbacks).

In the present study, for the analysis of the impacts derived from the use of oil

royalties considered as exogenous shocks to the regional economy, a static analysis

has been carried out, considering a closure of the model with respect to the

Government, capital formation

and

rest of the world:

the estimated multipliers

take thus the value of Leontevian–Keynesian multipliers.

The structure of the matrix of accounting coefﬁcients of the two-region model is

shown below (Miller and Blair

2009):

ð1Þ

where r

Basilicata region and s

rest of Italy.

By solving the linear system

(where

is the vector of totals of

endogenous accounts and

is the vector of exogenous account ﬂows) for

you have

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The Sustainability of Non-renewable Resources Use at Regional Level: A Case.

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231

¼ ð

À1

ð2Þ

where

¼ ð

À1

is the matrix of SAM multipliers.

Each coefﬁcient

quantiﬁes the total increase for each account

derived from a

unit exogenous shock on the account

If the matrix of multipliers

enables the estimate of the total impact, the

breakdown of the matrix of accounting coefﬁcients

into intraregional

and interregional elements

enables to estimate (Round

1985, 2001;

Dietzenbacher

2002;

Miller and Blair

2009)

the following:

À1

Intraregional effects

ð3Þ

where

Interregional spillover effects

∗

Á À

À1

where

ð4Þ

Interregional feedback effects

¼ �½I À ðA

∗

À1

ð5Þ

Let us consider the intraregional submatrix

and the blocks constituting it:

ð6Þ

where

is the matrix of interindustry technical coefﬁcients,

is the matrix of

endogenous ﬁnal expenditure coefﬁcients,

is the matrix of endogenous value

added factor shares,

is the matrix of endogenous coefﬁcients distributing income

to institutions and

is the matrix of endogenous coefﬁcients for income redistri-

bution among institutions. The intraregional effect of impacts may in turn be broken

down as follows (Miller and Blair

2009):

Regional direct effect

¼ ð

À1

where

ð7Þ

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232

M. Viccaro et al.

Regional indirect effect

À1

where

¼ ð

R, R

ð8Þ

À1

Regional feedback effect

ð9Þ

Once the multipliers required for the analysis are calculated and the vector of

shocks

deﬁned, it will be possible to deﬁne the vector of impacts

as follows:

Md f

ð10Þ

In the present study, the vector of shocks is made up of the current and capital

expenditures of the oil royalties according to different scenarios.

2.2.1

The Vectors of Exogenous Shocks: Allocation of Oil Royalties

The available information on the allocation (or distribution) of royalty earnings

among different uses is summarised in Table

where the total amount is

disaggregated by year and action.

For most receipts, it has been impossible to allocate expenses by speciﬁc

political actions. About three quarters of total expenditure (over 723 million

euros) has been just used to fund running expenses of Basilicata region (itemised

other actions).

The remainder has been shared among various initiatives mostly designed

towards the mitigation and compensation of adverse effects derived from the oil

mining industry. The environmental issues involved in the exploitation of the major

inshore oil source in Europe are obviously very important. The location of oil ﬁelds

inﬂuences high nature value areas, which have a considerable potential for the

development of tourism and agricultural activities. Moreover, the mining plants and

the distribution pipelines of the existing processing plants on the coast concern an

area that stores the major water resource for southern Italy. For this reason, the

regional Government has decided to mitigate the possible negative impacts by

setting up a system for the monitoring and compensation of the areas directly

affected by oil drilling operations.

One of the most important actions funded by royalties is the

Piano Operativo Val

d’Agri

(POV), an expenditure operating plan aimed at promoting economic devel-

opment and the improvement of life quality in the area neighbouring the oil ﬁelds.

The POV is structured into four pillars related to the enhancement of local

resources, the improvement of infrastructures, the improvement of life quality

and the improvement of the local production supporting systems. The POV includes

both current expenditures and investments.

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The Sustainability of Non-renewable Resources Use at Regional Level: A Case.

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Table 1

Allocation of royalties by action (M€)

Other

actions

0.43

2.25

1.24

3.17

8.04

10.04

24.05

30.31

32.80

61.84

72.57

71.30

79.47

28.15

59.21

111.58

127.49

723.94

Natural gas

distribution

network

1.03

7.00

17.79

25.82

Environmental

monitoring

5.01

Environmental

compensation

11.02

5.58

5.60

5.61

5.62

5.68

5.67

3.10

47.88

233

Year

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Total

POV

4.89

6.23

17.26

23.98

31.39

22.10

26.10

25.88

12.04

17.82

187.67

Total

0.43

2.25

1.24

19.20

14.65

10.04

29.65

47.81

44.63

84.78

120.02

102.69

104.67

54.25

85.09

123.62

145.31

990.31

POV

Piano Operativo Val d’Agri

To calculate the total impact of the use of royalties in the time period under

study, all these expenditure ﬂows have been considered as an exogenous shock

directed towards the regional economy and reclassiﬁed based on the disaggregation

of accounts in the SAM. While in the case of allocation towards speciﬁc actions

there have been no problems in identifying the accounts on which they are directed,

the expenses concerning

other actions,

in the basic simulation, have been consid-

ered as an exogenous increase of the local public administration expenditure and

have been distributed as inputs towards the endogenous accounts, based on the

current expenditure coefﬁcients of the regional administration included in

the SAM.

Moreover, the analysis also takes into account the shares for the

fuel card

supplied so far.

These shares have been considered as an exogenous increase in

income of the households living in the region, according to a distribution based on

what is declared by the Ministry of Economic Development (2014) (Table

2).

Since the envisaged uses refer to different years, the values have been converted

into 2013 Euros (Istat

2014).

The shares concerning the

fuel card

have been supplied starting from 2011; till now the two ﬁrst

supplies concern the shares allocated for 2009 and 2010.

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234

Table 2

Amounts

concerning the supply of the

fuel card

Year

2009

2010

Amounts (M€)

32.22

44.88

M. Viccaro et al.

beneﬁciaries

320,000

Two ex post analyses of the impacts derived from the use of royalties were

conducted:

1. Impact of the expenditure relating the use of royalties allocated in 2010, the

reference year in the SAM construction (counterfactual analysis); this analysis

also estimates the potential impact that could be generated from the granting of

fuel vouchers for 2010.

2. Total impact derived from the total expenditure of royalties till now, based on

their actual use.

Moreover, to provide helpful indications on the possible effects of an alternative

use of the ﬁnancial resources derived from mining, the four following simulations

have been made that assume a different use of the shares allocated to

other actions:

1. Increase in current consumption for public administration (scenario I)

2. Increase in the current consumption of public administration and in transfers to

households (scenario II)

3. Funding of current activities of private enterprises (scenario III)

4. Funding of investments of private enterprises (scenario IV)

3 Results

On the basis of the counterfactual analysis for 2010 (Table

3),

it resulted that part of

the effect derived from the use of royalties occurs outside the regional boundaries:

only about 50 % of what has been utilised has entailed a direct impact in the region.

The remaining uses have resulted in the growth of output, value added and income

of households through moderate feedbacks from the rest of Italy.

As compared to the baseline scenario, the impact of royalties on the regional

economy involves a 0.3 % increase of output and value added and 0.2 % rise in

households’ gross income (actual use). The lower impact observed on the income

depends on the fact that the expenditure of royalties is mostly concentrated on the

accounts allocated to the production and purchase of goods and services. If fuel

vouchers had been supplied in 2010 (hypothetical use), this would have resulted in

an additional 0.49 % increase of households’ income, with outfalls on the whole

economy, leading to an additional 0.2 % increase of the output and value added.

This is due to a higher availability of households’ income for the purchase of goods

and services, especially outside the regional boundaries: above 70 % of the output

and value added generated in the region beneﬁts the rest of Italy.

Through an analysis of the breakdown of impacts on the regional economy in

2010 (Table

4),

it seems clear that a targeted programme like the POV results in a

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The Sustainability of Non-renewable Resources Use at Regional Level: A Case.

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Table 3

Counterfactual analysis—impact of the use of royalties in 2010 (M€)

Baseline

Royalty

Basilicata

Output

Value added

Households’ income

Italy

Output

Value added

Households’ income

SAM

Social Accounting Matrix

SAM totals

Actual use (royalties)

Impact

Impact (%)

21,203

12,245

12,544

3,041,624

1,742,931

1,697,044

21,268

12,281

12,574

3,041,659

1,742,952

1,697,058

Impact/baseline

0.31

0.30

0.24

Italy/Basilicata

52.92

56.58

47.18

Hypothetical use (fuel card)

Impact

Impact (%)

Impact/baseline

0.21

0.23

0.49

Italy/Basilicata

77.17

71.75

22.19

235

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236

Table 4

Breakdown of impacts by allocation of 2010 royalties (M€)

Output

Direct impact

POV

Other actions

Indirect impact

POV

Other actions

Induced impact

POV

Other actions

Regional total impact

Interregional feedback

POV

Other actions

Total impacts

23.80

0.00

16.42

0.81

9.96

14.62

65.61

0.07

0.03

65.70

Value added

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.06

26.38

9.71

36.16

0.04

0.02

36.22

M. Viccaro et al.

Households’ income

0.00

8.31

0.00

0.21

15.17

5.88

29.57

0.03

0.01

29.60

higher direct and indirect impact (through the production system) on the output, as

compared to that related to the expenses incurred by

other actions

aimed to support

the public administration expenditure. This expenditure has actually a direct impact

on households’ income leading to an induced impact on output and value added

(multiplier effect) only through the increase in consumption.

If considering the total impact derived from the use of royalties since the

beginning of drillings till now (Table

5),

it results clearly—in this case as well—

that the POV seems much better in promoting growth and employment. Overall,

royalties have generated an extra output of about 1 billion euros, 593 million euros

of gross households’ income and 10,258 total annual full-time labour units.

Table

shows that the ratio of generated output to the expenditure allocated to

the POV is more than three times the one recorded for the

other actions

(1.82

€

vs. 0.55

€

of additional output for each additional

€

of expenditure). The POV has

generated almost the same labour units using only 25 % of the budget available for

the

other actions.

These higher impacts are mainly due to the fact that a consider-

able portion of the POV expenditure is directed towards

construction activities

(both to improve infrastructures and to preserve the cultural heritage), a sector

mainly based on local businesses.

As resulting from Fig.

the sectors that most bear on the output and employ-

ment include constructions, trade and private and public services. As for agriculture

and ﬁshery, despite their low multiplying effect on output (Table

6),

their capacity

to generate more employment on the produced output is double compared to the

other sectors.

In general, however, most effects derived from the use of royalties have been lost

by the regional economy. The typical opening of a regional economy is expressed

by the ratio of the generated output to the total value of spent royalties: on average,

only 0.88

€

of additional output has been produced at the regional level for each

€

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The Sustainability of Non-renewable Resources Use at Regional Level: A Case.

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Table 5

Impact of royalty

uses by allocation type—2013

Euro (M€)

Royalties receipts

Total impacts:

Output

Value added

Households’ income

Labour unit (n)

Average impacts:

Output

Value added

Households’ income

Labour unit

(n)

Allocation type

Total

Other actions

1,166

1,027

593

668

10,258

0.88

0.51

0.57

786

432

274

402

4,422

0.55

0.35

0.51

237

POV

203

370

194

111

3,634

1.82

0.95

0.55

Euro 2013

Agriculture and Fishery

Industry

Constructions Trade and Private services Public services

Fig. 4

Percent distribution of impacts on output and employment

Table 6

Sectoral output

multipliers

Sector

Agriculture and ﬁshery

Industry

Constructions

Trade

Public services

Output multipliers

1.56

1.78

2.04

1.82

1.84

spent. The mean incidence on the income is even smaller, with only 51 % of

expenditure converted into actual income earned by the households living in the

region. The overall impact is thus moderate compared to the absolute value of the

available budget, which has stabilised around 100 million euros/year (about 3 % of

the annual expenditure of public administration in Basilicata region). These results

may only partly be assessed by static simulations. The use of supplemental ﬁnancial

resources derived from royalties has maybe played a fundamental role to tackle the

regional economic decline. However, the allocation of these additional ﬁnancial

resources could be signiﬁcantly improved also in the short run.

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238

M. Viccaro et al.

Table 7

Simulations on the alternative use of royalties allocated to

other actions

(M€)

Allocation type

Current use Scenario I

Royalties receipts

Total impacts:

Output

Value added

Households’ income

Labour unit

(n)

Average impacts:

Output

Value added

Households’ income

Labour unit

(n)

786

432

274

402

4,422

0.55

0.35

0.51

1,072

704

469

11,012

1.36

0.90

0.60

869

559

849

8,982

1.11

0.71

1.08

792

395

225

7,344

1.01

0.50

0.29

1,049

521

292

9,454

1.34

0.66

0.37

Scenario II

Scenario III

Scenario IV

We can deduce that a speciﬁc programme like the POV is a better solution in

promoting economic growth in the short run; moreover, since this is a programme

supporting investments in production activities, it has greater probabilities to

improve the competitiveness of the regional economic system. An alternative use

of the resources, allocated so far to the public administration expenditure, might

further contribute to development.

Based on the simulations run (Table

7),

it would seem that the uses of royalties

directed to support only the public administration consumptions (scenario I), or the

latter and the households’ income (scenario II), are those that would generate

greater impacts, in terms of output, value added, income and employment. These

results are however controversial: the uses of part of oil royalties in supporting

Government expenditure and in local redistribution policies are ineffective in

improving the regional system competitiveness in the long run. This would have

short-term effects mostly aimed to reduce the negative impact of the regional

economic gap (such as unemployment and poverty).

An alternative solution would be provided by scenario IV, in which royalties are

entirely spent to support the investments of private enterprises operating on the

local scale, for the purpose of enhancing the competitiveness of the regional

production system. The impact on the output and employment is comparable to

that of scenario I. Although it presents, among the scenarios, one of the lowest

impacts on the income in the short run (0.37

€

of income generated per

€

of royalty

spent), the strengthening of the regional production system competitiveness might

lay the bases for sustainable economic development of the entire region in the long

run. A strategy that is in line with the notion of sustainability of natural resources

and involves a progressive replacement of the deployed natural assets (oil in this

case) with the produced capital (Hamilton and Atkinson

2006).

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The Sustainability of Non-renewable Resources Use at Regional Level: A Case.

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239

4 Conclusion

In this work, a multi-sector model based on a two-region SAM has been used to

study the socioeconomic impact of the use of oil royalties on the economic system

of Basilicata region.

To this purpose, it was necessary to carry out a counterfactual analysis to test the

impact that the expenditure of royalties had in 2010 and an ex post analysis of

royalty allocation since the beginning of drillings till now. Some simulations were

performed to estimate the effect that might have been generated by a different use

of the royalties actually utilised in funding the Government expenditure.

Results clearly show that in the past the allocation of oil royalties granted to the

regional Government (as a whole 990 million euros) generated a much lower

impact than expected, in terms of economic growth and employment. Given the

structure of the regional economy, a large part of the impacts of investments and

current expenses funded by royalties have been probably lost outside the regional

boundaries. As a whole, the use of part of the royalties to support the regional

Government expenditure has been less effective in promoting the regional eco-

nomic growth compared to a targeted programme like the POV, aimed at

supporting the areas where oil ﬁelds are found.

These results, together with the macroeconomic indicators that describe the

economic system of the region (see Sect.

2.1),

show clearly that Basilicata’s

economy is at risk for the

natural resource curse.

The same opacity in the

distribution of royalties is a symptom of a potentially distorted policy and of the

ineffective use of a considerable amount of additional ﬁnancial resources. Detailed

information about the use of royalties was actually available only for a quarter of

the earnings received by Basilicata region between 1997 and 2013.

The additional ﬁnancial resources derived from the exploitation of oil ﬁelds over

the last few years have undoubtedly played a role to mitigate the impacts of the

overall macroeconomic crisis. This use is understandable in a region, like Basili-

cata, that has an economic gap. However, the absence of a clear strategy targeted to

increase the regional economic system competitiveness might, paradoxically, result

in a deterioration of the relative position of Basilicata within the national economy.

The exploitation of non-renewable natural resources could also crowd out the other

production activities. Simulations show that even expenditure programmes directed

to implement investments could favour economic growth in the short run, without

jeopardising the regional system competitiveness prospects. Better balancing in the

allocation of royalties between social expenditure and production investments

would probably constitute the ﬁrst step towards a sustainable development strategy

of the regional economy.

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240

M. Viccaro et al.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Land Use Sector Involvement in Mitigation

Policies Across Carbon Markets

Severino Romano, Simone Targetti Ferri, Gennaro Ventura, Francesco Di

Napoli, and Mario Cozzi

Abstract

Different local and international experiences show that the agroforestry

sector can be fully included in the global warming mitigation strategies and in the

market mechanisms that may have environmental and socioeconomic beneﬁts. At

present, however, the primary sector plays only a minor role in mitigation policies

within the UNFCCC and under Kyoto’s Protocol, due to problems and difﬁculties

related to emission/absorption accounting models and monitoring and standardisation

systems. If, on one hand, the progress in science has enabled to overcome accounting-

related problems, on the other, there are no adequate mechanisms to encourage and

remunerate the primary sector’s efforts. More speciﬁcally, if the primary sector is

considered as a source of emissions, it should also be recognised that it has beneﬁcial

impacts, notably in economic terms, as carbon sink. Therefore, the deﬁnition of clear

and internationally shared rules might increase the carbon friendly initiatives and

help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This article is focused on the international

experiences that have concerned the primary sector and is intended to supply

researchers and policymakers with suggestions and recommendations for

implementing local market practices related to carbon credits.

1 Introduction

The inclusion of the agricultural and forestry sector in the global warming mitiga-

tion strategies has not been clearly and deﬁnitely implemented yet. As a matter of

fact, if the primary sector accounts for over 30 % of greenhouse gas emissions

(FAO

2003),

on the other hand, it has a great potential absorptive capacity (Galik

et al.

2009;

Gorte and Ramseur

2010).

Agricultural and forestry activities actually

play a twofold role in climate changes, since they suffer from their effects, while

still contributing, either positively or negatively, to emissions (Pettenella

et al.

2006).

S. Romano • S.T. Ferri • G. Ventura • F. Di Napoli • M. Cozzi (

)

School of Agricultural Sciences, Forestry, Food and Environment - SAFE, viale dell’Ateneo

Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]; [email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_16

243

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244

S. Romano et al.

Recent studies have highlighted that forests have the highest absorption capacity

of greenhouse gases (GHGs; Beer et al.

2010;

Canadell et al

2007).

The primary

sector’s capacity to act as carbon sink is limited in the space and over time and

might be strengthened by speciﬁc management measures aimed at increasing the

carbon sink potential and reducing the release of GHGs (Houghton

2003;

Pacala

and Socolow

2004;

Ciccarese and Pettenella

2005;

Canadell and Raupach

2008;

Sohngen

2009).

The main measures aimed at increasing the absorption capacity

include:

Forestation and reforestation practices and the reduction of deforestation

Reducing forest degradation by improving forest stand quality

The sustainable use of fertilisers and other chemicals in agricultural practices

Maintaining carbon stocks within ecosystems through the implementation of

sustainable forest management (SFM techniques)

5. The use of biomasses and wood material as substitutes for fossil fuel-derived

products

The need to introduce appropriate procedures in climate change mitigation

strategies has actually been debated in recent years. In the new Common Agricul-

tural Policy (CAP), the struggle against climate changes and the primary sector’s

contribution to a low carbon economy have actually been included among the

European objectives. Despite the efforts made, in the 2008–2012 Kyoto’s Protocol

(KP) ﬁrst planning phase, the carbon credits generated by LULUCF (Land Use,

Land Use Change and Forestry) activities were not included in the EU Emissions

Trading System (EU-ETS), which is the largest regional market of carbon credits

currently working at the world level (Hamilton et al.

2011;

Bonomi et al.

2009).

This exclusion means that the Removal Units (RMUs) cannot be converted into

European Union Allowances (EUAs) so they are not tradeable in the European

market. With this in mind, this work is intended to review the role of the primary

sector in the struggle against climate changes based on the analysis of the main

markets involved and of the currently available accounting methods, so as to

highlight their strengths and weaknesses. Some suggestions and reﬂections are

then proposed to implement an appropriate model of local compensation voluntary

market that can promote local development and generate economic and environ-

mental beneﬁts to the actors concerned, in terms of mitigation/reduction of climate

altering gas emissions.

2 The Primary Sector in the International Negotiation

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the

ﬁrst legal international tool to contrast climate changes, ratiﬁed the need to initiate a

global complex action in favour of the environment and sustainable development.

In fact, in compliance with the three main pillars mentioned in the Convention,

equity between generations, common but differentiated responsibility

and

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Land Use Sector Involvement in Mitigation Policies Across Carbon Markets

245

precaution,

the UNFCCC invited the member States to monitor the national GHG

ﬂows grouped by sectors and to communicate regularly their inventories and the

planned reduction measures. Based on the classiﬁcation drawn up by the Organi-

sation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the member States

were subdivided into three groups: Annex I countries should take the lead in

modifying the trends in greenhouse gas emissions, Annex 2 countries are required

to assist ﬁnancially nondeveloped countries and non-Annex I countries have no

reduction obligation. The proposals developed during the Heart Summit of 1992

were implemented only in 1997 during Kyoto’s 3rd Conference of parties (COP-3).

During the COP-third session, most national governments from all world regions

decided to approve “Kyoto’s Protocol” (signed by 176 countries, 38 of which have

binding targets), to enforce compliance with the commitments made at Rio. The

protocol is the implementation tool of the Framework Convention on Climate

Change and deﬁnes legally binding limits for greenhouse gas emissions in

industrialised countries. The treaty imposed on Annex I countries to account their

GHG ﬂows by sector and to reduce pollutant emissions by at least 8 % compared to

1990, which was selected as baseline year. As to the accounting methodology, the

applied mechanisms include the

gross–net accounting,

adopted for some activities,

such as forest management, and the

net–net accounting

for reforestation and the

management of cultivated ﬁelds and pastures.

3 Overview of Carbon Credit Markets

KP provides some actions to be taken by industrialised countries for the reduction

of their emissions. These actions are categorised as domestic or national actions and

international actions or ﬂexible mechanism. The former are targeted towards the

reduction of energy consumption in all economic sectors, whereas the second group

includes actions to be implemented through cooperation among developed coun-

tries and between them and developing countries. Among ﬂexible mechanisms, a

major role is played by Emission Trading (ET), which has enabled the setting up of

the so-called carbon credit markets, which may be either regulated or voluntary

(Torres et al.

2015;

Linacre et al.

2011;

Pirard

2012).

The differences encountered in the two markets are quite signiﬁcant; regulated

(or mandatory) markets are actually identiﬁed by their regular functioning, based on

rules established by institutional bodies that ensure transparency requirements and

the obligation to provide information on prices and the traded volumes. This type of

The gross–net accounting includes only the carbon stock variations due to the differences

between emissions and removals in the commitment period, without comparison to the stock

variations in the reference year (baseline).

The net–net accounting measures the carbon ﬂux variations—observed in the commitment

period—compared to the reference year (baseline).

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S. Romano et al.

market is accessible—upon speciﬁc request—to the big industrial groups, submit-

ted to regulatory emission limits and obliged to comply with the trading system. At

the international level, there are 15 regulated markets based on the Emission

Trading System (ETS) and characterised by a

cap and trade

(IETA

2014)

account-

ing system. Voluntary markets instead are not based on a system of consistent rules

deﬁned by authoritative bodies; this makes possible non standardized contracts both

for the amounts and the deadlines. These markets are based on a system of

offsets

that can link directly both market actors, i.e. the parties interested to implement

GHG mitigation projects that represent the supply side and the parties intended to

compensate for part of their emissions that instead represent the demand side.

4 Analysis of the Main International Markets

and the Inclusion of the Agroforestry Sector

4.1

International Voluntary Markets: The Veriﬁed Carbon

Standard

The Veriﬁed Carbon Standard (VCS) is one of the leading programmes to reduce

GHGs in the voluntary market, and with regard to Agriculture, Forestry and Other

Land Use (AFOLU), it is used to check and certify the credits generated by land use

improvement projects. Over the last few years, many accounting models, often

differentiated by geographical areas, have been proposed within the VCS to take

into account the local and/or sectoral peculiarities.

In dimensional terms, the VCS does not set any limitation, in terms of project

size, while classifying projects in three main categories:

1. Micro projects with an absorption potential below 5,000 t CO

/year

2. Projects with an absorption potential ranging between 5,000 and 1 million t CO

year

3. Macroprojects with an absorption potential above 1 million t CO

/year

In operational terms, the VCS system involves different information about the

project for the purpose of monitoring and understanding its positive and negative

impacts, in terms of potential production of CO

, competition with other chains

related to the primary sector, economic sustainability, scope (whether public or

private), causes of failure, etc. As to the criterion of additionality, meant as

The

cap and trade

system involves deﬁning a maximum limit (cap) of emissions, subdivided into

a given number of licences that are distributed among participants, with reference to a limited time

period. Permits may be freely traded among the participants in the trade market, but at the deadline

of the reference period, each should return as many permits as those corresponding to its actual

emissions.

Mechanism involving the purchase of carbon credits to offset an emission made elsewhere.

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Land Use Sector Involvement in Mitigation Policies Across Carbon Markets

247

reduction of any extra emission produced in the absence of the certiﬁed project

activity, the standard refers to what is provided for in the Clean Development

Mechanism (CDM) (Montini

2008),

with the additional possibility to carry out

three types of test: the project test, the performance test and the technology test. The

determination of the baseline is based on the methodologies approved for the CDM,

whereas the leakage factor, meant as the increase in the emissions in areas beyond

the project boundaries, is calculated in advance by analysing carefully the area at

risk and indicating a default value that ranges, depending on the risk, between

10 and 70 %.

To ensure effective GHG absorption rates, the VCS-certiﬁed projects are sub-

mitted to an initial checking and a periodical control every 5 years based on ISO

14064-2:2006 principles.

The VCS has been the main market platform, in terms of credits traded at

purchase prices of 7 $/t CO

. Most projects have concerned the mechanism of

reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) followed

by afforestation/reforestation (A/R) and sustainable forest management.

4.2

The American Carbon Registry Standard (ACR)

The ACR was founded in 1996 as the ﬁrst voluntary GHG registry in the world. In

relation to the LULUCF sector, the ACR includes methodologies related to A/R,

REDD and Improvement of Forest Management (IFM). The innovations of the

ACR consist in the introduction of a methodology to restore wetlands, a REDD

methodology and a methodology for N2O in agriculture, contained in the ACR

guidelines enacted in 2012. The ACR standard sets limits on the initial date of

projects that should not have started before November 1, 1997. For the projects

complying with the ACR, it is necessary to provide an accurate certiﬁcation of the

right of ownership of the estates concerned in compliance with the local existing

regulations.

As for the criterion of

additionality,

the ACR requires for each project a

performance testing or alternatively the fulﬁlment of three types of additionality

criteria:

1. Regulatory/legal requirements

2. Innovative requirements of the common project practices

3. Institutional, ﬁnancial and technical requirements

The ACR platform provides, the same as the VCS, periodical checking every

5 years in order to test GHG absorptions and all risks connected with the project.

The crediting period, provided for by the ACR standard, is 20 years for A/R

activities and 10 years for REDD and IFM projects.

Due to its stringent procedures, this year the ACR has allowed higher credit

prices than the other voluntary platforms with values ranging between 8 and 9 $/

t CO

especially for A/R projects.

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S. Romano et al.

4.3

4.3.1

Regional Carbon Market

The European Trading Systems (EU-ETS)

The ETS was introduced in 2005 by the EC Directive 2003/87 amended by the EC

Directive Linking 2009/29 and includes both

cap and trade

and

offsetting

systems

that allow parties to buy and sell EUA emission permits and carbon reduction

credits (offsets) in order to comply with the pre-established reduction objectives. As

a matter of fact, the EU-ETS obliges some sectors to limit their emissions of GHG

and creates a real credit market in which the supply is represented by those who can

reduce their emissions above the established limits, thus generating credits, whereas

the demand side is represented by those who do not comply with the reduction

constraints and are obliged to address to the market for fulﬁlling their obligations.

The COP-17, held in Durban in 2011, has boosted the agreements designed to

contrast climate changes; the new accounting rules resulting from the international

meeting have actually driven the European Parliament and Council to develop a

proposal concerning the action plans on the greenhouse gas emission and absorp-

tion associated with the LULUCF activities. Besides some actions provided for in

the project monitoring phase, the following was proposed—the voluntary supervi-

sion of emissions and absorption due to revegetation activities, drainage and

rewetting of wetlands and the obligation, since January 1, 2013 to December

31, 2020, to report the emissions and absorption due to man-made activities of

afforestation, reforestation and deforestation:

• Forest management

• Management of cultivated lands and pastures

Following on the European Parliament and Council’s approval, the decision was

enforced on July 8, 2013 (Decision 529/2013/EU of the European Parliament and of

the Council) and constrained the member States—starting from 2014—to collect

and communicate all information on the LULUCF implemented policies, including

the historical trends and implemented actions to increase carbon sinks and reduce

the emissions produced by the activities connected with the primary sector.

Although no reduction target was established for single member States, the Deci-

sion 529/2013 has marked a new step for the inclusion of the LULUCF sector in the

mechanisms targeted to contrast climate changes at the European level.

The system concerns carbon dioxide (CO

) emissions for thermoelectric and industrial plants in

the ﬁeld of energy and manufacturing production (energy activities, metal production and

processing, concrete, ceramic and bricks, glass, paper) and air operators; since 2012 the system

has also been enlarged to the operators of the air sector and, since 2013 it has been further extended

to the activities for the production of aluminium, quicklime, nitric acid, hydrogen, sodium

carbonate and bicarbonate and to the plants involved in CO

capture, transportation and storage.

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Land Use Sector Involvement in Mitigation Policies Across Carbon Markets

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4.3.2

The Chicago Climate Exchange

The Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) is an exchange platform created in 2003 by

private citizens. To ensure the full transparency of operations and the compliance

with rules, an independent inspection authority, the Financial Industry Regulatory

Authority (FINRA), was established. The main tasks of the FINRA were the spread

of information and guidelines relating the operation of the market, the development

and updating of the baselines and the activity of checking and annual certiﬁcation of

the offsets programme. Because it does not operate for public purposes but

according to merely private objectives, such as the adoption of simple and cost-

effective measures for the calculation of the baselines and for the estimate of GHG

emissions, the system has lost, over time, its transparency, thus discouraging those

interested to join the CCX that has ofﬁcially ceased to exist in 2011 but has still

operated in the markets over the counter

(OTC).

The objective of the CCX was to regulate the trade of GHG emission quotas

indicated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC

2006)

extremely dangerous to the environment. Public and private operators could join

this market, on a voluntary basis, through a legally constraining agreement between

the same operators. The CCX provided for a

cap and trade

system associated with

offsetting

mechanism that assessed the production of credits derived from the

activities related to the management of agricultural, forest and pasture areas, based

on the compliance with the principles and constraints imposed by the speciﬁcally

created standard. In fact, the estimates were based on the applied practices rather

than on the actually measured effects induced by the project.

As to the type of project, the CCX did not indicate any limitations in terms of

eligibility or project size; the actual unique constraint was the project start date that

should not have been before January 1, 1999 (1990 for forestry). The duration of the

investment was 15 years for forest management projects.

Moreover, the CCX required two types of test, related to regulation and common

practices, to satisfy the additionality criteria, and a storage quota, not below 20 % of

the total credits generated by the project to satisfy the permanence criteria.

4.4

The National Carbon Markets

A voluntary national market often requires the involvement of the central govern-

ment in bearing the start up and running costs and ensuring the initial quantity of

demand. The participation and involvement of national institutions in a voluntary

market also facilitates the access to funding and aids and also increases the

economic and collaboration opportunities with research bodies, enabling the devel-

opment of a local standard system more consistent with the real conditions of the

The OTC markets are over the counter.

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S. Romano et al.

reference area. One of the advantages of this type of market is the possibility to set

the prices on a local basis, i.e. based on the local demand and supply levels. The

peculiarity of the local voluntary market is actually the existing proximity between

the seller, the buyer and the mediator. These three categories, appropriately inter-

related within an environmental, social and economic approach, may originate a

transparent, functional and sustainable system. At the local level, it is also easier to

include the primary sector in the market mechanisms, thanks to the possibility to

elaborate ad hoc methodologies closely related to local dynamics. Lastly, by

restricting the scope of the market, there are greater aggregation possibilities in

terms of project proposals. This enables the reduction of transaction costs as well as

the development of more coordinated and sustainable strategies, preventing spo-

radic and isolated actions.

Another important element of voluntary markets is the possibility of setting up

an actual registry of credits where to record all the credits generated by voluntary

actions and prevent the problem of double accounting.

4.4.1

The

Carbomark

Project and the Carbon Monitoring Group

In Italy, the difﬁculties related to the methods for the recognition and accounting of

the credits derived from the forestry sector are particularly accentuated as compared

to other countries, due to the impossibility for forest owners to have access to the

carbon market. As a matter of fact, the carbon stored by all Italian woods (both

public and private) has been converted into the corresponding RMU credits by the

National Registry of Agroforestry Carbon Sinks (INFC), which are utilised by the

national government to fulﬁl its obligations to reduce emissions, without paying

any compensation to forest owners, thus conﬁning the sink function to a mere

externality of the forestry production cycle (Alisciani et al.

2011).

For Italy, the

accounting of RMUs prevents forest owners from having access even to voluntary

markets, due to the double accounting, contrary to other European countries, such

as France, for instance, where the State has taken well-deﬁned regulatory measures

to distinguish the two markets: in fact, in France, the State has allocated part of its

stocks of Assigned Amount Units (AAU) to emit Emission Reduction Units (ERUs)

to the developers of GHG reduction projects, thus producing an economic return

derived from the sale of credits. Despite the difﬁculties pointed out for forestry,

some initiatives have been developed in Italy within the voluntary market to

promote actions aimed at reducing GHGs. From a scientiﬁc point of view, the

Carbon Monitoring Group

has worked out a Forest Carbon Code with a view to

stimulating low carbon economy, by facilitating private and public investments in

The Carbon Monitoring Group stems from the need to strengthen and make more transparent the

national voluntary market of carbon credits. It was established by the

Osservatorio Forestale

dell’Istituto Nazionale di Economia Agraria

in collaboration with the

Dipartimento TeSAF

Padua University, the

Dipartimento DiBAF

of Tuscia University and the

Compagnia delle Foreste.

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Land Use Sector Involvement in Mitigation Policies Across Carbon Markets

251

forest and farmland management, the afforestation of new areas and the improve-

ment of green systems in agricultural and urban systems in Italy. In line with the

existing experiences in Europe, the Code actually intends to provide landowners

(either public or private) with guidelines for the sustainable management of green

areas that can generate carbon credits to be included in the national and interna-

tional voluntary market.

From a practical and merely local point of view, the

Carbomark

project was

implemented some years ago in order to promote a voluntary local market of carbon

credits operating on a wide range of agroforestry activities, such as forest manage-

ment, wood products, urban forestation and biochar. The

Carbomark

project is

based on the matching of demand from the private sector and supply, represented by

forest owners and public or private local bodies that sometimes take measures

directed to carbon sequestration. As for the double accounting, considering the

speciﬁc legal condition existing in Italy, it has been established that the forest

inventories deﬁned under Kyoto’s Protocol should be considered

business as usual.

Therefore, the additional quota obtained by the forest owners who adopt sustainable

and certiﬁed management systems for a given time period (usually 20 years) is not

accounted at the national level and is thus tradeable within a voluntary market.

The

Carbomark

market was enforced some years ago and has recorded credit

selling prices between 4 and 80

€.

The observed price range is inﬂuenced by the

type of implemented projects.

5 The Inclusion of Agroforestry in Mitigation Policies:

Some Remarks

The major role of the primary sector in the ﬁght against climate changes was known

since the implementation of KP. This is demonstrated by the fact that PK provided

for different activities speciﬁcally mentioned in arts 3.3 and 3.4 concerning the

LULUCF activities. Despite this, it is only recently that the EU has invited the

member States to monitor very carefully the GHG ﬂows related to the primary

sector and to identify all the activities aimed at increasing the role of carbon sinks of

agricultural and forest lands.

The primary sector may inﬂuence signiﬁcantly the absorption and storage

capacity of large amounts of carbon. To that effect, it is worthy underlining that

the LULUCF sector is considered in the European policies to contrast climate

changes just because it is the unique natural sector that can actually store signiﬁcant

amounts of CO

. Besides being directly one of the main carbon sinks, the primary

sector includes different associated subsectors, like that of agroforestry biomasses,

and contributes indirectly to the reduction and absorption of GHGs through the

production of clean energy produced from renewable sources.

The main reason for including the LULUCF sector in the strategies to contrast

climate change is the possibility to measure and monitor more accurately, as

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252

S. Romano et al.

compared to the past, the emissions and absorption of GHGs. The science achieve-

ments in this area enable, under the existing conditions, to assess more accurately

the magnitude of emissions/absorption with signiﬁcant future repercussions both at

the European and international level. To this end, the methodology for calculating

the baselines, the tests aimed at ensuring the criterion of additionality and the

monitoring and checking systems, combined with the strategies implemented to

limit the inefﬁciencies resulting from temporary absorption, have made the VCS

and ACR the most largely used basic models for the implementation of new market

mechanisms on the international scale.

Among the various types of offset projects, afforestation, reforestation, the

sustainable forest management and the reduction of forest degradation (as for the

forest sector), pasture and farmland management (for the agricultural sector) are by

now well-established techniques that may be included in any market mechanism.

Besides Kyoto’s principles and the

cap and trade

system that does not promote

agroforestry credits, Italy faces a quite complicated legal situation. Despite this, the

huge resources linked to the national land area have induced to elaborate the Carbon

Code to encourage landowners to take soil management measures and increase

GHG absorption, thus reducing the emissions into the atmosphere. The experiences

implemented across the national area, such as the

Carbomark

project, have yielded

good results and outlined new strategies to contrast climate changes. This conﬁrms

the importance of woody products in carbon storage, in line with the principle of

absorption permanence, in addition to the identiﬁcation of innovative mechanisms

for the solution of the problems concerning double accounting. Other experiences

conducted at the international level, such as in New Zealand, have demonstrated

that forest owners’ participation in the carbon credit market ensures better results,

in terms of reduction of carbon emissions, and generates new income resources that

could be reinvested in the agricultural-forest sector, besides many positive exter-

nalities associated with the forestation of new areas and the management of the

existing ones (employment, tourism, bioenergy, etc.).

From an economic point of view, the prices observed in the examined markets

show heterogeneous levels due to internal and external market variables that differ

according to the type of project, geographical reference area, actors involved, etc.

The mean prices observed in the examined markets actually point out the need for

measures and actions to be taken by public bodies to ensure both the market

transparency and the stability and increase in prices with a view to including the

primary sector in climate change mitigation policies.

6 Conclusions

This article is intended to provide some suggestions for the implementation of a

voluntary local market model through the involvement of the agricultural and

forestry sectors. Over the last few years, the scientiﬁc community has introduced

new accounting methodologies and upgrade old standards to improve the

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Land Use Sector Involvement in Mitigation Policies Across Carbon Markets

253

procedures for calculating the GHG absorption related to the primary sector. As a

matter of fact, despite the sink role of the primary sector, notably of forestry, this is

not yet recognised as being eligible as the main tool to contrast climate change.

The full awareness of the general public on this problem and the increasingly

targeted experiments are showing the positive effects obtained through the win–win

collaboration between the public–private sector and the world of research. One of

them is the cut of transaction costs through the development of transparent and

accurate standardised models.

The new market experiences should be based on what has been actually

achieved, showing at the same time great adaptation and ﬂexibility capacity, with

a view to minimising the risks and errors made so far. With this in mind, the

implementation of a local voluntary market of carbon credits could contribute to

reduce the associated risks, by testing new methodologies and improving the

governance and the awareness of all actors involved. New offset mechanisms

shall ensure increasing certainty on the GHG stored by the primary sector. The

economic beneﬁts to the private and public sectors should not be considered as

being independent and exclusive but quite exhaustive and comprehensive. The

environmental beneﬁts, the reduction of degradation of natural resources and the

development of an environmental awareness in the community should be viewed as

primary mitigation elements both for developed and developing countries, with a

view to putting a stop to climate change.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Evaluating the Role of Soil Variability

on Potential Groundwater Pollution

and Recharge in a Mediterranean

Agricultural Watershed

Antonio Coppola, Alessandro Comegna, G. Dragonetti,

and Lorenzo De Simone

Abstract

Regional-scale studies on groundwater vulnerability assessment of

non-point source agrochemical contamination suffer either from no evaluation of

uncertainty in data output, in that of qualitative modelling, or from prohibitively

costly computational efforts, in that of deterministic modelling. By contrast, a

methodology is presented here which integrates a solute transport model based on

transfer function (TF) and a geographic information system (GIS). The methodol-

ogy (1) is capable of solute concentration estimation at a depth of interest within a

known error conﬁdence class, (2) uses available soil survey and climatic and

irrigation information and requires minimal computational cost for application

and (3) can dynamically support decision-making through thematic mapping.

Raw data (coming from different sources) include: i) water table depth, ii) soil

texture properties, iii) land use, and iv) climatic information with reference to a

study area located in southern Italy. Such information has been then manipulated in

order to generate data required for the subsequent hydrological modelling. Simu-

lated breakthrough curves were generated for each soil textural class. They are

texture-based travel time probability density functions (TF

), describing the

leaching behaviour of soil proﬁles with similar soil hydrological properties. The

latter, in turn, were estimated by indirect estimation techniques such as pedotransfer

A. Coppola (

)

Department of European and Mediterranean Cultures-Architecture, Environment, Cultural

Heritage (DiCEM), Hydraulics and Hydrology Division, University of Basilicata, Matera, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

A. Comegna (

)

School of Agricultural Forestry Food and Environmental Sciences (SAFE), University of

Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

G. Dragonetti

Land and Water Division, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute, IAMB, Bari 70010, Italy

L. De Simone

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Surveillance and Response Unit

(SRS), Solna, Sweden

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_17

255

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A. Coppola et al.

functions (PTFs) to overcome the trouble of intensive in situ and/or laboratory

determinations of soil hydraulic and hydrodispersive properties, which are gener-

ally lacking for regional-scale studies. Results showed large differences in the

magnitude of the different travel times and related uncertainties among different

proﬁles. The lower or higher vulnerability was found to be mainly related to the

average silt content of the soil proﬁles.

1 Introduction

Non-point source (NPS) pollution in the vadose zone (simply deﬁned as the layer of

soil extending from the soil surface to the groundwater table) is a global environ-

mental problem. The knowledge and information required to address the problem

cross several technological and sub-disciplinary lines: spatial statistics, geographic

information systems (GIS), hydrology, soil science and remote sensing (Corwin

1996;

Corwin et al.

1997;

Coppola et al.

2014).

As discussed by Stewart and Loague (2003), the main issues encountered in NPS

groundwater vulnerability assessment are the large spatial scales, the complex

processes that govern ﬂuid ﬂow and solute transport in the unsaturated zone

(Comegna et al.

2010;

Coppola et al.

2011),

the absence of unsaturated zone

measurements of diffuse pesticide concentrations in 3D regional-scale space

(as these are difﬁcult, time-consuming and prohibitively costly) and the computa-

tional effort required for solving the nonlinear equations for physically based

modelling in heterogeneous media at regional scale (Coppola et al.

2014).

This

results in signiﬁcant simplifying assumption in NPS contaminant leaching models.

Currently, existing regional-scale leaching models can be grouped into four

main categories, ranging from qualitative models that rely on index and overlay

techniques, over simple drainage algorithms, to stream tube models coupled to

process-based numerical simulations (Stewart and Loague

2003;

Coppola

et al.

2014).

The large datasets of physical factors involved in the leaching process

required for regional-scale studies limit the use of deterministic methods that would

result in more realistic estimates of solute concentration. Besides, the use of overlay

models encounters less computational and data lacking issues, though resulting in

relative output information in terms of risk factor.

As a compromise solution, an approach is presented here which is based on

coupling of texture-based transfer function (TF

) and GIS modelling. TF

are

texture-based travel time probability density functions describing a characteristic

leaching behaviour for soil proﬁles with similar soil hydraulic properties. They

actually represent the result of an upscaling procedure applied to Jury’s transfer

function model (TFM) (Jury and Roth

1990).

GIS represents a spatially enabled database management system (DBMS) that is

able to depict real-world geographic features of relevance to the leaching process,

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Evaluating the Role of Soil Variability on Potential Groundwater Pollution.

. .

257

serving both as a baseline data depot for hydraulic modelling and a ﬁnal gateway for

output representation and interactive delivery.

With these premises, the main objective of this study was developing a regional-

scale simulation methodology for vadose zone leaching that is capable of overcom-

ing the limits of both fully deterministic and fully qualitative models in that it relies

on easily available and accessible data and on affordable computational efforts and

ﬁnally offers quantitative answers to groundwater vulnerability to agrochemical

leaching at regional scale within a deﬁned conﬁdence interval.

This result was pursued through (1) the design and building of a spatial database

containing environmental and physical information regarding the study area, (2) the

development of the TF

for layered soils and (3) the ﬁnal representation of results

through digital mapping.

One side GIS modelled environmental data in order to characterise, at regional

scale, soil proﬁle texture and depth, land use, climatic data, water table depth and

potential evapotranspiration. On the other side, such information was implemented

in the development of a set of TF

, each describing the leaching behaviour of soil

proﬁles with speciﬁc hydraulic properties. The latter, in turn, were estimated by

area-speciﬁc pedotransfer functions developed on our own texture–hydraulic prop-

erties datasets coming from several sites in the investigated area. A wide area

(about 12,000 ha) in the Metaponto plain in southern Basilicata, Italy, was

completely characterised by a pedological point of view by digging several soil

proﬁles. The textural properties of soil horizons of each soil proﬁle were converted

to the corresponding hydraulic properties by using a PTF speciﬁcally calibrated for

the soils of the area (mainly silty loam, silty and silty clay). The solute travel times

to water table for speciﬁc soil proﬁles were then imported back into GIS, and ﬁnally

estimation of groundwater vulnerability for each soil unit was represented into

a map.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1

Study Area

For this study, the area of interest was subbasin of Metaponto agricultural site,

located in southern Basilicata, Italy, across the municipalities of Policoro, Scanzano

Jonico, Montalbano Jonico and Pisticci, approximately 11,698 ha in size and

crossed by two main rivers, Sinni and Agri, and from many secondary water bodies.

Figure

shows the location of the study area.

Topographically, the area is characterised by fairly distinct variations in eleva-

tion in the western part of the basin, away from the coast, and extremely ﬂat terrain

in the nearshore portions of the basin, to the south and east. The main soils in the

area are the “soils of the alluvial plains” and the “soils of the Ionian coastal plain”.

The soils of the alluvial plains are those formed along the ﬂuvial channels of the

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258

A. Coppola et al.

Fig. 1

Study area overview (circles indicate soil proﬁle sites)

rivers crossing the area. Therefore, they are soils on alluvial and lake deposits, with

variable grain size from clayey to stony. The soils of the Ionian coastal plain consist

of marine deposits of different ages, from Pleistocene to Holocene, and of alluvial

deposits of variable grain size. The soils of the internal areas, less extensive than

those described above, are those that formed on a substrate of sandstones with

alternations of marl and clay.

Much of the basin is used for agricultural purposes. Major crops and land uses

receiving applications of nutrients and chemicals include cereals, vegetables and

fruit orchards. Soils that support these land uses range from the loam to clay loam,

in the northern portions of the basin, to the ﬁne silty loams in the southern basin.

2.2

Geo Database Implementation

A spatial digital database for the study area was established through the assembly of

various publicly available physiographic data sets (land use, soils, climate, depth to

groundwater, elevation).

Such datasets characterised features considered to be directly or indirectly

involved in the leaching process, thus characterising boundary conditions. Data

was structured into feature datasets and raster datasets, in that both discrete and

continuous data types were implemented in this study (Table

1).

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Evaluating the Role of Soil Variability on Potential Groundwater Pollution.

. .

Table 1

Summary of the GIS datasets

Feature

Land use

Soil texture

Soil proﬁle depth

Precipitation (years)

Temperature (year

mean)

Elevation

Freatimetry

Data

format

Vector

Raster

Spatial resolution

Digitised form 1:10,000

scale

Cell size 20 m

Data source

INEA-Progetto

SIGRIA

Basilicata region

Senise

Basilicata region

Senise

AdB

259

SAFE-Univ. Basilicata

AdB

Table 2

Land use classes

from the original map are

summarised into 10 main

categories

Land use

Non-vegetated area

Forest

Cereal

Fruit tree

Leguminous

Olive orchard

Vegetable

Grass land and pasture

Ploughed areas

Grape orchard

Number

1505

445

1689

456

1003

1083

229

Hectares

17.705

0.524

10.794

50.564

0.624

4.206

10.959

0.660

17.816

3.131

Data manipulation and spatial analysis were performed to ﬁnally produce output

datasets as described in the previous table.

2.2.1

Land Use

Land use dataset, published within

Progetto Sigria, INEA 2000,

was used to

describe cropped species at parcel level and furthermore to deﬁne the spatial extent

of the whole GIS project in this work. Table

shows cropped surfaces in hectares

summarised by aggregated land use classes.

Fruit orchards land use dataset, published within

Progetto Sigria, INEA 2000,

was used to describe cropped species at parcel level and furthermore to deﬁne the

spatial extent of the whole GIS project in this work. Fruit orchards cover almost

44 % of total study area, followed by ploughed areas covering 15 %, vegetables

10 % and cereals 10 %. Non-vegetated areas, such as urban or water bodies, make

up for 15 %.

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260

A. Coppola et al.

Soil data were originally acquired from regional geology agency in tabular

format for 52 soil proﬁles sampled across the study area (see circles in Fig.

For

each proﬁle, a ﬁctitious soil system was adopted, assuming the soil to be composed

of only two layers, A and B, the ﬁrst being superﬁcial and 40 cm thick (this was the

average depth of the ﬁrst horizon for all the soil proﬁles and the latter reaching the

water table). A ﬁctitious soil proﬁle was obtained for each real soil proﬁle by

averaging textural data with a weighted procedure using horizon depths as weights.

Data were then imported into GIS and spatial structure of sand, clay and silt

contents, and depth measures were analysed with Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis

(ESDA) tools, by means of classic statistical and geostatistical analyses. After

interpolation, continuous surfaces for sand, clay, silt and soil proﬁle depth were

produced in raster format for both A and B soil layers (maps not shown).

Sand, silt and clay raster datasets were concurrently queried with a map calcu-

lator using a set of SQL statements, each deﬁning a texture constraint for each soil

class according to USDA classiﬁcation system, in order to produce two ﬁnal texture

maps (Fig.

2),

one for each ﬁctitious soil layer.

Fig. 2

Texture map for layers (a) and (b)

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Evaluating the Role of Soil Variability on Potential Groundwater Pollution.

. .

261

2.2.2

Precipitation, Temperature and Evapotranspiration

Climate data on a daily basis for the 1999–2009 period for all the climatic stations

localised in the area of interest were provided by Regional Agriculture Services.

The

Voronoi algorithm

was used for spatial partitioning of the study area according

to the subarea of inﬂuence of each rainfall station. The

Voronoi

cells for the area

under study are shown in Fig.

Fig. 3

Positions of meteorological stations and Voronoi polygons of the study area.

Alphanumeric

codes

identify the soil proﬁles used for this study

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2.2.3

Elevation

Contour lines on IGM 1:5,000 base maps were digitised, and a triangulated irreg-

ular network was created from them and ﬁnally converted into a raster dataset.

From elevation grid, slope grid was derived as well.

2.2.4

Depth to Groundwater

The laboratory of Soil and Contaminant Hydrology of the University of Basilicata

provided tabular data for 192 measuring wells, 51 of which were located within the

study area. Once imported into GIS as a point feature dataset, groundwater depth at

measuring stations was interpolated using Kriging, thus resulting in a continuous

surface (map not shown).

2.3

Geoprocessing and Data Handling

The role of GIS in this study was to provide hydrological modelling with a spatial

database carrying all the necessary information for leaching assessment: textural

class, soil depth, water table depth and net water recharge.

In order to achieve such goal, datasets carrying spatially distributed information

of these data, collected as described above, were aggregated at homogenous soil

units level on one common layer enabling further data manipulation and derived

variable creation, such as water recharge.

Homogenous soil units (being areas characterized by sufﬁciently similar

leaching behaviour) were deﬁned intersecting soil texture information for layers

A and B through geoprocessing tools, which ﬁnally resulting in a polygon feature

vector dataset. Each polygon deﬁnes a combination of two overlaying textural

classes; in all there were 31 possible texture combinations classes.

Finally zonal attribute transfer was then performed from land use, rain,

freatimetry, temperature, slope and elevation datasets to soil unit feature dataset,

in order to associate to each soil unit such spatially distributed information aver-

aged for each polygon surface. Furthermore for each soil unit potential evapotrans-

piration (ETp) was calculated using the Thornthwaite formula (USDA

1975).

At this point the output spatial database was set up with all calculated, estimated

and derived physical attributes related to each polygon representing an instance of a

homogeneous soil unit. In Table

are shown three explanatory records out of the

total 7,872. Such database was implemented in hydrological modelling as discussed

in the following section.

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Table 3

Spatial database for three explanatory records

Polygon

Texture

overlay

Clay loam

on clay

Clay loam

on clay

loam

Clay loam

on clay

loam

Land

use

Fruit

tree

Olive

orchard

Fruit

tree

Mean

depth

layer A

0.628

0.611

Mean depth of

groundwater

table

26.238

15.682

Annual

mean

900

1,099

263

Annual net

water

recharge

623

1,261

0.595

11.024

988

1,340

2.4

2.4.1

Stochastic Development of TF

Texture-Based Hydraulic and Solute Travel Time Distributions

A large dataset of hydraulic properties was already available for the textural classes

of the area. They were measured in the laboratory on undisturbed soil samples

(490 samples) collected at the soil surface during several previous measurement

campaigns.

Soil water retention was described by the unimodal

θ(h)

relationship proposed

by van Genuchten (1980) and expressed here in terms of the scaled water content

) as follows:

Àm

¼ �½

þ j

ð1Þ

where

(cm

À1

and

are curve-ﬁtting parameters and

the pressure head.

Mualem’s expression was used to calculate relative hydraulic conductivity,

(Mualem

1976);

assuming

1/n, van Genuchten (1980) obtained a closed-

form analytical solution to predict

at a speciﬁed volumetric water content

1=m

Þ ¼

ð2Þ

where

is a parameter accounting for the dependence of the tortuosity and the

correlation factors on the water content and

is the hydraulic conductivity at

For each soil sample a detailed particle-size distribution (PSD) was also avail-

able. PSD data were used as a basis for estimating soil water retention (and the

corresponding parameters in Eq. (1) of soil horizons of each of the observation soil

proﬁles by using the physico-empirical PTF approach proposed by Arya and Paris

(1981). Hereafter, such an approach will be referred to as the AP approach. The

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264

A. Coppola et al.

original formulation based on a single optimisation parameter (αAP) was thus made

more ﬂexible by assuming a variable

αAP(h)

with the pressure head

Arya et al. (1999) also derived an expression to compute

K(θ)

directly from the

PSD, based on the same soil structure model leading to the

θ(h)

function. We opted

for using the method only for estimating the saturated hydraulic conductivity. The

whole hydraulic conductivity curve was estimated by using Eq. (2), with retention

parameters and

estimated by the AP method and setting

0.5. A speciﬁc

αAP(h)

curve was obtained for each of the textural class present in the investigated area. The

measured hydraulic properties were partly (200 samples) used for the PTF calibra-

tion, by keeping the remaining data for the PTF validation.

In synthesis, site-speciﬁc PTF allowed estimating a complete set of hydraulic

parameters (θ

n, K

and

0.5), for each of the textural classes found in

the area. A Kolmogorov–Smirnov test showed that all the parameters were nor-

mally distributed. The mean and the covariance matrix for the ﬁve parameters (all

but

τ)

were computed for each of the textural classes encountered along the soil

proﬁles. Thus, random ﬁeld of the ﬁve parameters was produced with a Monte

Carlo procedure from the correlated multivariate normal distribution for any tex-

tural classes by generating a vector

of independent standard normal deviates and

then applying a linear transformation of the form

, where

is the desired

vector of means and

is the lower triangular matrix derived from the symmetric

covariance matrix

decomposed by Cholesky factorisation. In other words,

the procedure generated random ﬁeld with correlated parameters by multiplying the

lower triangular Cholesky decomposition of the covariance matrix with vectors,

containing ﬁve

N(0,1)

randomly distributed numbers and by summing up the result

to the mean of the parameters. We recall that using the statistical moments of the

parameters of the hydraulic functions for generating the random ﬁeld to be used in

Monte Carlo simulations implies the assumption that soil hydraulic variability can

be described by the statistical distribution of such parameters. This widely used

approach is conceptually simple and is based on the idea of approximating stochas-

tic processes by a large number of equally probable realisations. In this study,

400 sets of equally probable hydraulic parameter realisations were generated for

each of the textural classes.

As for solute transport, solute travel time distributions were deduced by applying

the method proposed by Scotter and Ross (1994), which estimates breakthrough

curves of a tracer at a given depth for a given soil starting with the hydraulic

conductivity function of that soil. According to the transfer function model (TFM),

the ﬂux concentration at a depth

z, C

(z,

I),

given a time-varying ﬂux concentration

at the input surface

(0,

is given by

z; I

Þ ¼

I f

z; I

ÞdI

ð3Þ

where

(z,

is the steady-state travel time distribution (travel time pdf) deﬁning

the changes in the normalised concentration in the drainage as the cumulative

drainage

builds up. For steady-state ﬂow conditions,

qt,

where

is the

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265

steady-state ﬂow rate and

is the time. Scotter and Ross (1994) assumed a gravity-

induced water ﬂow, a conservative and nonreactive solute and a purely convective

ﬂow, thus ignoring any convective mixing of solute ﬂowing at different velocities

and the effects of molecular diffusion. With these assumptions, the

z, t

I=q

for a pulse input of solute can be obtained as

z; t

1 dK

¼À

z; t

Þ ¼

ð4Þ

For a log-normal distribution of the cumulative drainage (or of travel times) the

analytical expression for the pdf is a log-normal density function

Þ ¼ p

ﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ

exp

2σ

2π

σI

ð5Þ

in which

and

are the parameters of the log-normal pdf.

For the case of a stochastic–convective with log-normal distribution of travel

time (CLT) model, if the

(z,

) is known at a given depth

, then the TFM model

allows for scaling that pdf to a depth

according to the equation

;

Þ ¼

ð6Þ

This means that

and

+ ln(z

). If, to the contrary, the transport

process obeys to the advection–dispersion (AD) model,

0.5z

) and

+ ln(z

) + 0.5z

For each of the hydraulic parameter random vectors obtained for each textural

class, a corresponding ﬁctitious breakthrough curve,

(z,

I),

at an arbitrary depth of

40 cm was calculated according to Eq. (4) for a solute pulse injection at the

surface. An inert, non-adsorbed (a tracer) solute was selected for simulation pur-

poses. In order to calculate the cumulative drainage

an hourly inﬂow rate was

calculated by assuming that all the net recharge (the rainfall inﬁltrated in the soil

minus the evapotranspiration) was uniformly distributed over the year and that

storage and surface run-off were negligible.

By simply averaging over the 400 simulated breakthrough curves

(z,

), an

upscaled probability density function was obtained. Effective parameters

μ(μ

) and

σ(σ

) at 40 cm for each textural class were estimated by ﬁtting Eq. (5) to the

upscaled curve.

2.4.2

Upscaled Solute Travel Time Distribution for Textural Sequences

By assuming the independence between two successive layers along a textural

proﬁle, assumed to consist of two layers A and B, the mean

E(I, z

80 cm) and

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266

A. Coppola et al.

variance VAR(I,

80 cm) were obtained by summing up the

E(I, z

40 cm) and

VAR(I,

40 cm) of the two textural classes for any textural sequence. The

E(I, z)

and the VAR(I,

were calculated as

I; z

Þ ¼

exp

0:5σ

Á Â À Á

VAR

I; z

Þ ¼

exp 2μ

exp

ð7Þ

Once the upscaled 80 cm pdf was obtained, it was scaled with depth down to the

water table according to the following hypothesis:

1. The transport mechanism in the second layer down to the water table is the CLT

(the effective parameters were scaled according to the CLT model).

2. The transport mechanism in the second layer down to the water table is the CDE

(the effective parameters were scaled according to the CDE model).

3 Results and Discussions

The outputs of the numerical simulations, carried out in a stochastic framework,

were interpolated for producing continuous maps of the modal travel time, along

with the corresponding uncertainty levels. Modal travel times for each of the

textural sequences and for both the assumed transport mechanisms are synthesised

in the maps in Fig.

4a, b;

they exhibit remarkable differences in terms of travel time

estimations for same soil textural classes due to the underlying transport approaches

and soil layer conceptualisations.

Independently on the mechanism assumed, the spatial variability of textural

layers was a major factor inﬂuencing the ﬁeld water and solute transport in alluvial

soils. Results showed large differences in the magnitude of the different travel times

and related uncertainties among different proﬁles. The lower or higher vulnerability

was found to be mainly related to the average silt content of the soil proﬁles. Higher

travel time uncertainty was mainly related to the clay content in the range 20–40 %.

Fig. 4

(a) Modal travel time map for CLT process; (b) modal travel time map for AD process

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Fig. 5

Vulnerability risk

for land use classes

267

As for the CDE mechanism, travel times are generally higher than for the CLT

by an average of 88 %, a minimum of 30 % (loam on loam) and a maximum of

220 % difference (silty clay on clay). Highly vulnerable areas, being characterised

by a shorter travel time, showed to be more subject to estimation value ﬂuctuations

depending on the transport mechanism compared to more protected areas.

Of course, the local travel time should be interpreted according to the speciﬁc

local conditions, especially in terms of land use, crop, water table depth and rainfall.

Referring to CDE transport mechanism, travel time values were reclassiﬁed using

natural breaks classiﬁcation method into three main vulnerability classes: low risk,

medium risk and high risk. In ﬁgure

is showed a comparison between land use

classes versus vulnerability risk classes, using a spatial join constraint. Very low

vulnerability resulted associated with areas not subject to intensive agrochemical

inputs such as forest, to unutilized areas and to fruit tree orchards; fruit and

vegetables together with olive orchards and cereals classes showed an average

medium risk. Finally grape orchards and grassland/pasture land are associated

with high risk.

Spatial distribution, fragmentation and perimeter to area ratio of land use patches

were taken into account to ensure data homogeneity during generalisation of travel

times and subsequently land use class risk rankings (Batty and Longley

1994).

4 Conclusions

All the past efforts to evaluate solute travel times to groundwater at the regional

scale have frequently been hindered by the problem of how to account for the

variability of soil layering. Past studies tended to decompose a proﬁle into several

(usually three to four) functional horizons and assumed that they are identical

within a certain area when the water ﬂow and the solute transport are modelled.

This method may be suitable for some genetic soils that consist of intrinsic genetic

horizons and do not vary signiﬁcantly in the thickness of every horizon within a

certain area. However, for alluvial soils, which are widely distributed in the alluvial

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268

A. Coppola et al.

plain investigated in this paper, the textural layering is very complex. Accordingly,

to accurately quantify the solute transport process at regional scale, we took the

spatial variability of textural layers explicitly into account. Information on soil

textural proﬁles was coupled with a texture-based transfer function solute transport

model to conduct a stochastic analysis of the solute transport in the Metaponto area

(Basilicata region, South Italy). The aim was to assess the effect of spatial variabil-

ity of textural layers on the solute travel times, along with their probability

distributions. The strength of the methodology becomes apparent especially if

compared to qualitative models that, while being the most common solution for

regional studies, rely uniquely on empirical conceptualisations of chemical

leaching processes and give as outputs only general qualitative indication rankings

without quantiﬁcation of risk in terms of travel times.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

References

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V (2011) Solute transport scales in an unsaturated stony soil. Adv Water Resour 34:747–759.

doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2011.03.006

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media. Water Resour Res 12:513–522. doi:10.1029/WR012i003p00513

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Grazing and Biodiversity Conservation:

Highlights on a Natura 2000 Network Site

Pierangelo Freschi, Mauro Musto, Rosanna Paolino, and Carlo Cosentino

Abstract

This paper provides a summarisation of information on the biodiversity

of Natura 2000 sites of Basilicata and the impacts of grazing on protected habitats

and species. Besides, using a case study of a site particularly rich in biodiversity as

an example, we described the application of the Driving Force, Pressure, State,

Impact and Response (DPSIR) framework to evaluate the impacts of grazing and to

propose corrective measures for ensuring restoration and conservation of habitats.

Similar situations to those described on grazing in the study site can arise for any

kind of anthropogenic disturbance, which makes the approach here described and

discussed suitable for a large-scale use.

However, the challenge for Natura 2000 network in Basilicata is not strictly to

propose measures aiming at conserving biodiversity, but rather to build a better

awareness of the ‘natural heritage’ concealed within the sites, in order to create an

active involvement of the stakeholders in the process of devising policies toward

biodiversity conservation.

1 Introduction

The agroecosystems of Basilicata region and, more in general, of south of Italy,

have been shaped over the centuries through the perpetuation of traditional agri-

cultural practices (e.g. grazing, mowing and burning), based on the balance

between exploitation and conservation of available resources. Seminatural Medi-

terranean grasslands are a paradigmatic example of sustainable exploitation of

natural resources in this regard.

Nowadays, a major threat to ﬂora and fauna of many European agroecosystems

such as those of Basilicata is the rapid mutation of agricultural practices: seminat-

ural grasslands, heathlands, arable steppes and agroforestry systems are actually

experiencing signiﬁcant loss of biodiversity of ﬂora and fauna. This is mainly due to

P. Freschi (

) • M. Musto • R. Paolino • C. Cosentino

School of Agricultural, Forest, Food, and Environmental Sciences (SAFE), University of

Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_18

271

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272

P. Freschi et al.

the intensiﬁcation of agriculture on productive sites (Dorrough and Scroggie

2008)

and to the concurrent abandonment of traditional practices in marginal areas

(MacDonald et al.

2000).

Relaunching traditional agricultural practices is often seen as a potential solution

to biodiversity loss. The establishment of the Natura 2000 network in application of

Council Directives 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds and 92/43/EEC

on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and ﬂora may represent a

promising restoration strategy to relaunch these traditional practices. Once fully

operational, this ecological network will consist of a system of protected areas [i.e.

Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs)]

designated to assure the long-term survival of Europe’s most valuable and threat-

ened species and habitats.

An innovative feature of this ecological network is to ensure the protection of

biodiversity taking account of ‘economic, social and cultural requirements and

regional and local characteristics’ (Directive 92/43/EEC, art. 2). This means that

the areas making up the network are not considered as exclusively reserved,

inviolable and fully protected areas where any human activity is forbidden, but

rather as areas in which man’s traditional activities must be compatible with the

conservation of habitats and rare, endangered or vulnerable wild species (fauna and

ﬂora), seeking a sustainable management from the ecological, economic and social

point of view.

Among traditional agricultural activities, grazing is considered as a complex

disturbance capable of altering natural processes, affecting species persistence and

inﬂuencing the structure and composition of plant communities (Olff and Ritchie

1998).

Grazing inﬂuence on biodiversity is generally negative when livestock are

managed in a way which is not ecologically rational (Bakker

1998;

Rook

et al.

2004).

For instance, high stocking rates may result in a homogenising of the

vegetation pattern (Bakker

1998).

Conversely, if properly managed and carefully

controlled, grazing can be a promising tool to maintain or restore open landscapes,

to hinder forest encroachment and, hence, to preserve and enhance biodiversity

¨¨

(Bakker

1998;

Pykala

2004;

Sutherland

2002).

In order to relaunch grazing through the enhancement of its ecological role, it is

important to identify its critical factors affecting negatively biodiversity to deﬁne

appropriate actions which ensure a sustainable management of land resources.

This paper describes the grazing impacts on the integrity of Natura 2000 sites of

Basilicata, focusing especially on the problems of biodiversity conservation

concerning a site particularly affected by poor grazing management. The challenge

for a site like this is not only to identify some policy measures capable of enhancing

the positive and mitigate the negative effects of grazing, but also to involve the

stakeholders in the process of devising policies toward biodiversity conservation.

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Grazing and Biodiversity Conservation: Highlights on a Natura 2000 Network Site

273

2 Overview of Basilicata’s Natura 2000 Network

In Basilicata there are 50 Sites of Community Importance (SCI), which protect rare,

endangered or vulnerable natural habitats and species of plants or animals (other

than birds) of European importance, and 17 Special Protection Areas (SPA), which

protect signiﬁcant numbers of wild birds and their habitats. The overall extension of

these sites is 170,479 ha (17.1 % of the regional area); the total area of SPAs is

160,540 ha (16.1 % of the regional area), whereas the surface of the SCIs is equal to

61,179 ha (6.1 % of the regional surface).

Overall, these sites comprise a complex spatial pattern of biodiversity as Basi-

licata region has a remarkable morphological and geological variability. In fact, its

territory (9,992 km

) comprises mountains (70 %), hills (20 %) and plains (10 %);

besides, it comprises small coastal areas, which are situated along the Ionian and

Tyrrhenian Seas.

3 Community Habitats of Basilicata’s Sites

To provide a better understanding of the complex mosaic of different habitats found

in Basilicata, the regional sites can be distinguished in terms of altitude according to

three main areas:

1. Mountain environments (ME)

2. Hills and plains (HP)

3. Coastal relieves and shoreline (CS)

Concerning the 50 SCIs, most of them (29) fall in mountain areas, whereas the

remainder is distributed between hills and plains (13) and coastal relieves and

shoreline areas (8) (Musto et al.

2013).

These sites protect 303 habitat types listed in Annex 1 of the Habitats Directive.

Most of them are distributed between ME (142; 46.86 %) and CS (102; 33.66 %)

SCIs, whereas the remainder (59; 19.47 %) has been found in HP SCIs. This means

that ME and CS sites support greater biodiversity than HP sites.

The most common habitat found in these sites is the 6210 [seminatural dry

grasslands and scrubland

facies

on calcareous substrates (Festuco-Brometalia)

(*important orchid sites)]: it has been recorded in 26 SCIs on 50. In most of the

cases (84.62 %), the habitat falls in ME SCIs, whereas the remainder (15.38 %) is

equally distributed between HP and CS SCIs. Other common habitats in

Basilicata’s sites are 91 M0 (Pannonian–Balkanic turkey oak–sessile oak forests),

9210 (Apennine beech forests with

Taxus

and

Ilex)

and 9180 (Tilio-Acerion forests

of slopes, screes and ravines). These habitats have been identiﬁed mainly in ME

SCIs (91 M0: 69.57 %; 9210: 95.45 %; 9180: 87.50 %) and, to a lesser extent, in CS

SCIs (91 M0: 30.43 %; 9210: 4.55 %; 9180: 12.50 %). The third most common

habitat is the 6220 [Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the

Thero-

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274

100%

90%

80%

70%

P. Freschi et al.

Distribution

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

Community habitat groups

Fig. 1

Distribution of community habitat groups found in Basilicata by site type. Community

habitat group codes: 11¼open sea and tidal areas; 12¼sea cliffs and shingle or stony beaches;

13¼Atlantic and continental salt marshes and salt meadows; 14¼Mediterranean and thermo-

Atlantic salt marshes and salt meadows; 21¼sea dunes of the Atlantic, North Sea and Baltic

coasts; 22¼sea dunes of the Mediterranean coast; 31¼standing water; 32¼running water—

sections of water courses with natural or seminatural dynamics (minor, average and major beds)

where the water quality shows no signiﬁcant deterioration; 40¼temperate heath and scrub; 51¼

sub-Mediterranean and temperate scrub; 52¼Mediterranean arborescent matorral; 53¼thermo-

Mediterranean and pre-steppe brush; 61¼natural grasslands; 62¼seminatural dry grasslands and

scrubland facies; 63¼sclerophyllous grazed forests (dehesas); 64¼seminatural tall-herb humid

meadows; 65 mesophile grasslands; 81¼scree; 82¼rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation;

83¼other rocky habitats; 91¼forests of Boreal Europe; 92¼Mediterranean deciduous forests;

93¼Mediterranean sclerophyllous forests; 95¼Mediterranean and Macaronesian mountainous

coniferous forests

Brachypodietea

(*important orchid sites)]: it has been found in 12 sites, and most of

them are ME SCIs (50 %), while the remainders are CS and HP SCIs (both 25 %).

The habitats found in Basilicata can be aggregated into 24 community habitat

groups by using the classiﬁcation scheme according to the Interpretation Manual of

European Union Habitats (European Commission—DG EUR27 2007). As shown

in Fig.

some groups are present only in some type of sites (e.g. 40, 51, 61, 65, 81

and 95 only in ME SCIs). Instead, other groups are shared by two (e.g. 11, 12, 14,

53 and 63) or three site types (e.g. 31, 32, 52, 64, 82, 83, 91, 92 and 93).

The conservation status of the community habitat groups is quite varied

(Table

1).

It ranges from ‘bad’ to ‘good’ in ME and CS SCIs, with some groups

(e.g. 61 and 83 in ME SCIs; 31 in CS SCIs) showing bad structure with insufﬁcient

conservation and unfavourable future prospect. Conversely, the habitat groups

found in HP SCIs are in a better conservation status, with most of them being at

good conservation status, and two at excellent status (i.e. 81 and 82).

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Table 1

Conservation status

of community habitat groups found in Basilicata by site type

(mean

SD)

Habitat group

Natura 2000 SCI types

–

2.12

0.25

2.00

0.00

2.00

0.00

2.50

0.71

2.00

0.00

–

1.00

0.00

1.98

0.33

2.00

0.00

2.00

0.00

2.00

0.00

2.00

0.00

2.04

0.47

1.00

0.00

2.09

0.24

2.06

0.22

2.14

0.38

1.75

0.50

–

1.67

0.58

–

1.70

0.84

1.57

0.53

–

2.00

0.00

–

1.86

0.38

2.00

0.00

2.00

0.00

–

3.00

0.00

3.00

0.00

–

1.83

0.41

1.25

0.50

2.33

0.58

–

1.44

0.49

1.71

0.49

2.00

0.00

2.30

0.45

1.40

0.42

1.53

0.24

1.00

0.00

2.00

0.00

–

1.50

0.71

2.00

0.00

–

1.67

0.56

–

2.00

0.00

–

2.33

0.58

2.00

0.00

2.25

0.50

1.90

0.22

2.00

0.00

–

Within the Natura 2000 Standard Data Form, the degree of conservation of the structure and

functions of each habitat is recorded into three levels, 1, 2 and 3, respectively, indicating an

average or reduced, good and excellent conservation status. – not present.

standard deviation

Community habitat group codes: 11¼open sea and tidal areas; 12¼sea cliffs and shingle or stony

beaches; 13¼Atlantic and continental salt marshes and salt meadows; 14¼Mediterranean and

thermo-Atlantic salt marshes and salt meadows; 21¼sea dunes of the Atlantic, North Sea and

Baltic coasts; 22¼sea dunes of the Mediterranean coast; 31¼standing water; 32¼running water

—sections of water courses with natural or seminatural dynamics (minor, average and major beds)

where the water quality shows no signiﬁcant deterioration; 40¼temperate heath and scrub; 51¼

sub-Mediterranean and temperate scrub; 52¼Mediterranean arborescent matorral; 53¼thermo-

Mediterranean and pre-steppe brush; 61¼natural grasslands; 62¼seminatural dry grasslands and

scrubland

facies;

63¼sclerophyllous grazed forests (dehesas); 64¼seminatural tall-herb humid

meadows; 65 mesophile grasslands; 81¼scree; 82¼rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation;

83¼other rocky habitats; 91¼forests of Boreal Europe; 92¼Mediterranean deciduous forests;

93¼Mediterranean sclerophyllous forests; 95¼Mediterranean and Macaronesian mountainous

coniferous forests

SCI types:

mountain environments,

hills and plains,

coastal relieves and shoreline

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4 Livestock Farming within Basilicata’s Sites

Livestock production is underrepresented in Natura 2000 Basilicata Network, as

most of farms with livestock are located in the surroundings of the sites, with only a

few farms within the site boundaries.

These farms vary widely in the number and kind of livestock (Freschi

et al.

2013).

Some raise few but different livestock, primarily for home consump-

tion, whereas others specialise in a single livestock type, especially the larger farms.

In some cases, livestock are raised in semi-extensive or extensive system, whereas

in others animals are kept in conﬁned conditions.

Many of the farms also raise crops, but others specialise in animal production

and have few hectares. However, most of the sampled farms are small- and

medium-sized farms with pastured livestock types (e.g. sheep, goats and cattle)

and few other livestock (e.g. horses, pigs and poultry).

During hiking, Podolian cattle were found to be the most common breed kept in

the sites. This breed is the most important Italian cattle breed raised in extensive

conditions of south of Italy, and it is particularly widespread in Basilicata, where it

is observed the highest consistence (Anabic

2014).

The spread of this breed is

mainly due to its ability to exploit marginal areas and to display site-speciﬁc

adaptations. This type of rearing is based on cow–calf production system, with

livestock grazing on the pastures almost year-round. The adoption of this system

often has a dual-purpose, producing milk (mainly to make Caciocavallo cheese)

other than meat. For this autochthonous cattle breed, the occurrence of a seasonal

migration to high pastures was also observed in some sites: between June and

October, some herds of Podolian cattle from neighbour regions (e.g. Campania and

Calabria) were found to graze within the sites on summer pastures.

Small-sized ﬂocks/herds of sheep and goat were also observed to graze/browse

extensively and seasonally on sites’ surfaces. These animals of local hardy breeds

are characterised by relatively low nutritional requirements, high resistance to

disease and low productivity (they are mainly used for cheeses and meat). Small

herds of two or three horses kept at pasture were also met, but to a lesser extent than

cattle, sheep and goats.

5 Grazing Impacts on Basilicata’s Sites

Within the Natura 2000 Standard Data Form, grazing is listed as an impact (code:

140) that may have an inﬂuence on the conservation and management of the site.

Information available on grazing impact within and around each site includes the

following:

– Inﬂuence, recorded into three categories: positive, negative or neutral

– Surface (i.e. the percentage of the surface area of the site affected by grazing)

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– Intensity, recorded into three levels, 1, 2, 3, respectively, indicating a low,

medium and high intensity

These data were elaborated to provide a better understanding of how the

vegetation resources of the sites are used by livestock.

Our results showed that over a half (53.85 %) of the grazing impacts recorded in

the Natura 2000 Standard Data Forms exert a negative inﬂuence on Basilicata’s

SCIs. As shown in Table

half of the cases of negative inﬂuence have been

observed on ME SCIs, where the largest percentage of surface damaged by live-

stock has been found (50 %). The remainder cases of negative inﬂuence are

distributed between HP (28.57 %) and CS (21.43 %) SCIs, where the percentage

of damaged surface is around 30 %. In ME and HP SCIs, grazing intensity has a

mean value

>2,

indicating that grazing exerts an inﬂuence that goes beyond the

threshold of a medium inﬂuence. The cases of neutral inﬂuence on Basilicata’s

SCIs account for 34.62 %; they have been mainly found on ME SCIs (77.78 %;

Table

and to a lesser extent on the other sites (11.11 % for both HP and CS SCIs).

The percentage extension in which grazing’s neutral inﬂuence has been recorded

ranges from 20 (HP SCIs) to 44.43 % (ME SCIs), whereas the intensity ranges from

1.50 (both HP and CS SCIs) to 1.64 (ME SCIs). A few cases of positive inﬂuence

have been observed (11.54 %) and are equally distributed in ME and in CS SCIs

(50 % in both; Table

2).

The percentage extension is greater in ME SCIs than in CS

SCIs (30.66 % vs. 16.67 %, respectively), whereas no difference has been observed

in terms of intensity.

The negative inﬂuence of grazing manifests itself through a series of degradation

phenomena, such as reduction of ground cover, trampling and fouling, soil com-

paction, increased or accelerated erosion, loss of vegetation as a result of selective

grazing or browsing, increased species rarity as a result of excessive grazing/

browsing, bush encroachment, weed invasion and damage to nesting birds and

other wildlife. These phenomena are responsible for the low conservation status of

some community habitat groups (e.g. 61, 95, and 62; Table

1),

and are essentially

due to:

1. Overgrazing, as livestock food requirements exceed the productive capacity of

the grazing land

2. A poor distribution of livestock, with overutilisation of some areas of the sites

and over-resting of others

Conversely, positive effects on biodiversity have been observed in those sites

characterised by positive and, in many cases, neutral inﬂuence of grazing. For

instance, moderate levels of grazing have been found important for increasing

fertility soils and promoting species richness at the local scale as well as vegetation

cover, which contributes to protecting the soil from erosion. Moreover, grazing at a

low stocking rate was also important for controlling the succession of scrub into

woodland. Besides, in some lightly grazed patches of grasslands, grazing resulted in

higher plant species diversity with many precious ﬂoristic elements ﬂowering

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Table 2

Distribution, extension and intensity of grazing on Basilicata’s SCIs by site type

Inﬂuence of grazing

Negative

Distribution

Extension

50.00

28.57

21.43

52.21

31.13

30.00

Neutral

Distribution

77.78

11.11

Positive

Distribution

50.00

0.00

50.00

SCIs

Intensity

2.21

2.38

1.67

Extension

44.43

20.00

33.50

Intensity

1.64

1.50

Extension

30.67

–

16.67

Intensity

1.67

–

1.67

Percentage distribution of cases of grazing’s inﬂuence by site type

Mean percentage extension of sites’ areas where grazing exerted its inﬂuence

Average value of the intensity of grazing’s inﬂuence on the integrity of the sites

– Not present

P. Freschi et al.

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(e.g.

Anacamptis morio, Orchis italica,

etc.), thus conﬁrming that grazing is very

important for the conservation of orchids (Pihl et al.

2001).

Reducing negative grazing’s impacts is a major need to maintain and enhance

these examples of biodiversity within Basilicata’s sites. This can be achieved by

determining thresholds for optimum herbage utilisation and land resource conser-

vation and, hence, by developing and encouraging the adoption of appropriate

grazing management practices. In the following pages, we present the detrimental

effects of grazing on a site and delineate the directions of future changes for

assuring a sustainable conservation of the site.

6 A Focus on Grazing Impacts on a Basilicata’s Site

The SCI Valle Basento Grassano Scalo-Grottole (IT9220260) is situated in the

centre (longitude: 16˚14´37´´; latitude: 40˚35´53´´) of Basilicata and extends for

882 ha into four municipalities (Calciano, Garaguso, Grassano and Grottole) of the

Province of Matera. With an altitude ranging between 172 and 309 m above sea

level, the site represents a stretch of the Basento river, one of the ﬁve rivers which

cross the regional territory.

Several aspects make this site a territory of huge natural interest. A particular

feature is the presence of ravines, characterised by gorges with vertical walls and

originated from clayey ground. The vegetation along the river comprises a riparian

forest, whose arboreal and shrubby hygrophilous elements are associated with

grassy steppe elements. Thanks to its geomorphological and microclimatic condi-

tions, the site hosts 94 animal species of the Nature Directives: 88 birds, 3 ﬁshes,

1 mammal species and 2 reptiles declared ‘endangered’ and put under protection

status through EU Directives 79/409 and 92/43. Moreover, this area is one of the

breeding sites of otters (Lutra

lutra),

birds of prey (e.g.

Ciconia nigra, Milvus

migrans,

etc.) and endemic insect fauna.

The site protects seven habitat types of the Habitats Directive (Table

3),

with one

of them being a priority habitat: 6220*. A high proportion (>20 %) of the site is

covered by the grasslands included in this habitat. In general, its occurrence is

related to extensive grazing (sheep and cow), though its pastoral interest is low (San

Miguel

2008).

The second largest habitat is the habitat 92A0 (Salix

alba

and

Populus alba

galleries), accounting for 148.18 ha (16.80 % of the whole site

extension). The smallest habitat is 3250 (constantly ﬂowing Mediterranean rivers

with

Glaucium ﬂavum)

with only 1.76 ha (Table

3).

Overall, the community habitats cover an area of 521.27 ha (>59 % of the whole

site territory), and the priority habitat alone accounts for

>34

% of the total area of

the community habitats. The Natura 2000 Standard Data Form of the site shows

that, in most cases, the degree of conservation of the structure and functions of the

community habitats has been classiﬁed as ‘average’, meaning that their conditions

should be monitored, albeit they are not so severely damaged. Conversely, the

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Table 3

Main characteristics of the habitat types present on the site

Habitat

Type

1430—Halo-

nitrophilous scrubs

(Pegano-Salsoletea)

3250—Constantly

ﬂowing Mediterra-

nean rivers with

Glaucium ﬂavum

3280—Constantly

ﬂowing Mediterra-

nean rivers with

Paspalo-Agrostidion

species and hanging

curtains of

Salix

and

Populus alba

5330—Thermo-Med-

iterranean and

pre-desert scrub

6220—Pseudo-steppe

with grasses and

annuals of the

Thero-

Brachypodietea

92A0—Salix

alba

and

Populus alba

galleries

92D0—Southern

riparian galleries and

thickets (Nerio-

Tamaricetea

and

Securinegion

tinctoriae)

Total

P. Freschi et al.

Habitat assessment

Cover

(ha)

3.53

Representativity

Surface

Conservation

Assessment

1.76

71.44

112.90

179.93

148.18

3.53

521.27

–

The degree of representativity of the natural habitat type on the site can be excellent (A), good

(B) or signiﬁcant (C)

The area of the site covered by the natural habitat type in relation to the total area covered by that

natural habitat type within the national territory can be classiﬁed as follows: A (15.1–100 %), B

(2.1–15 %) and C (0–2 %)

The degree of conservation of the structure and functions of the natural habitat type can be

excellent (A), good (B) or average or reduced (C)

The global assessment of the value of the site for conservation of the natural habitat type can be

excellent (A), good (B) or signiﬁcant (C)

conditions of the habitats representing the vegetation along the river (i.e. 92A0 and

92D0) are a matter of high concern, as their conservation status is ‘reduced’.

According to the Natura 2000 Standard Data Form, there are three main activ-

ities inﬂuencing negatively the conservation status of the site: grazing (code: 140),

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Fig. 2

Cattle grazing on a ﬂoodplain of the Basento river

cultivation (code: 100) and leisure ﬁshing (code: 220). Whereas cultivation and

leisure ﬁshing have been identiﬁed as ‘external’ activities, grazing has been listed

as the only one activity exerting its negative inﬂuence within the site (Fig.

2).

Therefore, to restore, maintain and preserve the integrity of the site, it is essential to

explore the reasons behind the impacts of grazing on the habitats of the sites.

6.1

Application of DPSIR Framework to Analyse Grazing

Impact Within the Site

Nowadays, the need to make the economic growth and development compatible

with preservation of natural resources and the environment cannot prescind from

the adoption of strategies enabling the parallel assessment of socio-economic and

environmental parameters. This goal can be achieved by using the DPSIR frame-

work (EEA

1999).

In recent years, this framework has become widely adopted by

the majority of the European Community nations, as it is the best way to structure

environmental information concerning speciﬁc environmental problems and to

reveal existing causes, consequences, effective responses and trends and the

dynamic relationships between these components (Pillman

2002).

This is possible

thanks to the deﬁnition of policy-relevant indicators (i.e. sets of physical, biological

or chemical variables) in order to describe (1) the driving forces, (2) the resulting

environmental pressures, (3) the state of the environment, (4) the impacts resulting

from environmental changes and (5) the possible societal response.

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The application of this framework allows the identiﬁcation of the driving forces

(e.g. industry, transport, tourism, agriculture, etc.) that produce pressures on the

environment (e.g. pollution, soil excavation, climate change, etc.), which then

degrade the state of the environment, which then impacts on ecosystems and

human health, causing society to respond with various policy measures

(e.g. regulations, information and taxes), which can be directed at any other part

of the system.

In the following sections, we describe the application of DPSIR framework to

assess the impacts of grazing on the habitats of the SCI Valle Basento Grassano

Scalo-Grottole. The components in the DPSIR framework were deﬁned as follows.

Driving forces

Only three farms are situated within the site (Fig.

2).

Most of the

animals (369 on 375) owned by these farms are sheep (308) and goats (61) reared

under semi-extensive rearing conditions (Table

4).

This means that grazing is

usually limited: its duration is variable and is about 4–6 h per day, usually in the

late morning or evening. The animals are then housed and given some forages, crop

residues or concentrates.

Overall, these animals do not pose a real threat to the habitats of the site.

However, as the protected area is not fenced, the natural resources of the site are

important sources of forage also for grazing livestock from farms situated in the

surroundings of the site. Indeed, the site is also attractive to livestock for the

presence of Basento river, which represents the only available water source to

drink in the area.

Therefore, to assess the impacts of these farms on the habitats of the site, we used

a geographic information system to create different buffer zones of 500-m radius

around the site and recorded all those farms situated within a distance of 2.5 km

from the boundaries of the site. As can be seen in Fig.

there are many farms in the

surroundings of the site, which may explain the impacts on the habitats of the site.

To better asses this phenomenon, we analysed the main characteristics (i.e. rearing

system, species and their consistence) of all the farms located within two different

buffer zones (with radii of 500 and 1,000 m) around the site. We restricted the

analysis to a distance of 1 km because the farms located within this distance are

more likely to be responsible for the conservation status of the habitats. However,

this restriction does not exclude the possibility that livestock reared under semi-

extensive or extensive conditions from farms located at a greater distance may also

graze on the site.

As shown in Fig.

four farms are located within the 500-m buffer zone. In these

farms, there are, under semi-extensive conditions, 113 cattle, 398 sheep, 45 goats

and 6 horses (Table

4).

A total of 1,022 animals are reared in the three farms located

within the 1,000-m buffer zone (Fig.

Table

4).

However, the semi-extensive

rearing system is adopted only by one farm, which raises 115 animals (45 cattle,

7 sheep, 4 goats and 59 horses).

Pressures

Our inspections showed that the livestock reared under semi-extensive

or extensive conditions are among the main pressures in the site, as the animals

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Livestock population within and in the surroundings of the site

Distance from boundaries

of the site (m)

500

1,000

308

369

113

398

562

137

115

900

907

283

Rearing system

Semi-extensive or extensive

Domestic species

Cattle

Sheep

Goats

Pigs

Horses

Total

Cattle

Sheep

Goats

Pigs

Horses

Total

Total animals

158

713

110

1,046

150

900

1,050

Intensive

Fig. 3

Map showing the farms (points) located within (black

solid line)

and in the surroundings of

the site.

Lighter lines

represent buffer zones of 500-m radius around the site. Polygons ﬁlled with

diagonal stripes

indicate the areas where the negative effects of grazing were mainly observed

exert a signiﬁcant impact on its vegetation. The key factors responsible for grazing

land degradation are essentially:

1. Excessive animal density

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2. Lack of rotation

3. Grazing at inappropriate times relative to the ﬂora productivity cycle

Grazing is often ‘uncontrolled’, with Podolian cattle usually grazing all the year

round, whereas small ruminants are grazing for a fraction of the day. Moreover,

cattle, sheep, goats and horses often graze together on most of the grasslands and

other habitats of the site. According to the European Corine Land Cover classiﬁ-

cation, the extent of the available surface for grazing is 464.70 ha (52 % of the

whole site extension). Considering this surface and the number of grazing animals

from farms located in the surrounding of the site (<1,000 m), the grazing pressure

(number of grazing animals per ha of grazing surface) is 0.65 livestock units

(LU) per ha. Indeed, this density value may be undervalued: as stated before, the

grazing animals from farms located at a distance greater than 1,000 m were

excluded from our analysis, although they may reach the site to graze and drink.

State

The pressure exerted by grazing produced many negative effects on the state

of the site, such as deterioration of vegetation cover, change in state of threatened

species and endemic species, soil degradation, etc. This is particularly evident in the

three main areas (Fig.

3),

which together account for 46.96 % (414.22 ha on 882 ha)

of the total surface of the site and 89.14 % of the total grazing surface (414.22 ha on

464.70 ha). By combining the current vegetation biomass available for grazing, its

nutritional value and the nutritional requirements of livestock, the grazing capacity

of these areas should not exceed 0.25 LU ha

−1

year

−1

. In the remaining part of the

site, grazing does not produce negative effects. However, the grazing capacity in

these areas should prudently remain at moderate levels for habitat conservation

(i.e. 0.35 LU ha

−1

year

−1

). These proposed values for this site are consistent with

those for year-round grazing reported in literature (Piek

1998;

Putfarken

et al.

2008).

Impacts

In the three main areas of the site (Fig.

3),

the conservation status of much

of the vegetation is very poor as a consequence of selective grazing. In many parts

of these areas, selective grazing leads to a homogenisation or trivialisation of the

ﬂoristic composition. Under uncontrolled grazing, in fact, livestock tend to repeat-

edly graze the most palatable species leaving behind the less or non-desirable

species such as

Eryngium campestris, Ononis spinosa, Silybum marianum,

Onopordum acanthium

and

Asphodelus microcarpus.

The productivity and biodiversity of these areas are also affected by fouling:

faeces and urine caused some patches of these areas to be unattractive to livestock.

In other parts, we observed the destruction of much of the herbaceous vegetation as

livestock compacted soil by trampling it, making paths and tracks, or repeatedly

congregating in the same areas. Among them, some riparian zones within the area

1 (Fig.

were very crowded especially in hot weather as livestock congregate

along the Basento river to graze and drink. They overgrazed and trampled riverside

plants, leaving bare banks and depositing manure and urine in concentrated areas

around riparian areas or directly into the river. In these areas, soil compaction by

trampling also reduced water inﬁltration and increased surface run-off and erosion.

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Moreover, in some points, livestock trampled and break down riverbanks through

the pressure exerted by the hooves. The reduction (and, in many cases, the destruc-

tion) of vegetation by trampling was also observed on the slopes, where soil erosion

and sediment transport were increased by the reduction of both the interception of

rainfall by plants and the resistance to run-off created by the plants themselves.

Overgrazing is also detrimental to the wild fauna of the site. For instance, some

grasslands of the areas 1 and 2 (Fig.

belong to the habitat 6220*, which is

considered the ideal habitat for many threatened or rare bird species (San Miguel

2008).

However, changes in its vegetation structure and species composition

associated with uncontrolled grazing are the most likely cause for some breeding

failures. It has been reported that grazing alters habitat structure and thus the

suitability of the sward for nesting and feeding birds (Vickery et al.

2001).

This

has probably led to a decline of some birds such as stone curlew (Burhinus

oedicnemus)

in the grasslands of the site.

Responses

To tackle the identiﬁed pressures and minimise their impacts on the

site, the responses (measures) to be developed should be effective in restoring or

maintaining the habitats and wildlife that have been disturbed by overgrazing.

Therefore, the measures should aim at promoting a rational use of existing vege-

tation resources for grazing. To achieve this goal is fundamental the introduction of

regulating grazing: the farmers who want to use the vegetation resources of the site

have to evaluate the nutritional needs of livestock, assess forage quality and

quantity, regulate the acreage of access and control which parts of the pasture/

range that the animals have access to. By controlling livestock density and through

appropriate rotation periods, farmers can improve the forage production, while still

being beneﬁcial to the land.

In this context, the introduction of some management facilities is important.

Permanent and/or temporary fences may be used to keep livestock from particular

areas at speciﬁc times of the year or to exclude it from vulnerable areas such as the

riparian zones. Fencing off these areas of the site as a vegetative buffer is perhaps

the only way to limit livestock river access and protect riverbanks from hoof trafﬁc

or overgrazing. The exclusion of livestock from riparian zones makes essential to

consider the introduction of drinking troughs in different areas of the site, where

water may be pumped from near or far sources by the use of solar-powered pumps.

According to Putfarken et al. (2008), the placement of such management facilities

should be carefully considered when different herbivore species are kept on the

same pastures as they guarantee that all habitats are grazed and thus are kept in a

management status favourable to conservation.

An improvement of grazing management may also be achieved by introducing

alternating grazing between different species of livestock into the habitats of the

site, since they differ in diet preferences, terrain use and their potential to inﬂuence

vegetation development (Walker

1994;

Bakker

1998;

Rook et al.

2004).

As a

general rule, cattle should be used to graze off tall late season grasslands initially,

to be followed by sheep or horses once the grassland height has been reduced to a

level that these other grazers can cope with more effectively. The adoption of an

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P. Freschi et al.

alternate grazing system does not necessarily imply the cessation of the year-round

grazing system adopted for the Podolian cattle, but rather a rethinking of its role as a

tool to maintain or to create highly diverse ecosystems involving minimal livestock

care. Moreover, at low densities, a year-round grazing system comprising both

cattle and sheep appears to be suitable for the conservation of diverse pasture

landscapes, since both species have complementary feeding preferences, and

these also show seasonal changes (Putfarken et al.

2008).

A better management of the different grazing behaviours of cattle, sheep, goats

and horses found in the site may lead to the consumption of different species and

parts of plants, resulting not only in a better utilisation of grazing resources (Frame

1992;

Rinehart

2006)

but also in a substantial improvement of biodiversity of ﬂora

and fauna (Bakker

1998;

Osoro et al.

1999;

Evans et al.

2006).

It has been reported

that the ‘multispecies grazing’ at low stocking rates may both increase the structural

and compositional variation of the vegetation and help to control the encroachment

of woody species (Bakker

1998).

According to Osoro et al. (1999), the management

of mixed ﬂocks of goats with other livestock under moderate grazing pressure may

contribute to the diversiﬁcation of the production and to enhance animal perfor-

mance of other domestic herbivores, landscape biodiversity by reducing ﬁre risk

and the economic conditions in marginal areas. Moreover, it has also been reported

that, on condition that stocking rates are low, the abundance of some bird species

may be enhanced in areas that have seen signiﬁcant shifts from mixed livestock

grazing to grazing dominated by single species of animals (Evans et al.

2006).

7 Conclusion

Achieving conservation objectives within Natura 2000 sites may represent a big

challenge, since protection cannot be accomplished simply through a suite of

measures aimed at restricting and/or forbidding the use of the available resources,

as it happens in other protected or conservation areas.

As stated before, the idea underpinning the creation of the Natura 2000 network

is that certain human activities inside a site should be performed in order to

contribute to the biodiversity conservation. Obviously, this implies an understand-

ing of the relationships between anthropogenic disturbance regimes and biodiver-

sity, thus allowing the adoption of targeted protection policies aimed at avoiding the

most negative impacts and enhancing the positive interactions among activities.

Concerning grazing, in this paper we focus on the main impacts of this tradi-

tional activity on the integrity of Basilicata’s sites and provide recommendations

for improving its management and ensuring biodiversity conservation. However,

this translates not only into the proposition of corrective measures, but it also

requires an active stakeholder participation, as farmers or other individuals who

are potentially affected by the measures need to be involved and contribute to the

setting of priorities and objectives of the management plans of the sites.

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Grazing and Biodiversity Conservation: Highlights on a Natura 2000 Network Site

287

Therefore, managing grazing activities in the sites presents a challenge in terms

of devising policies that are compatible with the ecological integrity mandate and

that are acceptable to stakeholders. This means that the establishment of the Natura

2000 network has, above all, to contribute to the forging of a culture promoting the

concept of ‘natural heritage’, in order to value, utilise and conserve the available

resources in Basilicata appropriately for the beneﬁt of all, present and future.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Evaluation of Native Grasses for Sustainable

Turfgrass in the Bioclimatic Mediterranean

Region

Simonetta Fascetti, Giovanna Potenza, Vincenzo Candido,

Donato Castronuovo, Leonardo Rosati, Michele Perniola, Stella Lovelli,

Roberto Viggiani, and Vito Marchione

Abstract

This study reports the results of a research project (Mi.T.E.A.Med)

funded by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture. The research was organised in two

phases: the ﬁrst one involved the screening of the study area (Southern Italy) to ﬁnd

suitable turfgrass species and the second one focused on ex situ cultivation to test

the ecotypes with salinity resistance. During the ﬁrst step of the research, 11 sites

from 6 regions of Southern and Central Italy were identiﬁed. In these sites,

24 ecotypes of

Cynodon dactylon

(L.) Pers. were collected and their habitus,

phenology, and some biometric parameters have been determined. During the

2 years of research, both botanic and agronomic characterisation of the collected

C. dactylon

ecotypes was carried out. Some native accessions showed a behaviour

similar to commercial cultivars, while an ecotype from the Abruzzo Region showed

better results compared to the commercial cultivars for several quality indices. The

results of this project showed that Mediterranean-adapted native grass species

(e.g.

Cynodon dactylon

(L.) Pers.) are worth investigating for turfgrass, making

for their performance and low resource requirement (especially water). This species

can be used as promising alternatives to conventional non-native turfgrasses.

S. Fascetti (

) • G. Potenza • V. Candido • D. Castronuovo • L. Rosati • M. Perniola •

S. Lovelli • R. Viggiani

School of Agricultural Forest Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata,

85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

V. Marchione

Department of Agricultural and Environmental Science, University of Bari, 75100 Bari, Italy

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_19

289

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S. Fascetti et al.

1 Introduction

The production and planting of turfgrasses is a fast-developing business with a

growing demand for easy-to-use materials that usually involves the use of

non-native species. Unfortunately, most of these species are invasive that may

pose a threat to the biodiversity conservation of natural ecosystems (Celesti-

Grapow et al.

2009)

Furthermore, the low adaptability of foreign varieties to the prevailing pedo-

climatic conditions in Italy (Panella

1980, 1981;

Veronesi and Panella

1985)

prompted the beginning of a research programme to detect suitable native grass

species for turfgrass uses. Unlike forage varieties, those considered for turfgrass

should have limited growth thin leaves, ability to recover rapidly after thinning and

resistance to trampling.

In Italy the most interesting turf species are grasses belonging to the subfamilies

Festucoideae and Eragrostideae. The former are also deﬁned as

‘cool-season

grasses’ because of their preferential adaptation to cool and moist environments.

The target species for turf uses in this subfamily are Kentucky bluegrass (Poa

pratensis

L.) characterised by a strong rhizomatous habitus and adapted to form

long-lasting turfs of intermediate texture; perennial ryegrass (Lolium

perenne

L.)

for fast-grown establishment; creeping red fescue (Festuca

rubra

L. subsp.

rubra)

and chewings fescue (Festuca

rubra

L. subsp.

commutata

Gaudin.), which are both

with ﬁne texture and rather tolerant to shading (the former has a rhizomatous

habitus and is suited to sport lawns, the latter is tufted and less tolerant to tram-

pling); tall fescue (Festuca

arundinacea

Schreb.), which has a rough texture but

good tolerance to turf wearing; and creeping bentgrass (Agrostis

stolonifera

L.),

characterised by the ﬁnest leaf texture and suited to high-quality turfs (Veronesi and

Panella

1985).

In Italy, the utilisation limit for all these species is represented by

summer heat and drought stresses that typically affect the Mediterranean areas

(Volterrani et al.

1997;

Russi

2004;

Annicchiarico and Russi

2005;

Marchione

2004, 2008).

On the contrary, species of Eragrostideae subfamily are deﬁned as

‘warm-season

grasses’, being characterised by good growing ability under high temperatures and

by vegetative standstill with low temperatures (Volterrani et al.

1997).

In particular, Bermuda grass (Cynodon

dactylon

(L.) Pers.) is the most rising

species for turf establishment in the Mediterranean coastal and southern environ-

ments of Italy, where the climatic conditions are not suitable to cool-season grasses.

In Italy, many turfgrasses species have been introduced from foreign countries,

but they showed a low adaptability to the prevailing Mediterranean climatic

conditions (Panella

1980;

Veronesi and Panella

1985).

In fact, the plants come

almost exclusively from environments different from those of the Mediterranean

and the unsatisfactory performance is mainly due to the high susceptibility to

summer stress and reduced growth in winter.

In this context, the availability of genetic material tolerant to summer drought

and salinity has become a strong need for the sector of turfgrasses in the

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Evaluation of Native Grasses for Sustainable Turfgrass in the Bioclimatic.

. .

291

Mediterranean area, especially following the spreading of turfgrass landscapes in

arid and seashore areas.

The indigenous grass species are an important source of genetic variability that

can provide better performance in terms of tolerance to salinity. In fact, some recent

studies revealed that indigenous grass species display high phenotypic variability

(Potenza et al.

2014).

Herein we provide the main results of the Mi.T.E.A.Med research project

(improved turfgrass in Mediterranean environment: use of autochthonous species

of plant and optimisation techniques) funded by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture.

This study was carried out on several native populations of Bermuda grass

(Cynodon

dactylon

(L.) Pers.) that were evaluated for turf characteristics with the

aim of selecting the most promising ecotypes in terms of lower water requirements

and tolerance to salinity.

2 Materials and Method

The research was organised in two phases: the ﬁrst one involved the screening of

the study area ﬂora (Central and South Italy) to ﬁnd suitable turfgrass species

characteristics for the Mediterranean bioclimate, while the second one focused on

ex situ cultivation to test the ecotypes with salinity resistance.

The collection was carried out during summer 2011 and winter 2012. Samples of

several macrotherm native species were collected in coastal and hilly, especially on

sandy substrates dry and/or salty. Consequently to a preliminary screening, we

selected for the detailed investigation only native populations of

C. dactylon

sampled in 11 sites (Fig.

distributed across 6 administrative regions in three

distinct areas: the centre (regions of Lazio and Abruzzo), the south-west (regions of

Basilicata, Calabria, Campania) and the south-east of Italy (Table

1).

The average annual temperatures of the collection sites ranged from 14 to 18

with annual rainfall of less than 600 mm received predominantly in the autumn and

winter (Biondi and Baldoni

1995).

Altitude of the collection sites ranged from 0 to

400 m a.s.l.

Every specimen was sampled from each location following the approach

suggested by Romani et al. (2002) by walking on a transect. Whole plants (includ-

ing roots embedded in soil) at the vegetative stage were collected every 2–5 m

along the transect. A total of 24 samples of

Cynodon dactylon

were collected across

the 10 sites.

Stolon fragments were transplanted into plastic pots in open ﬁeld at Potenza

(40

N; 15

E; 728 m a.s.l.), Southern Italy. The 450 cm

plastic pots were

ﬁlled with 300 cm

of a specially formulated substrate for turf (Compo Sana

‘Terriccio

per tappeti erbosi’, COMPO Agro Specialities—private society in Italy).

Each plant received 500 ml of water every 3 days. Morphological variables were

measured both in situ and ex situ during the growing season (May–October 2012).

Successively, plant samples were vegetatively multiplicated by transplanting stolon

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292

S. Fascetti et al.

Fig. 1

Collected sites in the bioclimatic Mediterranean region

fragments into plastic pots in a cold greenhouse at Pantanello farm (+40

+16

E; 8 m a.s.l.), Metaponto. When vegetative material was enough, ﬁeld plots

were established at

‘Lucana

Prati’ sod farm (+40

N, +16

E; 6 m a.s.l.),

Metaponto (Fig.

2).

The soil of the experimental area was clay textured (64 % clay, 17 % silt and

19 % sand), with good total nitrogen (1.1

‰)

and available phosphorus (25 ppm)

and rich in exchangeable potassium (350 ppm). The 24 samples of Bermuda grass

were compared in a randomised complete block design with three replications. Plot

surface area was 2.25 m

(1.5 m

1.5 m).

Between the ﬁrst and the second year (December 2012–March 2013), the colour

loss interval was determined by calculating the duration (d) of vegetative stasis on

the basis of

colour and ground cover

of each turf plot.

During the second year, from May to September 2013, the following data were

recorded:

Growth rate:

it is measured by a turfmeter as weekly vertical growth of

turfs maintained at 45 mm cutting height by a rotary mower.

Colour index:

represents the intensity of the green colour, and it is inﬂuenced by genetic charac-

teristics of the species, environmental stress (water and/or thermal stress), nutri-

tional deﬁciencies and parasitic attacks. This parameter has been monthly measured

using a Turf 500 NDVI-Turf Color Meter (Spectrum Technology, Aurora, USA)

that measures the reﬂected light in the spectral bands of red (600 nm) and infrared

(850 nm) which correlate with the concentration of chlorophyll pigments in the

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Evaluation of Native Grasses for Sustainable Turfgrass in the Bioclimatic.

. .

Table 1

List of sample sites for

Cynodon dactylon

collection

Samples

Location

Massafra (TA)

Vasto (CH)

Pisticci (MT)

Ginosa (TA)

Montescaglioso (MT)

Feronia (RM)

Diamante (CS)

Conversano (BA)

Matera (MT)

Metaponto (MT)

Ascea (SA)

Altitude (m a.s.l.)

167

302

408

100

105

268

Latitude (UTM)

677949

478443

634308

631894

651327

666275

650379

301916

578877

678146

640701

654410

515761

293

Longitude (UTM)

4492375

4661223

4476229

4470852

4462126

4484012

4491214

4668620

4376962

4537292

4501305

440640

4438447

leaves. From the measurement of NDVI, a colour index on a scale from 1 (¼ brown)

to 9 (¼ dark green) can be calculated.

Turf quality,

a synthetic index evaluated by

visual observations: it is inﬂuenced by the uniformity, density, turf colour, leaf

texture, percentage of coverage and presence of weeds and insect and disease

damage. It varies from 1 (poorest quality) to 9 (highest quality—ideal turf). Ground

cover percentage (GCP): it is an assessment of the ground cover of the plot; this

index was evaluated monthly by visual estimation.

Contemporary, stolon fragments were transplanted in honeycombed styrofoam

containers ﬁlled with a small quantity of peat (Fig.

3).

These containers were placed

over plastic containers containing 15 L of aerated Hoagland nutrient solution

(EC

2.5 dS m

À1

; pH

6.0) formulated with tap water (Hoagland and Arnon

1950).

Solution contained the following nutrients as mmol L

À1

: NO

13.5, NH

1.5, PO

43À

1.0, K

6.0, Ca

5, Mg

2.0 and SO

42À

2.0. Styrofoam containers were

subemerged to the soil surface in the solutions. Loss of nutrient solution was

compensated by a weekly substitution. Nutrient solution pH was daily adjusted to

get 6.5–7.0; it was constantly aerated and maintained at a constant volume. An

automated heating system started working each time air temperature dropped under

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294

S. Fascetti et al.

Fig. 2

Field plots established at

‘Lucana

Prati’ sod farm (+40

N, +16

E; 6 m a.s.l.),

Metaponto

C, while the greenhouse roof opened as soon as the temperature exceeded 25

C. An automatic weather station was placed in the greenhouse in order to measure

meteorological data.

After 10 days of establishment and turf adjustment in the greenhouse, a salt

treatment was imposed. Plants were subjected to one level of salt stress, 15 dS m

À1

corresponding to 150 mM NaCl through NaCl addition (commercial salt). There

was a control treatment maintained at a 2.2 dS m

À1

salt level. Each experimental

treatment was replicated three times arranging the pots according to a randomised

block factorial scheme. In each pot, there were three plants for a total of nine plants

per experimental treatment. In order to avoid osmotic shock to plants, NaCl

addition to the nutrient solution occurred gradually.

Growth measurements were carried out during the experiment, the following

morphological parameters were measured biweekly with a digital calliper: leaf

length (l), leaf width (L) and distance between internodes of the latest fully

expanded leaf (i) with ﬁve measurements per characteristic plant. Measurements

were taken at a regular interval of 14 days. After 60 days, plants were harvested: dry

matter and leaf number were obtained and counted, respectively. Total dry matter

(hypogeous and epigeous) was obtained drying the samples in a ventilated oven at

C until constant weight. Leaf area was measured at the end of the experiment

trial, by a surface electronic detector (Model 3100, Li-Cor, Inc., Lincoln, NE,

USA).

At the end of the experiment, Na

and Cl

ion concentration of leaf tissue was

measured. Samples were oven dried at 70

C and ﬁnely ground. A subsample of

leaves from each of the two treatments was dried, ground and extracted in HNO

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Evaluation of Native Grasses for Sustainable Turfgrass in the Bioclimatic.

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295

Fig. 3

Honeycombed styrofoam containers ﬁlled with a small quantity of peat of aerated

Hoagland nutrient solution

(65 % v/v) to measure Na

concentrations on leaf extracts using a ﬂame spectro-

photometer (Flame Spectrophotometer, Varian 220 FS). Another subsample was

ashed at 60

C for one night, and subsamples of dry matter were used for extraction

of Cl

–

, using a carbonate and sodium bicarbonate solution. Cl

was measured by a

titration with silver nitrate solution.

2.1

Statistical Analysis

All data were analysed with ANOVA procedure and means were compared with

Duncan’s test, using SigmaPlot 11.0 for Windows (Systat Software Inc., San Jose,

CA, USA). Signiﬁcant differences were identiﬁed by Tukey’s test with 5 % and 1 %

signiﬁcance. Afterwards, to assess the different patterns in behaviour of the eco-

types in response to aesthetic and agronomic characteristics, cluster analysis was

performed with the procedure CLUST using Ward’s method (Ward J.

1963)

signiﬁcantly affected parameters (monthly growth,

colour index, aesthetic general

appearance (AGA), green cover percentage, interval loss of green colour).

addition all salinity data were subjected to a cluster analysis (CA) using Ward’s

method (Ward J.

1963).

These analyses were performed using Statistica V.10

(StatSoft Inc., USA).

3 Results and Discussion

The results of the agronomic behaviour carried out in 2012 and 2013, of the

24 native ecotypes of

C. dactylon,

are shown in Tables

2, 3, 4

and

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296

S. Fascetti et al.

Table 2

Monthly and cumulative growth of ecotypes collected in Central and Southern Italy

Samples

Monthly assessed growth (mm)

May

June

July

137

August

September

Cumulative

230

135

142

114

184

146

174

168

101

188

226

192

116

137

213

212

230

158

359

213

Values not having any letter in common are signiﬁcantly different at

0.05 (Duncan’s test)

The accessions caused signiﬁcant difference in each of the tested parameters

when subjected to analysis of variance. For simplicity, the results for each param-

eter have been analysed separately.

The

‘ecotypes’

showed signiﬁcant differences in each of the tested parameters

when subjected to analysis of variance. For simplicity, the results for each param-

eter have been analysed separately.

3.1

Total Growth

The mean total growth during the period May–September was 170 mm (Table

2),

with extreme variations observed between ecotype 12 (63 mm) and ecotype

23 (359 mm). A similar behaviour was also found by Marchione (2008) on

12 commercial varieties of Bermuda grass.

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Evaluation of Native Grasses for Sustainable Turfgrass in the Bioclimatic.

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297

Table 3

Colour index and days of winter colour loss interval of ecotypes during the trial period

(2012–2013)

Mean

May–

Sept

(2013)

6.5

6.2

6.5

6.2

6.1

6.3

6.2

6.4

5.9

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.0

6.2

6.1

6.4

6.2

6.1

6.2

6.1

Winter

colour loss

interval (d)

133

146

125

146

151

146

143

151

152

146

138

145

146

157

138

153

166

173

141

133

138

146

138

143

Samples

May

6.8

6.5

7.0

6.7

6.8

6.7

6.8

6.2

6.7

6.8

6.9

6.7

7.0

6.8

6.7

6.9

6.8

7.1

6.8

June

6.7

6.2

6.6

6.7

6.3

6.2

6.6

6.1

6.3

6.6

5.9

6.3

6.7

6.5

6.2

6.4

6.5

6.3

6.5

6.3

July

6.8

6.3

6.4

6.3

5.9

6.1

6.3

6.2

6.1

6.5

6.4

5.6

6.2

6.5

6.3

6.2

6.3

6.2

6.5

6.3

5.8

5.7

6.1

August

6.0

6.1

6.2

5.5

6.0

6.3

6.1

5.6

5.8

6.0

6.1

5.7

6.1

6.0

6.4

5.3

5.6

5.8

5.9

5.6

5.7

5.4

September

6.0

6.1

5.4

5.8

6.3

6.1

5.7

6.3

6.2

6.0

6.1

6.2

5.5

5.3

5.8

5.5

6.2

5.9

5.8

5.7

Values not having any letter in common are signiﬁcantly different at

0.05 (Duncan’s test)

The extreme variability observed among the accessions compared is due in part

to the genotypic characteristics of each accession and in part to an attack of

phytoplasma

‘BGWL’,

which resulted in an arrest of the vegetation and the

discolouration of the leaf blades especially for accessions 12, 18, 9, 10 and 16.

A prostrate growth habit lowered the values of the cumulative growth for the

accessions 2, 3, 4 and 17; on the contrary, accessions that showed the greatest

growth were 23 (359 mm) and 21, 1 and 14, all with values ranging around 230 mm.

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Table 4

Turf quality of ecotypes during the trial period (2013)

Samples

Mean

May

6.01

4.09

7.02

5.03

5.01

5.04

4.09

5.03

5.08

6.01

6.00

3.08

6.04

6.01

5.08

4.06

4.09

5.00

5.05

6.01

5.07

5.03

5.08

5.09

June

6.02

4.08

7.03

5.04

4.06

5.03

5.02

5.01

4.09

5.08

5.09

3.05

6.02

6.03

6.00

4.05

4.09

5.02

5.03

6.01

5.08

4.09

5.04

5.05

5.02

July

6.00

4.09

6.07

5.03

4.03

5.00

4.02

5.06

5.00

2.09

6.01

6.02

5.07

4.02

4.06

4.09

5.03

5.09

5.08

4.08

5.03

5.05

4.49

August

5.04

4.08

6.02

5.01

4.06

5.02

5.07

5.01

4.04

5.00

5.06

3.00

6.00

5.06

4.03

4.07

4.08

4.09

5.05

4.09

4.04

4.09

5.03

4.39

September

5.04

4.07

6.00

5.00

4.07

4.09

4.07

5.00

4.05

5.00

5.01

3.03

5.06

5.05

5.07

4.04

4.09

3.09

4.08

5.04

5.00

4.04

4.09

4.06

4.29

ﬁ

S. Fascetti et al.

Mean

May–Sept (2013)

5.08

4.08

6.07

5.02

4.07

5.02

5.01

4.08

5.05

3.03

6.01

5.09

5.08

4.04

4.08

4.09

5.01

5.08

5.04

4.08

5.02

5.04

4.47

Values not having any letter in common are signiﬁcantly different at

0.05 (Duncan’s test)

3.2

Colour Index

Data in Table

show for this characteristic a mean value above sufﬁciency and

equal to 6.2.

From May to September 2013, ecotypes 1, 3 and 15 showed higher values; on

average this index was equal to 6.5. In contrast accessions that showed the lowest

value, equal to 6, were accessions 12, 16 and 17. These results are similar to those

obtained in other researches who studied 40 accessions of native

C. dactylon

collected in Sicily (Southern Italy) in order to identify biotypes with good qualities

for broadscale turf in the Mediterranean region (Leto et al.

2008).

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Table 5

Ground cover percentage of ecotypes during the trial period (2013)

Monthly assessed ground cover (%)

Samples

Mean

May

74.5

June

73.92

ﬁ

July

69.04

August

61.5

September

56.25

Average

May–Sept

(2013)

67.08

299

Values not having any letter in common are signiﬁcantly different at

0.05 (Duncan’s test)

3.3

Turf Quality

During the entire period of experimentation, ecotypes that showed the highest mean

values were 3, 13 and 14, respectively, with 6.7 to 6.1 and 5.9; they also showed a

good preservation of quality from May 2013 to September 2013. Accessions 12 and

16 were ranked at the lowest level, with values respectively equal to 3.3 and 4.4.

These extremely low values were due partly to the genotypic characteristics of

accession and to a considerable extent of phytoplasma BGWL attacks, which have

widely affected the aesthetic quality of ecotypes. The lower values of these

ecotypes have strongly inﬂuenced the mean of turf quality during the whole period

and also for single months.

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Table 6

Results of salinity measurements

Samples

1n_s

2n_s

3n_s

4n_s

5n_s

6n_s

7n_s

8n_s

9n_s

10n_s

11n_s

12n_s

13n_s

14n_s

15n_s

16n_s

17n_s

18n_s

19n_s

21n_s

22n_s

23n_s

24n_s

523.33

404.33

1049.33

135

191

166.67

359

330.67

178.67

264.33

302

204

139

155.67

241.33

289.33

136

140.67

161.33

173

274.33

251

295

24.33

57.69

11.15

17.55

12.88

37.95

31.63

14.11

26.24

28.19

16.07

14.42

12.94

19.67

28.3

11.21

11.91

15.9

13.6

23.57

21.17

28.24

5.9

3.37

10.52

2.33

3.14

6.31

6.07

2.72

5.1

5.06

2.82

2.67

2.24

4.13

4.61

2.91

2.18

2.69

2.83

4.54

4.02

5.12

RDW

0.25

1.1

3.63

1.06

1.17

0.91

2.5

1.84

1.41

3.51

2.76

1.79

2.1

1.04

1.83

1.54

0.17

1.56

1.05

1.82

1.45

1.67

0.9

R/S

0.04

0.43

0.37

0.95

0.52

0.35

1.45

0.33

0.52

0.7

0.58

0.68

0.89

0.66

0.45

0.38

0.06

0.72

0.46

0.82

0.67

0.64

0.18

l_f

52.68

33.77

36.96

39.24

24.72

24.65

44.56

35.78

37.98

47.32

50.6

37.27

44.39

49.84

38.55

47.18

24.53

26.99

33.7

44.87

31.79

38.03

58.31

L_f

3.67

3.96

3.65

3.82

4.01

3.56

4.2

4.58

4.37

4.44

4.28

3.84

5.7

4.08

3.76

3.19

2.88

4.32

5.28

3.33

3.59

4.25

l_i

65.11

53.08

50.43

63.49

33.27

47.05

35.81

51.64

35.03

48.77

66.12

48.44

49.83

53.27

48.01

84.19

34.12

30.77

56.26

65.32

61.34

72.4

53.49

(mg/g)

2.98

2.085

1.36

1.83

1.975

1.985

2.735

2.255

1.08

2.38

1.65

1.86

2.13

1.835

1.31

1.22

1.33

1.725

1.82

2.065

1.57

(mg/g)

6.53

6.51

7.35

10.945

9.09

7.115

7.685

10.16

9.465

8.39

9.92

12.56

21.035

8.13

9.965

15.235

7.725

10.205

7.495

7.425

9.81

8.935

9.96

S. Fascetti et al.

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301

3.4

Green Cover Percentage

The coverage percentage showed a mean value generally equal to 67 %, in

accordance with the ﬁndings of Volterrani et al. (1997) and Croce et al. (2001) in

other Italian sites. Among the ecotypes compared, the one which showed the

highest mean value was ecotype 3 (87 %); satisfactory values were also reported

for accessions 13 and 1, with mean values equal to 84 and 77 %.

The lowest value was reached by genotype 12 (22 %). This anomalous value is

partly imputable to the massive attack of BGWL, which continued during the entire

period of the research.

The results of the experimental salinity carried out in 2013, of the 24 native

ecotypes of

C. dactylon,

are shown in Table

The salinity conditions have always had a depressing effect on all measured

parameters (leaf area, dry weight, dry weight of roots, root/shoot ratio, etc.) as

widely shown in Table

Leaf area on average reduced to 296 cm

from 824 cm

, while dry weight on

average reduced to 4.5 from 8.1 g plant

À1

. The signiﬁcant effect of salinity

conditions on all studied accessions and signiﬁcant difference between accessions

as regards the ability to support salts into the nutrient solutions were observed. The

interaction effect on leaf area parameter was also signiﬁcant. Root/shoot ratio on

average increased as the effect of salinity conditions, as expected. It increased on

average to 0.55 g g

À1

from 0.33 g g

À1

. On this parameter only salinity resulted in a

signiﬁcant effect. The dry weight percentage reduction of all studied accessions was

also calculated.

3.4.1

Uptake of Na

and Cl

There was no signiﬁcant difference between accessions as regards Cl

uptake. As

regards Na

leaf tissue concentration on average, it has increased respect to control,

12.0 mg g

À1

and 1.2 mg g

À1

, respectively. It was also observed that the ability to

limit the accumulation of sodium ions into leaf tissue varies between the different

compared accessions.

The dendrogram which is obtained from the cluster analysis is a graphical

representation of the level of aggregation among the studied accessions (Fig.

4).

It clearly shows that the group of accessions on the left is well separated from other

groups in the right. The samples on the left showed a greater resistance to salinity.

In particular accession 3 is the best ecotype about salinity stress. This ecotype could

be considered in future research programmes.

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302

Table 7

Depressing effect of salinity on all measured parameters

Samples

11s

12s

13s

14s

15s

16s

17s

18s

19s

21s

22s

23s

24s

523.33

404.33

1049.33

135

191

166.67

359

330.67

178.67

302

204

139

155.67

241.33

289.33

136

140.67

161.33

173

274.33

251

295

24.33

57.69

11.15

17.55

12.88

37.95

31.63

14.11

28.19

16.07

14.42

12.94

19.67

28.3

11.21

11.91

15.9

13.6

23.57

21.17

28.24

5.9

3.37

10.52

2.33

3.14

6.31

6.07

2.72

5.06

2.82

2.67

2.24

4.13

4.61

2.91

2.18

2.69

2.83

4.54

4.02

5.12

RDW

0.25

1.1

3.63

1.06

1.17

0.91

2.5

1.84

1.41

2.76

1.79

2.1

1.04

1.83

1.54

0.17

1.56

1.05

1.82

1.45

1.67

0.9

R/S

0.04

0.43

0.37

0.95

0.52

0.35

1.45

0.33

0.52

0.58

0.68

0.89

0.66

0.45

0.38

0.06

0.72

0.46

0.82

0.67

0.64

0.18

l_f

52.68

33.77

36.96

39.24

24.72

24.65

44.56

35.78

37.98

50.6

37.27

44.39

49.84

38.55

47.18

24.53

26.99

33.7

44.87

31.79

38.03

58.31

L_f

3.67

3.96

3.65

3.82

4.01

3.56

4.2

4.58

4.37

4.28

3.84

5.7

4.08

3.76

3.19

2.88

4.32

5.28

3.33

3.59

4.25

l_i

65.11

53.08

50.43

63.49

33.27

47.05

35.81

51.64

35.03

66.12

48.44

49.83

53.27

48.01

84.19

34.12

30.77

56.26

65.32

61.34

72.4

53.49

(mg/g)

16.99

11.88

9.13

10.97

8.785

9.06

6.11

15.475

30.3

14.15

18.405

16.215

21.18

12.915

11.44

11.08

9.075

6.75

7.41

5.1

8.11

9.24

(mg/g)

27.1

14.4

23.95

21.6

17.5

29.7

24.65

43.65

17.3

33.55

22.9

32.85

22.75

23.25

30.95

34.1

17.95

17.75

21.7

23.45

36.8

S. Fascetti et al.

Samples 1–24n_s

samples without salt; Samples 1–24 s

samples with salt; Measured parameters:

leaf area,

fresh weight,

dry weight,

RDW

root dry weight,

R/S

root/shoot ratio,

l_f

leaf length,

L_f

leaf width,

l_i

distance between internodes, [Na

] leaf tissue concentration, [Cl

] leaf tissue

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Fig. 4

Tree based on the

relationship between

morphometric data,

aesthetic, chemical and salt

stress among

24 autochthonous Bermuda

grass ecotypes with Ward’s

method and Euclidean

linkage. Note: Samples

1–24n_s

samples without

salt; Samples

1–24 s

samples with salt.

Measured parameters:

leaf area,

fresh weight,

dry weight,

RDW

root

dry weight,

R/S

root/shoot,

l_f

leaf length,

L_f

leaf

width,

l_i

distance between

internodes, [Na

], [Cl

]

303

4 Conclusions

The research project was of particular interest in increasing knowledge on Bermuda

grass germplasm in Central and Southern Italy.

The bio-agronomic evaluation of 24 ecotypes of

Cynodon dactylon

(L.) Pers.

showed high variability in the collected germplasm as far as the biometric and

qualitative parameters were concerned.

Many of the ecotypes compared resulted susceptible to phytoplasma BGWL

attacks, which inﬂuenced all the considered parameters with the exception of

ecotypes 1, 3, 13, 14, 21, 23 and 24. Susceptibility to phytoplasma is a factor to

be considered for the selection of ecotypes for turf.

The native accession 3 from Vasto (Abruzzo Region) achieved the best results

among native accessions. For some parameters, several ecotypes (1, 13, 14 and 20)

showed good biometric and qualitative performances and could result in great

interest for selecting future Bermuda grass cultivars for turfgrass use.

As can be seen clearly from the data shown, only some of the ecotypes studied

showed a reduction of leaf length (l_f), leaf width (L_f) and distance between

internodes (l_i), at least 50 %, and in some cases any reduction in the growth rate as

in the case of the ecotypes 1, 3, 6 and 17 was not observed.

Further studies are needed to better characterise the above native accessions of

C. dactylon.

in order to promote them in the turfgrass market and to assess the

potential beneﬁts compared to alien species in the Mediterranean environments.

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S. Fascetti et al.

Acknowledgements

Findings in this paper are the preliminary results of research work ﬁnan-

cially supported by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture (Mi.T.E.A.Med project). The authors wish

to thank Aleksandra Dimitrijevic and Mauro Musto for their linguistic revisions, which improved

the clarity of the manuscript.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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URU, Alm.del - 2020-21 - Bilag 67: Henvendelse af 3/12-20 fra Martin Toft vedr. foretræde om chia frø

Biodiversity of Hypogeous Fungi in Basilicata

Gian Luigi Rana, Stefania Mirela Mang, and Ippolito Camele

Abstract

During the last two decades, systematic studies were carried out on

biodiversity of hypogeous fungi in forestry territories of the two Basilicata (south-

ern Italy) provinces, Matera and Potenza. Identiﬁcation of fungus taxa found in the

region was commonly accomplished on the basis of macro- and microscopic

features, and only in a few instances, molecular analyses were utilized. Thanks to

these investigations, Basilicata now occupies, among Italian regions, the ﬁrst and

fourth positions for number of

Tuber

species, varieties or forms and total number of

hypogeous fungi (Ascomycota,

Basidiomycota

and

Zygomycota)

naturally growing

in its woodlands and Mediterranean maquis areas. In fact, the last up-to-date

acquirements on the topic bring up to 29 and 53 the number of

Tuber

taxa and

that of the other hypogeous and semi-hypogeous (only three entities) fungi present

in the region, respectively. In this chapter, the essential information regarding these

fungi is given, so updating to 2014 the relative available knowledge. Among the

Fungi,

object of this review, the

Ascomycota Pachyphloeus conglomeratus

and

Tuber malenconii,

the

Basidiomycota Hymenogaster decorus, H. hessey,

H. rehsteineri, Schenella pityophilus

and

Myriostoma coliforme

as well as the

Zygomycota Youngiomyces multiplex

deserve a particular mention because of

their rarity.

1 Introduction

In the last two decades, several researches have been carried out on biodiversity of

hypogeous fungi of Basilicata, an Italian region characterized by a very heteroge-

neous territory for cenotic diversity deriving from its great geomorphologic com-

plexity. The ﬁrst studies accomplished on the topic by Cerone et al. (1994) and by

the Potenza group of

Associazione Micologica G. Bresadola (Trento)

(Tagliavini

1999)

showed that all the commercial species, varieties and forms of trufﬂes were

present in the region along with some unmarketable taxa,

i.e. Tuber excavatum

Vittad.,

T. fulgens

Quel.,

T. rufum Pico:

Fr. var.

rufum, T. rufum

var.

nitidum

G.L. Rana (

) • S.M. Mang • I. Camele

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata,

Viale Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_20

305

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306

G.L. Rana et al.

(Vittad.) Montecchi & Lazzari,

T. gibbosum

Harkn.,

T. maculatum

Vittad.,

Choiromyces meandriformis

Vittad. and

Balsamia vulgaris

Vittad. The Institute

of Plant and Forestry Pathology of the Agriculture Faculty of University of Basi-

licata [now School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental Sciences

(SAFE)] subsequently carried out systematic investigations on these fungi. Initially,

with the graduation thesis entitled “Il tartufo in Basilicata” (Marino

1999),

addi-

tional documented information was given on the above taxa, and presence of

another hypogeous fungus, belonging to

Basidiomycota, Hymenogaster

popouletorum

Tul. & C. Tul., was reported in Potenza province. Further studies

(Cerone et al.

2000, 2002;

Marino et al.

2003)

allowed to bring up to 16 and six the

numbers of Lucanian hypogeous fungi belonging to

Ascomycota Pezizales

and to

Basidiomycota,

respectively. Thanks to successive investigations (Marino

et al.

2005;

Rana et al.

2008, 2010, 2011, 2013a,

and unpublished data), the number

of hypogeous fungi naturally growing in Basilicata, including only three semi-

hypogeous taxa, grew up to 82 entities as shown in Table

Although all fungi,

object of the article, are well-known species, varieties or forms,

exsiccatae

almost all specimens found in Basilicata were deposited in

Herbarium Lucanum

(HLUC) of SAFE. In this chapter, the essential information on these fungi is brieﬂy

reported. For those here mentioned for the ﬁrst time, the main macro- and micro-

scopic features along with the relative

exsiccata

number, date and site of ﬁnding are

mentioned. For details about the great majority of Lucanian taxa, the available

speciﬁc literature and trufﬂe treatises by Montecchi and Sarasini (2000), Riousset

et al. (2001), Gori (2005), and Granetti et al. (2005) should be consulted. The

nomenclature and taxonomic classiﬁcation adopted for fungi object of the article

are those reported on the MycoBank website (Crous et al.

2004;

Robert et al.

2005).

2 Lucanian Hypogeous and Semi-hypogeous Fungi

2.1

2.1.1

Ascomycota

Pezizomycotina, Eurotiomycetes, Eurotiomycetidae,

Elaphomycetales, Elaphomycetaceae

(Tul. & C. Tul.) Paol.

The following three species of

Elaphomyces

grow in nature in the region:

E. leveillei

Tul. & C. Tul.,

E. asperulus

Vittad. and

E. muricatus

Fries. The ﬁrst

one was found in a mixed wood of Pignola (PZ) communal territory (Cerone

et al.

2000);

the second and the third ones were collected under oak and beech

plants in Terranova di Pollino (PZ) area (Rana et al.

2008).

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Table 1

Hypogeous and semi-hypogeous fungi found in Basilicata between 1994 and 2014, listed

in the taxonomical order reported in the article

Division

Ascomycota

Elaphomycetceae

Helvellaceae

Elaphomyces leveillei, E. asperulus

and

E. muricatus

Balsamia vulgaris, Choiromyces meandriformis,

Fisherula macrospora, Leucangium chartusianum

and

Picoa lefebvrei

Pachyphloeus citrinus, P. ligericus, P. conglomeratus

and

Sarcosphaera coronaria

var.

coronaria

Genea fragrans, G. hispidula, G. lespiaultii,

G. sphaerica, G. verrucosa, G. papillosa, Geopora

clausa, G. sumneriana

and

Stephensia bombycina

Terfezia arenaria

and

T. olbiensis

Reddellomyces donkii, T. aestivum, T. aestivum

var.

uncinatum, T. asa-foetida, T. bellonae, T. borchii,

T. brumale, T. brumale

var.

moschatum, T. dryophilum,

T. excavatum, T. foetidum, T. fulgens, T. gibbosum,

T. hiemalbum, T. macrosporum, T. maculatum,

T. malenconii, T. magnatum, T. magnatum

var.

Vittadinii,

T. melanosporum, T. mesentericum, T. oligospermum,

T. panniferum, T. puberulum, T. regianum, T. rufum

var.

apiculatum, T. rufum

fo.

ferrugineum, T. rufum

fo.

lucidum, T. rufum

fo.

nitidum

and

T. rufum

var.

rufum

H. aromaticus, H. bulliardii, H. decorus, H. hessei,

H. luteus

var.

luteus, H. luteus

var.

subfuscus,

H. lycoperdineus, H. olivaceus, H. populetorum,

H. rehsteineri

and

H. vulgaris

Melanogaster ambiguus

var.

ambiguus, M. broomeanus,

M. tuberiformis, M. umbrinigleba

and

M. variegatus

Octavianina asterosperma

Rhizopogon vulgaris

Geastrum ﬁmbriatum, G. triplex, Myriostoma coliforme

and

Schenella pityophilus

Gautieria graveolens

var.

graveolens, G. graveolens

var.

otthii

and

G. morchellaeformis

Hysterangium inﬂatum, H. nephriticum

and

H. stoloniferum

Youngiomyces multiplex

Family

Species/Var/Form

Pezizaceae

Pyronemataceae

Terfeziaceae

Tuberaceae

Basidiomycota

Strophariaceae

Melanogastraceae

Octavianiaceae

Rhizopogonaceae

Geastraceae

Gomphaceae

Hysterangiaceae

Zygomycota

Endogonaceae

2.1.2

Pezizomycotina, Pezizomycetes, Pezizomycetidae, Pezizales,

Helvellaceae

Fries

Balsamia vulgaris

seems able to grow quite commonly in the region under

Quercus

spp. or in mixed woods (Cerone et al.

1994;

Marino et al.

2005;

Rana et al.

2011).

has been refound in “Mantenera-Malcanale” mixed wood (Tricarico, MT) in 2014

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308

G.L. Rana et al.

(Rana et al. unpublished data).

B. polysperma

Vittad. was so far never found in

Basilicata and appears limited to northern Italian regions (Montecchi and Sarasini

2000).

C. meandriformis

is enough distributed in Basilicata. It was at ﬁrst found by

Cerone et al. under

Quercus pubescens

Willd. (s.l.) and

Fagus sylvatica

L. (1994

and 2000) and repeatedly discovered in mixed woods of Tricarico (MT), Abriola

and Brindisi di montagna (PZ) in successive years (Rana unpublished data). Findings

Fischerula macrospora

Mattirolo, a taxon apparently limited to Italy (Montecchi

and Sarasini

2000),

occurred in territories of Tricarico (MT) in 2006 and Abriola

(PZ) in 2011 (Rana et al.

2008, 2011)

under

Q. pubescens

(s.l.) and

F. sylvatica,

respectively.

Picoa carthusiana

Tul. & C. Tul. [¼

Leucangium carthusianum

(Tul. &

C. Tul.) Paol.] and

P. lefebvrei

(Pat.) Maire were both only once reported in the

communal mixed wood of Tricarico (PZ) (Rana et al.

2008, 2010).

2.1.3

Pezizomycotina, Pezizomycetes, Pezizomycetidae, Pezizales,

Pezizaceae

Dumortier

The hypogeous fungus genera naturally growing in Basilicata and belonging to this

family are

Pachyphloeus

Tul. & C. Tul. and

Sarcosphaera

Auersw.

Two species of

Pachyphloeus

were discovered under oaks in Basilicata in 2002

and 2003,

P. citrinus

Berk. & Br. and

P. ligericus

Tul. & C. Tul., respectively

(Marino et al.

2005)

Another species,

Pachyphloeus conglomeratus

(Berk. & Br.)

Doweld (exsicc. n. 88), has been recently discovered in the region. More in detail,

ﬁve ascomata were complexively found: two of them under

Salix elaeagnos

Scop.

and

Populus alba

L. in Roccanova territory (PZ) in October 2013 and the remaining

three in the “Montecaruso” mixed wood of Filiano (PZ) in November of the same

year. The macro- and microscopic features (see Fig.

1a, b, c)

of the fungus were

very like if not identical to those already described for the

Pezizacea

(Montecchi

and Sarasini

2000).

The poisonous

Sarcosphaera coronaria

var.

coronaria

(Jacq.)

Schr€t

[¼

S. crassa

(Santi: Strudel) Pouzar] is quite common under pine woods in

Basilicata (Tagliavini and Tagliavini

2011)

at the end of winter or in spring. Its last

documented ﬁnding occurred under

Pinus halepensis

Mill. in “Mantenera-

Malcanale” wood (Tricarico, MT) 4 years ago. DNA extracted from a Lucanian

ascoma of the fungus, subjected to PCR with primers ITS4 and ITS5 (White

et al.

1990),

gave an ampliﬁcation product of about 562 bp. The same sequence

was deposited in EMBL database under accession code FR827862 and matched at

89 % (E

0) two sequences, DQ200843 and DQ200844, of the same

Pezizacea

(Rana et al.

2011).

2.1.4

Pezizomycotina, Pezizomycetes, Pezizomycetidae, Pezizales,

Pyronemataceae

Schr€ter

The hypogeous fungi of this family found in Basilicata belong to genera

Genea

Vittad.,

Geopora

Harkn.,

Hydnocystis

Tul. & C. Tul. and

Stephensia

Tul. & C. Tul.

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Fig. 1

Gleba cross section (a), pseudoparenchymatic structure of peridium (b), asci and spores (c)

of a Lucanian ascoma of

Pachyphloeus conglomeratus.

Bars: (a) 15 mm, (b) 10

μm

and (c) 20

μm

Findings of

Genea

species present in Basilicata are reported by Cerone et al. (2000)

and Marino et al. (2002) for

G. verrucosa

Vittad. and

G. lespiaultii

Corda, Marino

et al. (2005) for

G. fragrans

(Wallroth) Paol. and

G. hispidula

Berk. & Br. and,

ﬁnally, Rana et al. (2011, unpublished data) for

G. sphaerica

Tul. & C. Tul. and

G. papillosa

Vittad., the last of which is thought to be a bay-brown form of

G. verrucosa

(Montecchi and Sarasini

2000).

Two species of

Geopora, G. sumneriana

(Cooke) Kers and

G. clausa

(Tul. &

C. Tul.) Burds., and one of

Stephensia

(Tul. & C. Tul.),

S. bombycina

(Vittad.) Tul.,

result in inhabitation of some areas of the region. Tagliavini and Tagliavini (2011),

about the ﬁrst species of

Geopora,

wrote that “it is rare but abundant in the sites

where it grows”.

G. clausa

(Tul. & C. Tul.) Burds. [¼

Hydnocystis clausa

(Tul. &

C. Tul.) Ceruti] is present in Bernalda (MT) area and exactly in the “Biogenetic

Natural Reserve of Metapontum and Marinella—Stornara” (BNR) (Rana

et al.

2011).

Hydnocystis piligera

Tul. & C. Tul., that has been reported in the

extended Apulian portion (1,456 ha) of BNR, was so far never encountered in

Basilicata.

Finally,

S. bombycina

(Vittad.) Tul. & C. Tul. was ﬁrstly reported under

Quercus

cerris

L. in Corleto Perticara (PZ) territory in 2006 (Rana et al.

2010)

and subse-

quently refound for two–three times in Filiano (Rana et al.

2011)

and Rionero in

Vulture (PZ) territories (Rana et al. unpublished data).

2.1.5

Pezizomycotina, Pezizomycetes, Pezizomycetidae, Pezizales,

Terfeziaceae

Fischer

The species of

Terfezia

Tul. & C. Tul. so far found in Basilicata are

T. arenaria

(Moris) Trappe (¼

T. leonis

Tul. & C. Tul), sniffed by a well-trained Lagotto dog

under

Quercus

spp. in the inland Lucan territory of Brindisi di montagna town

(PZ) in June 2013 (Rana et al. unpublished data), and

T. olbiensis

Tul & C. Tul.

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310

G.L. Rana et al.

which grew close to

P. halepensis

and

Cistus salvifolius

L. in the before mentioned

“Mantenera-Malcanale” wood.

It is conceivable to hypothesize that two other

Terfezia

species,

i.e.

T. leptoderma

Tul. and

T. boudieri

Chatin, present in the close region Apulia,

the ﬁrst, between Torre dell’ Orso and Melendugno towns (LE) and, the second, in

the Apulian BNR surface (Rana et al.

2010),

could also grow in the Lucanian part

(45 ha) of the same reserve.

2.1.6

Pezizomycotina, Pezizomycetes, Pezizomycetidae, Pezizales,

Tuberaceae

Dumortier

Tuber aestivum

and

T. aestivum

fo.

uncinatum

are the most common black trufﬂes

of Basilicata; their natural beds are located in broad-leaved and coniferous woods of

93 and 37 Lucanian communes, respectively (Bollettino

Ufﬁciale Regione Basilicata-

BURBas

2004).

Prudential estimates indicate that a single professional trufﬂe hunter

can pick up two–three q/year of their ascomata. Both trufﬂes can be successfully

cultivated in the region and ascomata weighting 400–700 g are not rarely produced.

In nature, an exceptional Lucanian ascoma weighting 1,006 g was collected under

oaks in Rieti (PZ) area during October 2006 (Rana and Marino

2007).

The other trufﬂes, which are marketable according to the national and regional

laws n. 752 of June 20th 1985 and n. 35 of March 27th 1995, are, in decreasing order for

quantity and economical importance,

T. borchii

Vittad. (including all trufﬂes of

T. puberulum

Berk. et Br. group as well as

T. gibbosum

Harkness),

T. magnatum

Pico,

T. brumale

Vittad. and its fo.

moschatum

(Ferry) Montecchi & Lazzari,

T. macrosporum

Vittad.,

T. bellonae

Quel.,

T. hiemalbum

Chatin,

T. melanosporum

Vittad. and

T. mesentericum

Vittad. (complex species which probably comprehends

more than three taxa) (Leonardi et al., manuscript sent to Fungal Biology). The last

Tuber

species and, more speciﬁcally

T. mesentericum

(s.

s.),

although abundant in beech

wood of Basilicata at 1,000–1,300 m a.s.l. and appreciated in Campania, is scarcely used

in kitchen in the Lucanian region.

T. borchi

grows either in coastal pine woods or under

oaks on the Basilicata mountains in more than 20 natural sites (BURBas

2004).

The tasty

T. melanosporum

was found growing in small natural beds of Fardella,

Marsicovetere, Muro Lucano, Teana and Rotonda (PZ) (BUR-Bas

2004).

The precious

T. magnatum

grows in loamy-sandy, calcareous soil along the

banks of more or less large torrents and streams located between Agri and Sinni

rivers as well as along Basentum in territories of about 20 Lucanian towns (BURBas

2004).

Cerone et al. (2002) described the ecological characteristics of a natural bed

of this

Tuber

species existing in Chiaromonte (PZ) territory where

Populus

canescens

(Aiton.) Sm. predominantly grows. A realized niche of the species,

located in upper Sinni river area, was recently studied using GIS, direct in situ

survey and genetic diversity at DNA marker loci (Figliuolo et al.

2013).

Furthermore, 89 ascomata of

T. aestivum, T. borchii, T. brumale, T. magnatum

and

T. mesentericum

from 41 different Basilicata sites were object of a biodiversity

study (Pomarico et al.

2007)

employing molecular tools.

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311

T. macrosporum

grows in limited areas of oak and beech woods in a few

communal territories of the region (Marino et al.

2002;

BURBas

2004;

Rana

unpublished data).

Among the numerous unmarketable Lucanian trufﬂes,

T. excavatum

Vittad. and

T. rufum

var.

rufum

are very abundant;

T. malenconii

Donadini, Riousset et

Chevalier is, on the contrary, very rare (Rana et al.

2013a)

whereas

T. regianum

Montecchi and Lazzari,

T. maculatum

Vittad.,

T. foetidum

Vittad., and

T. dryophylum

Tul. et C. Tul. can be rarely encountered (Rana et al.

2011, 2013a,

unpublished data).

Tuber gibbosum

Harkness was only found under

Pseudotsuga menziesii

(Mirbel.) Franco in territories of Abriola, Campomaggiore and Teana (PZ),

T. oligospermum

(Tul. & C. Tul.) Trappe and

T. asa-foetida

Tul. & C. Tul. in

pine woods of the Lucanian Jonian coast (Marino et al.

2003)

and

T. panniferum

under

Q. ilex

L. in Tursi and Marsicovetere areas (Cerone et al.

2000)

and, on July

9th, 2012 and June 22th, 2014, in Calciano (MT) area and in the “Mantenera-

Malcanale” mixed wood, respectively (Rana et al. unpublished data).

Finally,

Reddellomyces donkii

(Malencon) Trappe was found in the BNR surface

of Basilicata under

P. halepensis

in 2007 and 2008 (Rana et al.

2010).

2.2

2.2.1

Basidiomycota

Agaricomycotina, Agaricomycetes, Agaricomycetidae, Agaricales

Strophariaceae

Singer & A. H. Sm.

The species of

Hymenogaster

Vittad. so far reported in Lucanian territories are

listed hereafter:

H. populetorum

Tul. & C. Tul.,

H. luteus

Vittad. var.

luteus

and

H. vulgaris

Tul. & C. Tul. that were found in territories of Trivigno, Marsicovetere,

Pignola, Vaglio di Basilicata, Campomaggiore, Corleto Perticara and Anzi (PZ) in

the ﬁrst years of research (Cerone et al.

2000);

H. aromaticus

Velenovski. [¼

Protoglosum aromaticum

(Velen.) J.M. Vidal.] presence of which in the region

(Cerone et al.

2002)

needs to be conﬁrmed, because some of the original

exsiccata

resulted to be

H. populetorum; H. lycoperdineus

Vittad., collected under

Quercus

spp.,

F. sylvatica

L. and

Ilex aquifolium

L. in Gorgoglione (PZ) and Tricarico

(MT) territories from 2002 to 2004 (Marino et al.

2005);

H. bulliardii

Vittad. and

H. luteus

var

subfuscus

Soehner, found in the “Mantenera-Malcanale” wood and

Pignola area (PZ) (Rana et al.

2008);

H. olivaceus

Vittad. collected in a cultivated

trufﬂe ground planted in Ruoti (PZ) territory (Rana et al.

2011).

Furtherly, presence of the following other

Hymenogaster

species is here reported

for the ﬁrst time:

H. decorus

Tul. & C. Tul. (exsicc. n. 89), collected under oaks at

about 1,000 m a.s.l. in Rionero in Vulture (PZ) area on February 2013 and identiﬁed

thanks to the spore morphology and average dimensions (20–25

12–15

μm),

the

loose and markedly knotted perisporium and the typical two-spored basidia

(Montecchi and Sarasini

2000)

(see Fig.

2a),

H. hessey

Soehner (exsicc. n. 90),

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312

G.L. Rana et al.

Fig. 2

Basidiospores of

Hymenogaster decorus

(a),

H. hessei

(b) and

H. rehsteineri

(c).

Bars:

(a)

and (c) 10

μm,

(b) 15

μm

found in the same regional zone and date and recognized on the base of sour and

pungent scent of its basidiomata, gold-yellow colour of its unripe spores and

average dimensions of the mature ones (21–24

15–16

μm)

which were morpho-

logically much variable (see Fig.

2b)

and, ﬁnally,

H. rehsteineri

Bucholtz (exsicc.

n. 91) (see Fig.

2c),

found under

P. canescens

in Chiaromonte (PZ) territory at

about 300 m a.s.l. at the end of October 2014. Useful for identiﬁcation of the last

species were the variable scent of its basidiomata and spore morphology that

matched almost perfectly that described by Montecchi and Sarasini (2000).

Some recent ﬁndings of

H. albus

(Klotzsch) Berk. & Br. and

H. niveus

Vittad.

under

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Dehnh. and oaks, respectively (Rana unpublished

data), still request to be conﬁrmed.

2.2.2

Agaricomycotina, Agaricomycetes, Agaricomycetidae, Boletales,

Melanogastraceae

Fischer

Five out of the ten known

Melanogaster

Corda species result present in Basilicata:

M. ambiguus

var.

ambiguus

(Vittad.) Tul. & C. Tul. and

M. umbrinigleba

Trappe

& Guzmn found under

Q. cerris

in Filiano (PZ) territory and under

P. halepensis

in the above-mentioned “Mantenera-Malcanale” wood in 2011 and 2009, respec-

tively (Rana et al.

2011);

M. tuberiformis

Corda under

Q. cerris

in Corleto Perticara

(PZ) area in 2006 (Rana et al.

2008);

M. variegatus

(Vittad.) Tul. & C. Tul., that is

the most common

Melanogaster

species in the region, and

M. broomeanus

Berk.

apud Tul. & C. Tul. in Brienza and Pietragalla (PZ) mixed woods (Cerone

et al.

2000;

D’Auria et al.

2014;

Rana et al. unpublished data).

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2.2.3

Agaricomycotina, Agaricomycetes, Agaricomycetidae, Boletales,

Octavianiaceae

Loquin ex Pegler & Young

The genus

Octavianina

Kuntze is known in Europe for the presence of a single

species,

O. asterosperma

(Vittad.) Kuntze that has been found in Basilicata under

Q. cerris.

and

F. sylvatica.

on Volturino mountain in Marsicovetere (PZ) territory in

spring–summer 2001 (Marino et al.

2003).

Basidiomata of the same fungus were

often refound in region [e.g. in a mixed wood of Tricarico territory on July 2011 and

June 2012 as well as under oak in a zone between Satriano di Lucania and Brienza

(PZ) during June 2013] (Rana et al.

2011

and unpublished results).

2.2.4

Agaricomycotina, Agaricomycetes, Agaricomycetidae, Boletale,

Rhizopogonaceae

Gaumann & Dodge

Rhizopogon vulgaris

(Vittad.) M. Lange is the only species of the genus

Rhizopogon

Fries so far discovered in Basilicata. After its ﬁrst ﬁnding in the region

under

Pinus pinaster

Ait. in Policoro (MT) territory in 2001, it was again encoun-

tered under

E. camaldulensis

and

P. halepensis

in BNR (Bernalda, MT) in April

2011 (Rana et al.

2011).

2.2.5

Agaricomycotina, Agaricomycetes, Phallomycetidae, Geastrales,

Geastraceae

Corda

Geastrum ﬁmbriatum

Fries and

G. triplex

fo.

triplex

Jungh. have been often found

in Basilicata (Tagliavini and Tagliavini

2011;

Rana et al.

2013b,

unpublished data).

The last ﬁndings are referred to the “Mantenera-Malcanale” wood and, for the close

Apulia, to BNR and Corigliano d’Otranto (LE) territories. Another hypogeous

fungus, belonging to this family and found under

P. halepensis

in the region

(Rana et al.

2011),

Schenella pityophilus

(Malencon and Riousset) Estrada &

Lado. It was previously considered rare in Europe, but it seems common enough

along the Adriatic and Jonic coasts of Apulia and Basilicata, respectively (Signore

et al.

2008).

It was again encountered in “Mantenera-Malcanale” mixed wood in the

region in February 2014 (Rana unpublished data). Molecular analysis, accom-

plished as before summarized on one of its basidiomata, gave an ITS gene amplicon

of 625 bp. Its sequence resulted very like (similarity coefﬁcient

91 %) that

present in GenBank under accession number GU184106 for

S. pityophilus.

The

sequence obtained from the Lucanian sample of

S. pityophilus

was deposited into

the EMBL database under FR821766 accession number (Rana et al.

2011).

Myriostoma coliforme

(Dicks.) Corda, a rare, semi-hypogeous

Geastracea,

was

found in two localities of the region, “Villa Caivano” (Picerno, PZ) and

“Manferrara” (Pomarico, MT), at 700 and 400 m a.s.l. in autumn of 2008 and

2009, respectively (Rana et al.

2013b).

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314

G.L. Rana et al.

2.2.6

Agaricomycotina, Agaricomycetes, Phallomycetidae, Gomphales,

Gomphaceae

Donk

Three varieties of

Gautieria graveolens

Vittad. were so far found in Basilicata:

G. graveolens

var

graveolens

Vittad.,

G. graveolens morchellaeformis

var.

morchellaeformis

Vittad. and

G. graveolens

var.

otthii

(Trog) Zeller & Dodge. A

single basidioma of the second variety was ﬁrstly found in Brienza (PZ) territory

during February 2006. Presence of the third and the ﬁrst varieties was reported

under

Q. pubescens

(s.l.) in Corleto Perticara (PZ) area (Rana et al.

2010)

and in a

mixed wood of

Q. cerris

and

Carpinus betulus

L. in Gorgoglione (PZ) territory in

2009 (Rana et al.

2011).

Although molecular analyses were carried out, identiﬁca-

tion of the ﬁrst variety was based mainly on basidiospore morphology and dimen-

sions. A 775 bp ITS gene DNA sequence of a Lucanian specimen of the same

G. graveolens

variety was deposited in NCBI database under accession code

FN666413 (Rana et al.

2011).

2.2.7

Agaricomycotina, Agaricomycetes, Phallomycetidae,

Hysterangiales, Hysterangiaceae

Fischer

Three species of

Hysterangium

Vittad. were so far found in Basilicata:

H. stoloniferum

Tul. & C. Tul. under

Q. cerris

in Corleto Perticara (PZ) area

(Rana et al.

2008),

H. inﬂatum

Rod. under

Eucalyptus

spp. in BNR in 2007 (Rana

et al.

2010)

and

H. nephriticum

Berk. under oak in “Mantenera-Malcanale” forest

(Tricarico, PZ) in 2012 (Rana et al.

2013a).

2.3

2.3.1

Zygomycota

Mucoromycotina, Endogonales, Endogonaceae

Paoletti

Only one species of

Youngiomyces, Y. multiplex

(Taxter) Yao (¼

Endogone mul-

tiplex

Taxt.), has been reported in the region under

P. pinaster

in winter 2000. Its

identiﬁcation was mainly achieved considering spore morphology and dimensions

(Marino et al.

2003).

3 Concluding Remarks

On the basis of the up-to-date information available for hypogeous and semi-

hypogeous fungi naturally growing in Basilicata, a reckoning of 82 taxa comes

out as shown in Table

The fungal entities so far found belong to 14, nine and one

genera of

Ascomycota, Basidiomycota

and

Zygomycota,

respectively. Among

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Biodiversity of Hypogeous Fungi in Basilicata

315

Fig. 3

Number of taxa/genus of hypo- and semi-hypogeous

Ascomycota

(black),

Basidiomycota

(grey) and

Zygomycota

(light

grey)

growing in nature in Basilicata

Ascomycetes,

the most numerous genus is

Tuber

Micheli: Wiggers which includes,

except for

T. gennadii

(Chatin) Patouillard (¼

Terfezia gennadii

Chatin), all the

taxa described by Montecchi and Sarasini (2000) and Riousset et al. (2001) as well

as the hypothetical variety

vittadinii

T. magnatum

(Daprati

2007)

for a total of

29 taxa.

A more restrictive estimate, considering that

T. aestivum

is identical to

T. aestivum

var

uncinatum,

i.e.

T. uncinatum

Chatin, either morphologically

(Tanfulli and Di Massimo

2002)

or molecularly (Weden et al.

2005),

T. brumale

to its var.

moschatum

(Gandeboeuf et al.

1997)

and

T. hiemalbum

T. melanosporum

(Dupre et al. unpublished data, as reported by Riousset

et al.

2001),

would reduce the above number to 25 (see Fig.

3).

Anyway, Basilicata,

4 years after a previous review (Venturella et al.

2011),

for the number of

Tuber

taxa which can grow in its territory, conﬁrms its ﬁrst position among Italian regions.

Other genera enough represented in the region are

Hymenogaster

(11 taxa),

Genea

(6),

Melanogaster

(5),

Gautieria, Elaphomyces, Pachyphloeus

and

Hysterangium

(3).

The region has an enviable biodiversity of hypogeous and semi-hypogeous

fungi. Some of them, as the marketable

Tuber

species, play an important

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316

G.L. Rana et al.

economical role for human beings. The other

Tuber

species and

taxa

belonging to

the various

Ascomycota

and

Basidiomycota

mentioned certainly are precious for

some components of wild fauna as squirrels (Venturella et al.

2011),

ﬁeld-mouse,

mole, fox, etc.

Despite of the high number of hypogeous fungus

taxa

already identiﬁed in the

region, some zones (e.g. Italian State’s and Basilicata Region’s properties and

protected areas) still remain unexplored in this respect and numerous semi-

hypogeous and hypogeous fungi are waiting to be discovered.

The drawback is that the natural

Tuber

production showed a progressive marked

decrease in Italy and other main trufﬂe producing European countries (France,

Spain) in the last 20 years (Hall et al.

2007).

This negative trend occurred also in

Basilicata due to the massive presence of wild boars on its woody areas and the

excessive and the often illegal exploiting of its natural trufﬁeres.

This situation renders necessary and pressing the widespread diffusion of the

available know-how to extend trufﬂe cultivation in the region and to preserve,

through

in situ

conservation programmes, the survival of some hypogeous fungi

which risk extinction before being known. In this mode, the future generations will

inherit this fascinating and incommensurable patrimony of the Nature.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Dr. Mariano Annarita (Basilicata Region, PZ)

who provided basidiomata of

Hymenogaster decorus, H. hessey

and

H. rehsteineri

and to Cerroni

Andrea and Cerroni Nazzareno (Pignola, PZ) who found sporophores of

Pachyphloeus

conglomeratus, Terfezia arenaria

and

Melanogaster broomeanus.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Part III

New Technologies

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New Technologies for the Sustainable

Management and Planning of Rural Land

and Environment

Pietro Picuno, Carmela Sica, Alexandra Dimitrijevic, Alfonso Tortora,

Rocco Luigi Capobianco, and Dina Statuto

Abstract

New technologies could be adequately introduced for an improved

analysis aimed to the sustainable management and planning of the rural land, as

well as its environment and landscape. Nowadays, this analysis is easier and more

complete through the use of powerful and reliable tools. Several changes can be

considered to be as models of territorial development, useful for an appropriate

planning of the human interventions in a rural area. Remote sensing techniques

could be employed for the monitoring of agricultural land variation, while Geo-

graphical Information Systems are excellent tools for landscape modeling and

three-dimensional analysis. In this chapter, land-use changes in a rural area located

in southern Italy were analyzed by comparing some historical cartographic supports

with modern maps, in order to evaluate the morphological and vegetation variations

of the agroforestry land during time. Moreover, a landscape analysis was conducted

through the implementation of digital terrain models, which were enriched by

draping land cover pictures over them. These elaborations ﬁnally enabled an

evaluation in a scenic way of the aesthetic quality of the agroforestry landscape,

allowing a virtual jump back to time periods when digital aerial photography was

not yet even possible. This multi-temporal analysis with the support of GIS

techniques revealed to have a great potential for assessing and managing landscape

diversity and changes of vegetation, as well as for planning sound interventions

over the landscape structures.

P. Picuno • C. Sica • A. Tortora • D. Statuto (

)

SAFE School of Agriculture, Forestry, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of

Basilicata, Viale dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

A. Dimitrijevic

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, 11080 Beograd – Zemun, Serbia

R.L. Capobianco

Province of Matera, Via Ridola 80, 75100 Matera, Italy

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_21

321

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322

P. Picuno et al.

1 Introduction

Planning and managing the rural land and its environment are one of the most

intriguing examples of technical challenge where a multidisciplinary approach

plays a crucial role (Picuno et al.

2012).

The agricultural production, both food

and nonfood, the social role of rural settlements, the state and diffusion of the

infrastructural networks, and the rural architectonic heritage that in many countries

constitutes a major positive value should be appropriately considered and syner-

gistically interlaced for a sound planning of the agricultural biosystems. Human

activities impose a transformation of the extra-urban land that may lead to the

modiﬁcation of the frail equilibrium of whole ecosystems. Sound planning strate-

gies should be therefore pursued, employing a multidisciplinary approach that

should take into account geographical, environmental, and landscape factors as

variables interacting among themselves and with the social and economic aspects.

In order to simultaneously analyze all these properties, tools able to manage,

interpret, and integrate several data are necessary.

Extra-urban land planning must pursuit, as a main goal, environmental sustain-

ability, since sustainable development has been perceived all over the world by

social awareness and sensibility and is constantly been considered by new laws and

regulations whose attempt is the natural resources protection. In this scenario, an

accurate analysis of performing variations and a global monitoring of ecosystems

are necessary in order to propose environmental protection politics.

The farmer as a producer has traditionally been in focus when changes in

agricultural landscapes are studied. Decisions about husbandry, rotational systems,

machinery, fertilization, and pest management do indeed affect the landscape in a

crucial way, and landscape dynamics cannot be understood if the farmer’s decision-

making and the surrounding technology, socioeconomics, and organizational struc-

ture are ignored. However, normally, the farmer is not the only decision-maker.

Often, the farms leased land and the owner may be an equally important actor

concerning landscape changes. Farmers are important agents in rural landscape

management, as they modify landscape elements to suit their needs. The industri-

alization and intensiﬁcation of agriculture over the last 50 years had a negative

impact on landscape diversity and habitat values. During the last two decades,

farmers have become increasingly engaged in landscape activities, to maintain or

create habitats on their property. For the sustainable development of rural settle-

ments, at least four characteristics should be protected: balance between nature and

built-up area, historic traditional entities, local communities, and the countryside as

an own culture.

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New Technologies for the Sustainable Management and Planning of Rural Land.

. .

323

2 New Technologies for Rural Land and Environment

Analysis

New leading technologies could be adequately introduced for an improved analysis

of the rural environment. The most currently interesting are:

• Geographical Information Systems

• Remote sensing

• Three-dimensional landscape analysis

2.1

Geographical Information Systems

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are excellent tools for landscape

modeling and three-dimensional analysis. They allow an easy digitalization of

geographical information and coverage structure, as well as they facilitate graphical

representation. An evaluation of the aesthetic impact produced on the rural envi-

ronment becomes therefore possible, paving the way for landscape simulations and

possible minimizations of the landscape impact. GIS allows an easy digitalization

of geographical information and coverage structure, as well as facilitating graphical

representation (Hernandez et al.

2004).

A speciﬁc landscape analysis conducted by a GIS approach has shown how

positive results of the applied agronomic practices, in terms of CO

ﬁxation, have

been able to contrast heavy emissions of greenhouse effect gases in the atmosphere

by urban settlements (Capobianco et al.

2004).

2.2

Remote Sensing

Remote sensing techniques could be employed for the monitoring of agricultural

land variation. A wide spread of crops covered with plastic can damage the visual

landscape, although they are detectable through remote sensing techniques. Some

scientiﬁc efforts were conducted in order to allow a better monitoring and planning

of these uses. Using a ﬁeld spectrometer, Levin et al. (2007) studied the spectral

properties of a sample of polyethylene sheets and various nets used in Israel through

the detection of three major absorption features around 1,218, 1,732, and 2,313 nm.

Carvajal et al. (2006) presented a methodology able to detect greenhouses from

2.44 m pixel size QuickBird image, based on an Artiﬁcial Neural Network algo-

rithm. Thanks to the information introduced through training sites, they “teach” to

the mathematical model to classify the image considering its radiometric and

wavelet texture properties. Classiﬁcation accuracy was evaluated using multisource

data, comparing results including and non-including wavelet texture analysis. A

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324

P. Picuno et al.

methodology based on supervised classiﬁcation of the image was found as the most

adequate to the classiﬁcation of crop shelters. According to this methodology,

suitable classes were selected on the basis of signatures related to speciﬁc sample

areas. The classiﬁcation was then reﬁned by using neighborhood and contiguity

analysis algorithms. The results of the analysis allowed to recognize and localize

the crop shelters and to quantify their planimetric area. The latter was also

compared with the attributes of georeferenced feature classes based on visual

recognition. Finally, Capobianco and Picuno (2008) implemented remote sensing

techniques aimed to the analysis of the rural land use, with special attention paid to

greenhouse and other application of plastics in protected cultivation, inside a study

area located near the coast border between the Italian regions of Basilicata and

Apulia, where plastic in agriculture is widely used. The analysis was realized using

Thematic Mapper of multi-temporal Landsat images through supervised classiﬁca-

tion, image processing, vectorization, and GIS tools. For the study, band 7

(2.08–2.35

μm),

band 5 (1.55–1.75

μm),

and band 3 (0.63–0.69

μm)

were used,

together with other suitable cartographic information. The results that were

obtained enable the possibility to create a routine in IDL and ENVI software for

the autodetection of the plastic covers.

2.3

Three-Dimensional Landscape Analysis

Through the implementation of a digital terrain model (DTM), enriched with the

drape of land cover pictures, Capobianco et al. (2004) evaluated in a scenic way the

morphological and vegetation variations of agroforestry landscape.

Solid modeling techniques, moreover, could contribute to the analysis and

planning of the rural environment. The implementation of a digital terrain model

(DTM), enriched with the drape of land cover pictures, enables the evaluation in a

scenic way of the morphological and vegetation variations of agroforestry land-

scape. From the digitalization of historical cartography, enabling the analysis of the

natural and anthropic changes of rural land using a Geographical Information

System and image processing techniques, Tortora et al. (2006) analyzed the aes-

thetic impact that the use of plastic coverings produces on the rural environment, so

enabling landscape simulation and examining possible minimizations of the land-

scape impact.

The digitalization of historical cartography, ﬁnally, allowed (Picuno et al.

2011)

the simulation of a hypothetical and virtual historical jump backward, so facilitating

the analysis of the natural and anthropic changes of rural land during time.

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New Technologies for the Sustainable Management and Planning of Rural Land.

. .

325

3 Application of New Technologies on Historical Maps for

the Analysis of the Agroforestry Land Evolution

Sound planning strategies should be pursued, employing a multidisciplinary

approach that takes into account geographical, environmental, and landscape fac-

tors as variables interacting among themselves and with social and economic

aspects (Tortora et al.

2006).

Over recent years, different systems have been

developed with the aim of providing support to policy makers in the ﬁeld of

agricultural development (Van Delden et al.

2010).

According to this scenario, an

accurate analysis of the performed variations and the global monitoring of all

ecosystems are necessary to propose suitable environmental protection politics

(Picuno et al.

2011).

The visualization of spatial information in the form of maps

is critical to facilitating decision-making in environmental management (Iosifescu-

Enescu et al.

2010).

Moreover, the technical and spatial analysis methodologies that have been

recently developed could ensure both the proper management and planning of

land, especially if tailored to environmental protection and to efﬁcient control of

the agricultural and forestry resources. Suitable models for policy impact assess-

ment (Brown and Brabyn

2012)

should help to harmonize the EU agricultural

policies and socioeconomic processes at different levels and in different sectors

(i.e., local zoning regulations, infrastructure planning, and interaction between

these sectors) as well as external factors such as climate change and socioeconomic

drivers (Van Delden et al.

2010).

Landscapes are spatially diverse, leading to the

unequal distribution of landscape services over an area. An evaluation of the policy

effects should therefore be spatially explicit as policies are likely to have a location-

speciﬁc effect on the provision of landscape services (Willemen et al.

2010).

ex-ante evaluation of the consequences of spatial planning and policy on the supply

of landscape services can support effective decision-making (Verburg et al.

2009).

The analysis of the historical landscape and the inﬂuential driving factors of

landscape development may provide an essential basis for tackling current envi-

ronmental questions in spatial planning (Haase et al.

2007).

The landscape should

be understood as a dynamic and open system where biophysical, social, and

economic factors interact to deﬁne the current structure. The knowledge of histor-

ical landscape development ought therefore to be a starting point for long-term

landscape monitoring. In most landscapes, large-scale patterns of geological, topo-

graphical, and morphological alteration are overlaid by smaller-scale variations in

microclimate and disturbance patterns. Landscape processes are nested in a spatio-

temporal hierarchy, from large-scale, slow processes like geological change to

smaller-scale, rapid processes like plant competition and succession (Gillson

2009).

In order to evaluate the processes involved, suitable information about the

landscape, the land-use structure, and the environment are required. The spatio-

temporal dynamics of traditional rural mountain landscapes reﬂect the land-use

evolution over the centuries resulting from the long-standing interaction between

people and the environment and recent changes due to the impact of population

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P. Picuno et al.

migrations and policies inﬂuencing land use (Cullotta and Barbera

2011).

That

interaction between man and environment led to the development of traditional

landscapes whose characteristics are closely linked to many features of the local

geography, climate, water availability, soils, and the historical occupation of a

ˆ¸

region (Pocas et al.

2011).

A time series can be used to predict future general trends

in the case of assumed constant political and economic frameworks. The generated

scenarios can be considered a projection of future land-use changes or a description

of the relationships between the driving forces of environmental changes and their

evolution. In order to generate these future scenarios, the dynamics of land-use

patterns can be “simulated” taking into account the initial state of the system, the

participating factors in land-use dynamics, and the rules that produce the dynamics

that drive the evolution of actual cities.

Regional and local investigations of landscape change (Schneeberger et al.

2007)

enable land-use trends and developments to be differentiated by region and

hence support analysis of the causes of the changes (Haase et al.

2007).

A multi-

temporal analysis of land, with the support of GIS and historical documents, is very

important for monitoring landscape diversity (Yeh and Huang

2009)

and for

investigating changes in vegetation and landscape structure (Leyk et al.

2006).

Vegetation plays an important role in human life and economic activity. The

economic role of vegetation is dependent on its ecological function, which is of

particular importance like determines the top priority of taking them into account in

the system of rational nature management. In addition to vegetation, there are other

elements that have a correlation with the landscape, such as buildings, which should

be appropriately considered in data processing (Picuno

2012).

There is often a

difﬁcult relationship between rural buildings and the landscape (Jeong et al.

2012).

European landscape planning policy has particular building codes that protect local

cultural identity and promote landscape quality (Council of the European Union

2001).

To understand the territorial and landscape changes that have occurred over the

years, especially in Europe, it is important to recognize the limits of expert

approaches and to integrate them with the use of various tools (participatory GIS,

semi-directed meetings, photo-elicitation, cognitive mapping, etc.), which allow

individual evaluations to be established (Domon

2011).

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are excellent tools for landscape

modeling, for knowing about changes of vegetation, and for conducting three-

dimensional analyses. They allow an easy digitalization of geographical informa-

tion and coverage structure, and they facilitate graphical representation (Hernandez

et al.

2004).

The morphological and vegetation variations of agroforestry in the

landscape may be evaluated through the implementation of a digital terrain model

(DTM), over which the land cover picture is draped; further elements can be

successively introduced in a rural landscape and may be included with the aim of

understanding the changes occurring in the landscape. Spatial data combined with

GIS-based modeling and interpretation using detailed Digital Elevation Models

(DEMs) and orthophotos are very useful tools as well. Spatial information is, as a

rule, visualized using photographic and thematic maps (Gehrke et al.

2006).

While

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photographic maps claim to be an accurate reproduction of the original settings,

thematic maps portray their content in an abstract form, while the topology of

spatial units is maintained (Olbrich et al.

2002).

Here, GIS was used to integrate and

manage different kinds of data and to create high-quality maps that incorporated

many other layers of information. Also, orthophotos, maps, and models were

integrated in a 3D viewer to improve interpretations. Partial results from each

approach were coordinated and iterated to obtain the best ﬁtting result (Elez et al.

2013).

Strengthened by the knowledge of the importance of time as a dimension,

and relying on the advances in the ﬁeld of cartography and spatial analysis, several

studies have examined the dynamics generated by the transformation of agricultural

or forest exploitation contexts, as much for landscape (spatial composition and

organization) as for ecological (in support of biodiversity) reasons.

However, speciﬁcally during the last two decades, three strong tendencies have

led to the relative importance of these resources to local rural economies being

questioned. Firstly, the increased mechanization and concentration of exploitation

have resulted in a general decrease in the importance of the primary sector

(agriculture and forestry) within rural communities, with their socioprofessional

structure increasingly resembling that of more urban environments. The new

technologies cited are therefore here used to analyze land-use dynamics and

topographic changes over almost two centuries (from 1848 to 2012).

3.1

Study Area

The study area (about 25 km

) is a part of the Ruoti Municipality (Fig.

1),

located in

the central-western part of the Basilicata region of southern Italy (40

05.43

32.12

E). The Basilicata region embodies much of the variability of

landscapes found in southern Italy. In addition to the geological variability, the

territory of the region has a remarkable morphological variability, with the presence

of surfaces dating to very different ages and a great variability of soils that were

Fig. 1

Study area located in Basilicata region (southern Italy)

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P. Picuno et al.

formed within these environments. This area is characterized by a hilly/mountain-

ous terrain, and elevations are within the range of 400–1,000 m. The rainfall during

the year is on average 751 mm. This area includes two fundamental complexes, one

limestone and dolomite (carbonate series) and the other is largely terrigenous and

deﬁned by ﬂysch. The geomorphological features of this area are related to the

character of the outcrops. The study area is crossed by the Fiumara di Avigliano and

is bounded in the south by the Fiumara di Ruoti. Both rivers are part on the

hydrographic basin of the river Sele. The study area is predominantly occupied

by agricultural land (57 %), forested and seminatural land area (38 %), and artiﬁcial

surfaces (5 %). The high hilly landscape of the study area is characterized by arable

land, which is present especially in the hills, with wide pastures and vineyards in the

northern area. The mountains are covered with rich woodlands, consisting mainly

of underwood, such as ﬁr-wood, with elements of

Abies alba

(a biotope surveyed by

the Italian Botanical Society).

The Municipality of Ruoti is characterized by an economy that is mainly based

on agriculture, but some industrial activities are present. Cereal crops are wide-

spread, as well as herds of sheep and goats, whose milk gives an excellent cheese.

Wheat, fodder, and vegetables are grown, and there are olive groves, orchards, and

vineyards, the latter producing the well-known Asprinio wine. The industry is

mostly aimed to the food sector, the main product being milk.

Ruoti is a center of ancient origin, dating back to pre-Roman times, as demon-

strated by a series of ﬁnds. The territory has been subjected over the centuries to

domination by different groups, as evidenced by historical and architectural ﬁnds

such as churches and monuments.

3.2

Cartography

To understand the changes that have affected the study area during the last two

centuries, four different time steps (years) were analyzed: 1848, 1877, 1953, and

2012. The maps were ﬁrstly scanned and digitized within a Geographical Informa-

tion System, then the land-use categories and elevations from each map were

extracted, and the differences among the different time levels were evaluated

(Tucci and Giordano

2011).

Through the digital processing of the maps that were

found, it was possible to reconstruct the three-dimensional shape of the land in the

study area and, thanks to a photomosaic procedure, achieve a virtual reconstruction

of the land during these different time periods. However, before using the infor-

mation contained in old maps for historical studies, its quality had to be assessed

and some aspects need to be considered: the topographic accuracy that denotes the

quantity and quality of information about landscape objects; the chronometric

accuracy, in other words, the dating of the map and the dating of the information

contained in the map; and the planimetric completeness (or geometric accuracy)

(Jenny and Hurni

2011).

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3.2.1

The 1848 Historical Map

The ﬁrst historical maps were produced after border disputes by legal experts; an

historical map of the Municipality of Ruoti was produced in 1848 to resolve border

disputes and it remained the main document of the historical memory, representing

the whole territory for investigations of the land. This map shows the land that was

studied and measured during the division of the former feudal domains and the

subsequent controversy. It constitutes a complete cartographic support with the-

matic information about the land use at that time. The map reports on the town and

the surrounding area and shows the main rivers in the area (Fiumara di Ruoti and

Fiumara di Avigliano); in the north of the area, there are lands present that can be

classiﬁed as nonirrigated arable land and irrigated land; in the central part of the

territory, there is an alternation of olive groves and arable crops; while in the eastern

part, a set of symbols describes the layout of the vineyards. It also appears that a

portion of land is classiﬁed as woodland. The legend located with the western part

of the map shows the territorial extension of the categories of vegetation that are

here represented. The place names of various districts are reported too; however,

the farms and the roads within the area are unfortunately not reported at all.

3.2.2

The 1877 Map

The morphology and land use for 1877 were analyzed through a topographic map of

the Italian Topographic Military Institute (ITMI), named after 1882 as Italian

Geographic Military Institute (IGMI). The scale of the map was 1:50,000; it has

been digitized through a process of scanning and georeferencing. The map shows in

black and white contour lines with an equidistance of 10 m and gives some

information about the toponyms and the presence of farms. The projection is an

amended Flamsteed, and the coordinate’s origin is at the intersection of the merid-

ian of Naples with the 40th parallel. The study area falls into two sheets (sheet no.

65 “Avigliano,” both its western and eastern part).

3.2.3

The 1953 Map

The stereoscopic aerial coverage of the national territory was made through pho-

togrammetry (each photogram was shot with a camera equipped with a lens with

focal length of 152 mm, the size of the photo is 230

230 mm, and its approximate

scale is 1:33,000). The analysis of the land use relative to 1953 was possible by an

aerial photogrammetric survey that was performed in the 1950s, from which the

different categories of land use of the study area were obtained. From the morpho-

logical point of view, a map of IGMI (scale 1:25,000) was used as the basis for

entering the contour lines. So, it was possible to derive the elevations of the area and

subsequently, through appropriate GIS elaborations, the Digital Elevation Model.

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3.2.4

The 2012 Map

To determine the land use for 2012, digital orthophotos were utilized. Digital

orthophotos combine the image characteristics of a photograph with the geometric

qualities of a map. Unlike a standard aerial photograph, relief displacement in

orthophotos has been removed so that ground features are displayed in their true

ground position. This allows for the direct measurement of distance, areas, angles,

and positions. The orthophotos are able to display actual ground features; in the

ideal situation, one aerial photograph will be used to create an entire orthophoto

which allows the identiﬁcation of a great level of detail. The photography is

scanned and converted into a digital image from which it is subsequently possible

to identify a great number of elements: land use, farms, vineyards, olive groves, and

basins for water collection. The morphology of the land was derived from the

Digital Elevation Model (DEM, with a cell size of 20 m). In addition, using speciﬁc

tools—namely, slope (the inclination of a surface) and aspect (that can be generated

from continuous elevation surfaces, usually measured in degrees from north)—the

main features of the studied area were evaluated.

3.3

Data Analysis

For each considered time period, and taking into account the different base maps

that were presented above, various categories of land use were identiﬁed, consid-

ering the symbols available on the map and the level of detail of the cartographic

base. In the case of the historical map, the different categories of land use were well

marked and six categories have been identiﬁed. Through the Italian Topographic

Military Institute (ITMI) map, the analysis even of the suburban nucleus in the area

has been identiﬁed, in addition to various forms of vegetation. Eight different

categories of land use have been therefore identiﬁed. The land use for 1953 was

derived from the analysis of georeferenced aerial photos, which showed a greater

degree of detail, where it is possible to identify 10 categories; ﬁnally, in the color

orthophotos for the 2012 map, no. 11 different categories of land use have been

identiﬁed. In order to make the data more uniform and allow a more direct

comparison, the main categories of land use have been therefore aggregated and

deﬁned as “elements.”

In the study area, four major “elements” were identiﬁed. For each of them, using

the GIS function, the total area expressed in hectares (ha) and the percentage of the

study area were calculated. Their variation over the years was also calculated. The

most important elements found in this area are rivers, urbanized areas, natural land,

and agricultural land described as follows:

Rivers

These were considered in their areal extent, that is, the bed of the river and

the vegetation present along the river, both as their linear extension. Streams and

rivers cause erosion, sediment transport, and changes in the ﬂood plain and ﬂoods.

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Most of the erosion process is accomplished both by rainwater and by surface

waters that ﬂow downstream. Streams and rivers, through their action, are able to

change the morphological structure through their erosive action by creating chan-

nels, canyons, and valleys and by transporting deposits of solid material to ﬂood

plains and deltas. Much of the current landscape is the result of an erosion process.

Urbanized Area

This includes the town, the old buildings and those from recent

expansion, and the buildings and farms present in rural areas. Most of the current

urbanized land is covered by structures.

Natural Land

This includes forest and transitional woodland and shrubland.

Forests are mainly composed of vegetation, principally trees, but also include

shrub and bush understory, where broad-leaved species are prevalent. Transitional

woodland can represent either woodland degradation or forest regeneration/

recolonization. Natural land is formed by bushy or herbaceous vegetation with

scattered trees.

Agricultural Land

This comprises arable land, olive groves, vineyards, pastures,

and natural grassland. Arable land includes cereals, legumes, fodder crops, root

crops, and fallow land. It includes trees crops and vegetables, whether in open ﬁelds

or in greenhouses. The olive groves consist of areas planted with olive trees, where

the simultaneous presence of olive trees and vineyards can be detected as well.

Natural pastures are areas with spontaneous herbaceous vegetation.

3.4

Results

From the superimposition of the different base maps, it was possible to identify the

different categories of land use. The number of classes identiﬁed increased at each

step in time, mainly due to the improved detail provided by the evolving carto-

graphic information. The results of this territorial analysis are presented in Table

and Fig.

To make the analysis and the comparison of the categories of land use

over the years more uniform, they were suddenly aggregated into only four main

“elements”: agricultural land, natural area, ﬂuvial zone, and urbanized area.

The analysis of the data related to land use in different periods shows the

variation in terms of the percentage with respect to the entire area; the forested

Table 1

Analysis of elements over the years

Year

1848

1877

1953

2012

Elements

Fluvial zone (%)

Urbanized area (%)

Natural area (%)

Agricultural land (%)

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P. Picuno et al.

Fig. 2

Land-use categories in different periods

area has increased from about 10 % in 1848 to 18 % in 2012, the river area

increased to 7 % in 1953 and then fell to 5 % in 2012, and the percentage of land

used for arable land has decreased signiﬁcantly from 61 % in 1848 to 33 % in 2012,

while the urban fabric has increased over the years, especially after the Second

World War. The main difference that occurred, as a part of a widespread trend also

detected in other areas of the Basilicata region due to deep social and economical

modiﬁcations occurred on time, was therefore a mutual exchange between the areas

of agriculture and crops, which reduced by almost a half, giving more space to the

natural areas.

From the analysis of the contour lines derived from maps from the years 1877,

1953, and 2012, it is possible to obtain the digital terrain models (DTM), thanks to

an appropriate processing. These data, adequately treated with spatial analysis

procedures, allowed an evaluation of the morphological changes in terms of

elevation of the study area. All the four elevation proﬁles have changed over the

years. The altimetry has changed, mainly when the lines for the periods 1877 to

1953 are compared, showing a general reduction of the altimetry of the examined

area. This event should be probably connected with the general evolution over time

of the morphology of the land, mainly connected with natural events like ﬂoods,

landslides, and soil erosion, so frequent within this area, causing most of the

morphological changes that have occurred over the years.

The contour lines obtained from the digitization of the map for 1877 have

allowed the development of digital terrain models. Using spatial analysis functions,

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Fig. 3

Comparison of three-dimensional landscape

the map of year 1877 was appropriately correlated to the altimetry (DEM) of that

year. Proper spatial analysis procedures have enabled the realization of three-

dimensional views in order to appreciate the landscape changes. Figure

shows

an image obtained from the solid modeling of the 1877 map on which a “virtual

orthophoto” of the same year was draped. The virtual orthophoto reported here was

associated with the visualization of the land use in 1877 on the aerial photo, so

obtaining the reconstruction of the landscape for 1877. The picture was compared

with the same images for 1953 and 2012. From the comparison between the three-

dimensional reconstructions, it is possible to appreciate the landscape changes

qualitatively and the aesthetic quality of the study area in terms of the morpholog-

ical and vegetative variations of the agroforestry landscape.

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4 Analysis of Time Evolution of Agroforestry Land

as a Tool for the Sustainable Management and Planning

of Rural Land andEnvironment

From the analysis of land-use evolution that was here performed, it can be noticed

how, during the investigated time spans of about 160 years, the land used for

agricultural production has progressively decreased, to the beneﬁt of the natural

areas that have in the meantime expanded, occupying most of the area lost by the

former. This phenomenon was probably due to the constant increase of agricultural

mechanization and diffusion of chemical products into intensive agriculture, which

led many traditional farmers to abandon their estates and to consequently transfer

into the urban area. Thus, this phenomenon has allowed a natural vegetation to

grow over the years, spontaneously covering areas that were cultivated in the past.

The increase in urbanization is the result of the development of this territory, but its

expansion without a proper development policy has facilitated the proliferation of

residential areas with the consequent abandonment and fragmentation of the rural

territory and its landscape.

An appropriate environmental approach could also be revealed to be useful if

focused on the balance of carbon dioxide ﬁxation connected to different crop

strategies. All the land changes detected in the study area have caused a progressive

decrease in carbon dioxide sequestered by the biotic agents embedded in the soil.

The cultivation conversion occurred over time and the increase of urban areas

caused a consequent constant loss of the CO

ﬁxation value, while the heavy

emission of greenhouse effect gas in the atmosphere by urban settlements has

been increasing at the same time (Statuto et al.

2013).

Considering the elevation proﬁles obtained, it is possible to observe that the

altimetry data relating to 1877 was consistently higher than for later periods. The

proﬁles obtained from the elevations of 1953 and 2012 are very similar to each

other, so it is possible to attribute the differences to the presence of small rivers that,

over the years, have had a deepening of their beds. This situation is typical of the

whole area of the Apennines, since it is connected to a strong hydrogeological

instability.

The landscape analysis using the three-dimensional modeling allowed the eval-

uation of the simultaneous changes both in land use and in the morphological

variations that involve landscape modiﬁcation. Figure

shows that a great part of

the territory has signiﬁcantly changed: some of the areas that in 1877 were covered

by forests have, over the years, turned into arable land, so determining a clear

change in the visual quality of the rural landscape.

The analysis that was performed over the three-dimensional images of the

territory has been revealed to be a powerful means of interpretation, since it allows

some dynamic effects to be created in a virtual reality system, in which the operator

has the opportunity to navigate as walking or ﬂying over the area at that time; thus,

the operator is able to visit—with a virtual jump back in time enabled by the

simulation of an

ante litteram

ﬂight—real-life scenarios that would be otherwise

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difﬁcult to imagine and/or reach. Then, all the aspects characterizing that area can

be examined in suitable detail and completeness, starting from the analysis of

topography and land cover and leading to anthropic components (buildings,

roads, and railways, hydraulic infrastructure such as dams, aqueducts, etc.).

5 Conclusions

The role of territorial analysis is extremely important and delicate, especially if

carried out to pave the way for proper planning activities. The understanding of the

landscape’s evolution over the years, both in morphological and vegetation terms,

represents a highly valuable database usable by public decision-makers in the

normal processes of making economic and political choices for the government

of the territory. All of this should be in harmony with the historical changes in the

rural territory that current events, according to the modern ways of conceiving the

suburban areas, bring into play over social aspects closely related to the traditions

and customs of the past.

The evolution of computer technology, coupled with the availability of historical

maps, has proved to be a decisive tool in the creation of appropriate instruments for

the representation of agricultural land and forest, which could allow an effective

step forward to be taken in the process of encouraging sustainable economic

development. This phenomenon caused a corresponding increase in the natural

vegetation area, but also an increase in surface erosion due to an improper land

management.

The analysis of the evolution of land use over a long time period—as in this case,

where nearly two centuries were considered—can show how the results of the

applied agronomic practices, in terms of CO

ﬁxation, would be able to compensate

for heavy emissions of greenhouse effect gases in the atmosphere by urban settle-

ments. This would demonstrate how correct rural site management could efﬁciently

balance environmental pollution brought about by human development. The spatial

analysis that was conducted allowed to understand the landscape dynamics of the

past, current developments, as well as possible future trends. Similar information

should be adequately considered to help in addressing the need for suitable devel-

opment policies and appropriate land management planning.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Processing Plants and Technologies

for a Sustainable Mediterranean

Food Chain

Francesco Genovese, Giuseppe Altieri, Naouel Admane, Ivan Salamon,

and Giovanni Carlo Di Renzo

Abstract

The growing demand of fresh fruit and vegetable, free of pathogens and

chemical residues, requires the application of safe and sustainable technologies for

extending the storage life of these products. Furthermore, a very interesting and

proﬁtable activity is the isolation/extraction of pure natural (herbal) components

that could be used by food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic companies. In this

context, several technologies have been developed in order to preserve fruits and

vegetables during postharvest, also by using biocontrol agents, natural antimicro-

bials, GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) agents and physical treatments, and

to recover valuable compounds as essential oil (from leaf, skin, pulp, or seed) using

the most appropriate technology (extraction, distillation, or drying). In this chapter,

authors, focusing on some of Mediterranean basin productions that are components

of the Mediterranean diet, describe the main sustainable and innovative technolo-

gies and the related plants, suitable for management of fruits and vegetables

postharvest and for recovery of essential oils from plant materials.

F. Genovese • G. Altieri • G.C. Di Renzo (

)

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali (SAFE), Universit degli Studi

della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Via Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza (PZ), Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

N. Admane

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali (SAFE), Universit degli Studi

della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Via Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza (PZ), Italy

CIHEAM – Istituto Agronomico Mediterraneo di Bari (IAMB), Via Ceglie 9, 70010

Valenzano (BA), Italy

I. Salamon

Faculty of Humanities and Natural Sciences, Department of Ecology, University of Presov,

17th November Street, 01, 081 16 Presov, Slovak Republic

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_22

339

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340

F. Genovese et al.

1 Introduction

Since the early time, many species including temperate fruits, vegetables, and herbs

have long been cultivated in Mediterranean basin and became elements of the

Mediterranean diet.

In the last century, the health beneﬁts were investigated and the interest of the

public and scientiﬁc communities increased due to both its sensory and nutritional

value and the importance in the human diet of speciﬁc components as antioxidants,

essential oils, vitamins, and phenolics.

Nowadays, it is well known that in order to fulﬁll the growing demand of fresh

but perishable vegetable products, free of pathogens and chemical residues, appli-

cation of safe and sustainable technologies for extending the storage life of these

products is of utmost importance. In addition, a very interesting and proﬁtable

growing branch is the isolation/extraction of pure natural (herbal) components that

could be used by food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic companies.

2 Technologies for the Postharvest Storage of Fruits

and Vegetables

Signiﬁcant quality improvements of perishable products could be achieved by

cooling to the optimal storage temperature immediately after harvest and

maintaining this appropriate temperature through the whole handling and transpor-

tation chain. Generally, the temperature decrease slows metabolic processes such as

respiration and ethylene production, by suppressing ripening related to enzymes,

and the development of pathogens. However, most perishable horticultural com-

modities have an optimal shelf life temperature that differs by commodities,

whereas storage below this optimal temperature can induce a rapid tissue deterio-

ration (chilling injury). Furthermore, the relative humidity (RH) can also inﬂuence

water loss, decay development, the incidence of some physiological disorders, and

the maintenance of acceptable visual quality, where an appropriate RH range for

storage of fruits is 85–95 % and for most vegetables varies between 90 and 95 %.

In the last years, the research about the use of

natural biocontrol agents

antimicrobials such as plant extract (essential

oil)

and

salts

has been very active.

The mechanisms by which microbial antagonists exert their inﬂuence on the

pathogens have not yet been fully understood. Several modes of action have been

suggested to explain the biocontrol activity of microbial antagonist; still, competi-

tion for nutrient and space between the pathogen and the antagonist is considered as

the major modes of action by which microbial agents control pathogens causing

postharvest decay (Ippolito et al.

2000;

Ippolito and Nigro

2000;

Jijakli et al.

2001).

Essential oils

are applied as ﬂavoring agents in foods, and, thanks to their

antimicrobial compound content, they have potential as natural food preservation

agents. Elizaquivel et al. (2013) proved the efﬁciency of three essential oils, 1 %

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Processing Plants and Technologies for a Sustainable Mediterranean Food Chain

341

clove, 2 % oregano, and 0.1 % zataria, at 37

C on the infectivity of the

Murine

norovirus,

which has been listed among the ﬁve highest-ranking pathogens in terms

of the total cost of foodborne illness in the United States.

Salts

are inexpensive, easily accepted by consumers, nontoxic, with minor

environmental impact at the effective concentrations, and usually used in the food

industry. Several inorganic salts show activity against a range of phytopathogenic

fungi; in particular, postharvest treatments with calcium chloride and sodium

bicarbonate have been proposed as safe and effective alternative means to control

postharvest rots of fruit and vegetables. This treatment can be applied alone or in

combination with other physical and/or biological treatments (Ippolito et al.

2005;

Karabulut et al.

2004).

1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) treatment

is an alternative method of

slowing ripening which inhibits ethylene action of climacteric fruits. The stable

formulation of 1-MCP is a powder in complex with cyclodextrin, which allows to

release the product as a gas when the powder comes in contact with water. The

highest concentration of 1-MCP approved for use is 1

μl/l

(Lurie and Paliyath

2008).

Chlorine dioxide (ClO

)

is an oxidizing agent with strong antimicrobial proper

yeasts and molds, and it is 3.5 times as powerful as chlorine or chlorinated water

(Artes et al.

2009;

Gomez-Lopez et al.

2009);

either gaseous or aqueous form can be

used for disinfecting fresh fruits and vegetables (Park et al.

2008).

Chlorine dioxide

was successfully used to control Escherichia coli on apple skin and strawberries, to

wash iceberg lettuce, and it was also able to control Salmonella on red chard leaves

and tomato (Keskinen and Annous

2009;

Trinetta et al.

2010;

Tomas-Callejas

et al.

2012).

Ethanol

is a common food additive with antimicrobial activity which affects

ripening and senescence in some fruit and vegetables. Recently, many studies

dealing with table grape preservation techniques have evidenced that the use of

ethanol suppressed microbial growth and prevented berry decay; these effects were

also found in peaches and citrus fruit (Smilanick et al.

1995).

Electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) water

is generated by electrolyzing a NaCl

solution to release free chlorine into the water. The EO water was reported to be

effective in reducing

E. coli

populations on various produce (Pangloli et al.

2009);

however, the use of this disinfectant is not sufﬁcient as single treatment, to reduce

microbial populations below the desirable safe level, and its effectiveness is also

inﬂuenced by the presence of organic materials, including fats, carbohydrates, and

protein-based materials (Barrera et al.

2012),

and by pH, temperature, water

hardness, chemical inhibitors, concentration, and contact time (Srey et al.

2013).

Hydrogen peroxide (H

)

is a strong oxidizer and is effective against a wide

range of bacteria, yeasts, molds, viruses, and spore-forming organisms. From the

safety point of view, H

is known to be a safe solution which does not cause

allergic reactions, even at concentrations between 0.08 and 0.2 %.

Organic acids

are recognized as an ideal antimicrobial agent due to their strong

oxidizing capacity; they are mostly used as sanitizers of fresh products. The

antimicrobial activity of lactic acid, citric acid, acetic acid, and ascorbic acid was

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342

F. Genovese et al.

proved against

E. coli

and

Listeria monocytogenes

on iceberg lettuce (Akbas and

Olmez

2007),

while the malic acid was successfully used to inactivate foodborne

pathogens (E.

coli, Salmonella typhimurium,

and

L. monocytogenes)

in apple, pear,

melon juices, spinach, and lettuce without impairing produce quality (Massilia

et al.

2009;

Choi et al.

2012).

Ozone (O

)

is a natural substance in the atmosphere and a potent antimicrobial

agent that can be used against a wide spectrum of microorganisms as

bacteria,

fungi, viruses, protozoa,

and

bacterial and fungal spores

(Srey et al.

2013);

it has a

strong odor and a powerful oxidant effect on carbon residues dissolved in the

washing water as well as on the produce surface. Intermittent ozone treatment

(both in air and water) could reduce postharvest losses in orange fruit during long-

term storage (Di Renzo et al.

2005),

using adequate storage conditions (low

temperature and high relative humidity). Authors carried out the trials on

Ovale

and

Valencia

oranges (Citrus

sinensis Linn Osbeck)

inoculated by dipping in a

suspension of

P. digitatum Sacc.

and kept at 20

C for 24 h before the treatment.

Control was compared with ozonized water (0.6 mg/L ozone) and chlorinated water

(50 mg/L chlorine). After washing, fruits were also stored in an intermittent ozone

air mixture (0.25 ppm ozone). Decay incidence was assessed as mold incidence

caused by blue mold (P.

italicum Wehmer)

and green mold (P.

digitatum Sacc.)

as miscellaneous molds of unidentiﬁed fungi. Results showed a synergistic effect of

ozone and chlorine treatments in water and of fruit exposure to ozone in air,

preventing mycelial growth and sporulation on inoculated fruits. Using ozonized

air during cold storage reduced weight loss to about 10 % compared to the control.

Ozone could be used in substitution of chlorine to control disease incidence during

the long-term storage of oranges. Admane et al. (2014) carried out a study in order

to maintain the quality of organic table grapes (“Early Superior Seedless

‘Sugraone’”)

with alternative safe treatments to the sulfur dioxide (SO

), not

allowed in organic product. Detached grape berries were pretreated by (1) dipping

in ethanol and potassium bicarbonate, (2) massive CO

concentrations, and

(3) ozone (O

) fumigation, whereas untreated berries were included in the trial as

control. Moreover, all the samples were packed in thermo-sealed bags with MAP of

2 % O

:5 % CO

:93 % N

and stored at 0

C for 45 days. Results showed that after

45 days of storage, weight loss was higher in the sample pretreated with both

massive CO

(70 and 90 %) and control. Both the samples pretreated with CO

70 % and O

at 20 ppm maintained the strength of the berry linked to its pedicel;

also the berry and skin ﬁrmness were statistically higher in samples pretreated with

at 90–70 % and O

at 20 ppm in comparison with the control. The skin color

parameters and titratable acidity decreased, while pH increased in all samples in

comparison with their initial value. Soluble solid content increased in samples

treated with O

at 20 ppm, CO

at 70 %, and dipping. Sensory evaluation scores

gave the decisive data for the selection of the best combination treatments in order

to validate their efﬁciency and that of the ﬁlm packaging on late-season organic

table grape “Scarlotta/Sugraninteen.” Samples pretreated by dipping showed the

highest scores for crunchiness, ﬁrmness, sweetness, and sourness. In conclusion, the

efﬁciency of both ﬁlm packaging and MAP inhibited the occurrence of berry decay

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Processing Plants and Technologies for a Sustainable Mediterranean Food Chain

343

in all samples including the control. Furthermore, in recent studies, it was reported

also a reduction of fungicides residues in Thompson Seedless table grapes fumi-

gated with O

(Karaca et al.

2012).

is effective at lower concentrations

(1–5 ppm) and shorter contact times (1–5 min) than chlorine (Srey et al.

2013),

and it can react with organic matter up to 3,000 times faster than chlorine

(Rosenblum et al.

2012).

However, it may become ineffective with low amounts

of organic materials and dirt that could be on the produce external surface.

Coatings

consist of a thin layer of edible materials applied to produce surfaces

(Campos et al.

2011).

The preservation of fresh produce can also be achieved by the

application of edible coatings, by decreasing moisture loss and controlled gas (CO

) exchange, resulting in reducing respiration rate (Hernandez-Munoz et al.

2008).

It was reported that the chitosan has been found to be an ideal preservative coating

material for several fresh commodities including strawberries and cherries by

limiting fungal decay and slowing down the respiration and ripening process

(Han et al.

2004;

Dang et al.

2010);

furthermore, chitosan coating on minimally

processed carrots and fresh-cut broccoli brought a reduction in the mesophilic

aerobic bacterial count, without affecting the overall quality of the processed

product (Pushkala et al.

2012;

Moreira et al.

2011).

3 Physical Treatments

Cold Storage Management

Refrigerated produce (the primary refrigerated pro-

duce are bananas, meat, citrus fruit, ﬁsh, and seasonal fruit) are widely stored and

transported worldwide, and in the last years, the fruit trade from Mediterranean

countries toward extra EU countries (especially Japan, United States, Canada) grew

continuously, with increased volume of shipped foodstuff. Produce temperature is

the most important factor affecting the quality of fruits and vegetables, which

remain alive after harvest. The vegetable tissue metabolic activity requires envi-

ronmental oxygen and produces carbon dioxide and heat. At any point of the cold

chain, produce should be held at its lowest recommended storage temperature, and

the rapid cooling after harvest (precooling) is essential to maintain the quality of

fresh fruits and vegetables during postharvest handling and distribution (Opara and

Zou

2007).

In order to optimize the cool chain management and to promote rapid

and uniform cooling of produce, several factors are fundamental: (1) the power of

the cooling equipments should be adequate to the cooling time required, (2) air

circulation around the produce should be adequate to the product type and the

packaging material used, (3) accurate control of temperature and RH in the storage

room, and (4) the refrigeration plant energy efﬁciency that dramatically affects the

cost of storage. Furthermore, precooling to remove the “ﬁeld heat” is an effective

strategy to reduce the period of high initial respiration rate prior to storage and

transportation. Authors (Di Renzo et al.

2011)

carried out several empirical studies

to optimize the precooling step on various citrus species. A pressure cooling plant,

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344

Fig. 1

Heat transfer

coefﬁcient calculated

during the trials for the

“control” (room cooling

system) and operating the

fans at frequency of 35, 40,

and 50 Hz. When operating

the fan at 50 Hz frequency,

a “h” (heat transfer

coefﬁcient) equals to

0.86 Wm

À2

À1

was

calculated, ﬁve times

greater than “h” calculated

for the cooling room storage

0.9

0.8

-In((T-Taria)/(To-Taria))

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

1000

2000

3000

time (sec)

4000

Control (H =0.175 W/m /K, Bi=0.009)

50 Hz (H =0.860 W/m /K, Bi=0.043)

40 Hz (H =0.734 W/m /K, Bi=0.037)

35 Hz (H =0.558 W/m /K, Bi=0.028)

F. Genovese et al.

5000

6000

equipped with a temperature control system, was used to study the cooling rate on

Tarocco blood oranges.

In the pressure plant, the fan reduces the pressure level to 96–98 Pa in the space

between the pallet rows, and the air velocity around the fruits is generally

maintained around 0.8–1 m/s. Results showed that cooling rate is strictly dependent

to both fan speed and pressure level. When operating the fan at 50 Hz frequency, a

“h” (heat transfer coefﬁcient) equal to 0.86 Wm

À2

À1

was calculated, ﬁve times

greater than “h” calculated for the cooling room storage (Fig.

1).

In a recent research, a tunnel-type forced-air cooler was used to rapidly cool

oranges, stacked in pallet, before simulating a container cold transport. For this

purpose, a refrigerated container (reefer, 40

High Cube) was used, available at the

Oranfrizer Company (Scordia, Catania, Italy). The refrigeration unit was located on

the end wall of the container, defrosting operated automatically every 25 h, and

each cycle held for about 30 min. Cold air ﬂows around the fruits in the container

through the gratings in the ﬂoor and then drawn off again below the container

ceiling. The circulating fans force the air through the air cooler, which also acts as

the evaporator in the cold circuit, and back through the gratings into the cargo. The

container was loaded gradually, starting with the pallet to be placed in the end side

of the container, and every time a pallet was loaded on the container and before the

ﬁnal placing, also temperature probes were placed into the fruits, making a little

hole (about 0.3 cm diameter) in the fruits. Data showed a good result in terms of

temperature homogeneity, which varied in a short range (Æ0.5

C) depending on

probe location inside the container; temperature reached a minimum level of about

À0.8

C during the early stage when cooling system starts. This minimum level can

be considered too low for orange fruits, due to the risk of cold damage rising (about

À1.0

C).

Generally, also a 90–95 % relative humidity (RH) is needed to obtain the best

shelf life of most fruits and vegetables, except for few species (bulb onions, garlic,

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Processing Plants and Technologies for a Sustainable Mediterranean Food Chain

345

winter squashes, ginger). Low RH around the produce causes wilting or shriveling,

reducing marketability. When moist air contacts with a cold surface that is at a

temperature below the dew point of water vapor in the air, condensation will occur,

and frost begins to form if surface temperature is below the freezing temperature of

water, so frost growth on heat exchangers placed in the cold room is a common

problem for refrigeration systems, and it affects the thermal performance of heat

exchangers in several ways (Chen et al.

2003).

Frost growth on heat exchanger surfaces increases the thermal resistance

between the ﬁns and the airﬂow (Na and Webb

2004)

and decreases the cooling

capacity of heat exchangers used in refrigeration systems and reduces the airﬂow

through heat exchangers and increases the air pressure drop (Chen et al.

2003).

In a recent study (Altieri et al.

2007),

authors evaluated the performance of a

frosted ﬁnned tube heat exchanger for different cooling capacities and heat transfer

mechanisms, with the aim to design a new defrosting system based on indirect

measure of frost layer present on the heat exchanger surface.

Air temperature, brine temperature, air speed through the cooler ﬁns, and the

electric power absorbed by the fans were measured. Data collected during the trials

showed that reducing the heat load inside the cold storage room, i.e., increasing the

refrigeration power with respect to the same heat load, requires a more frequent

defrosting operation and increases energy consumption.

Experimental trials showed that frost deposition is the fastest when the heat

transfer mechanism is the free convection. Furthermore, fan power absorption

seems to be an optimal marker to control frost on ﬁnned tube heat exchanger placed

in high-humidity environments. The presence of the frost on the exchanger surface

decreased air velocity through the air cooler and caused an increase of fan power

absorption around 7 % from the beginning to the end of the test (Fig.

2).

The direct

correlation between frost thickness and absorbed power makes this parameter

suitable to continuous control of defrosting process.

Modiﬁed and Controlled Atmosphere Storage

A controlled atmosphere (CA) or

modiﬁed atmosphere (MA) around the produce is created by alterations in the

concentrations of the respiratory gases in the storage atmosphere; these alterations

3.0

Air velocity (m/s)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

Power absorption (W)

380

370

360

350

340

330

320

310

R = 0.97

R = 0.98

0.0

100

200

300

time (min)

400

500

600

300

Frost growth (%)

100

Fig. 2

Frost on the exchanger surface decreased air velocity through the air cooler (a) and caused

an increase of fan power absorption (b) around 7 % from the beginning to the end of the test

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346

F. Genovese et al.

include elevation of carbon dioxide (CO

) level, reduction of oxygen (O

) tension,

or both. Whereas the term CA storage generally implies precise control of O

and

concentrations in the atmosphere, the term MA storage is broader and may

indicate any synthetic atmosphere, arising intentionally or unintentionally, in which

the composition of its constituent gases cannot be closely controlled. Carbon

dioxide is the only gas used inducing a signiﬁcant level of antimicrobial activity

and survival on the produce. These induced environmental conditions have a

marked effect on product physiology, starting from altered primary metabolism

and respiratory pathways, and involve changes in gene expression, protein accu-

mulation, and metabolite concentrations (Kanellis et al.

2009).

During long storage,

application of low concentration of O

is able to delay the decay on cherries,

blueberries, raspberries, strawberries, ﬁgs, and pomegranates. While storage

under CA (12 % O

+ 12 % CO

) for up to 8 weeks controlled signiﬁcantly

postharvest disease and maintained the quality of organic table grapes, storage

under CO

at high concentration (90 % or more) is used in order to quickly remove

astringency from kaki (or Japanese persimmon), a high nutritional fruit very

popular in the Mediterranean area. Di Renzo et al. (2013) carried out a simultaneous

/ethylene gas treatment of persimmon, as opposed to the common sequential

application of ethylene following CO

. The inﬂuence of both treatments on the fruit

quality was evaluated in terms of weight loss, color index, ﬁrmness, total soluble

solids, tannin content, and juice titratable acidity, immediately after the treatment,

after 7 and 21 days, to simulate the shelf life period (fruits were stored at 6

C and

85–95 % RH). Results showed the efﬁcacy of the simultaneous CO

/ethylene

treatment that within 7 days after the treatment allows picking up immature

persimmons to complete the simultaneous treatment within 24 h to have ready to

eat fruits for market, optimizing the chain of such a short-season produce.

Modiﬁed atmosphere packaging

is a nontoxic method for keeping quality and

extending shelf life of fruits and vegetables (Kader et al.

1989),

by reducing

respiratory activity, delaying softening and ripening, and reducing the incidence

of various physiological disorders and pathogenic infestations (Caleb et al.

2013)

due mainly to the relatively low oxygen and high carbon dioxide levels inside the

package.

Ultraviolet-C (UV-C) irradiation light

is part of the electromagnetic spectrum,

with wavelengths between 200 and 280 nm; due to its antimicrobial effect and low

cost, this treatment is attractive to the food industry (Shim et al.

2012).

The

effectiveness of this treatment for microbial inactivation depends mainly on radi-

ation dose and the structure and topography of the surface of the product.

Heat treatment

has been recognized as a feasible postharvest treatment for

fruits and vegetables with potential to delay ripening and decay, since it is easily

applied, leaves no chemical residues, and can reduce the initial population of

microorganisms. These effects include changes in tissue respiration, hormone

production, particularly ethylene and enzyme activities, and other changes that

impact on fruit and vegetable quality. Heat treatments include hot water dips, hot

water brushing, and hot air treatments (vapor heat and forced air). The type of high-

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Processing Plants and Technologies for a Sustainable Mediterranean Food Chain

347

temperature treatment and its duration affects fruit or vegetable ripening or senes-

cence as well as nutritional and quality attributes.

4 Isolation of Natural Preparations from Plants

A very interesting and proﬁtable area is the isolation of pure natural substances

using plant materials for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food companies. The

natural products are used as food ingredients, as cosmetics, and as components of

pharmaceutical preparations (for example for antitumor, sedative, and

UV-protection drugs). Several species are very interesting for the isolation of

extracts and manufacture of the preparations for example grape marc, olive pom-

ace, citrus pulp poppy (Papaver

somniferum

L.), milk thistle (Silybum

marianum

L.), henna (Lawsonia

inermis

L.), horse chestnut (Aesculus

hippocastanum

L.), and

leuzea (Rhaponticum

carthamoides/Willd./Iljin).

Herbal substances

are all mainly whole, fragmented, or cut plants, plant parts in

an unprocessed usually dried form but sometimes fresh. Herbal substances are

precisely deﬁned by the plant part used and the botanical name according to the

binomial system (genus, species, variety, and author). Herbal preparations are

obtained by subjecting herbal substances to treatments such as distillation, extrac-

tion, and freeze-drying.

Essential oils

are odorous products, usually of complex composition, obtained

from a botanically deﬁned plant raw material by steam distillation, dry distillation,

or a suitable mechanical process without heating. Essential oils are usually sepa-

rated from the aqueous phase by a physical process that does not signiﬁcantly affect

their composition.

The large-scale technology of essential oil distillation generally consists of a

main distillatory apparatus (funnel shaped, thermal isolated), a steam condenser,

and an additional apparatus (steam boiler and apparatus for improving of a used

water). An inside screw plate is driven by an electric engine, which is installed on

the apparatus. This screw plate works as an excellent stirrer. With reference to this

system, the container has a mixing apparatus, which is not a usual feature in many

other types of commercial equipment. This is extremely useful for a complete

distillation procedure in order to obtain high yield of essential oil. The source of

steam ﬂow is a boiler (heated by oil, gas, or electricity), and the ﬂow is controlled

mechanically, according to the plant mass and cooling requirement. The length of

distillation depends on medicinal plant species, which are used to the isolation of

essential oils (Salamon

2014;

Bucko and Salamon

2007).

Part of the described research about the isolation of components by lyophilization was supported

by the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport, Slovak Republic, in the project The

Isolation of Plant Natural Components by Lyophilization Process and Modiﬁcation of their

Qualitative-Quantitative Properties (No. 00162-0001 /MS SR-3634/2010-11/).

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F. Genovese et al.

The essential oil is produced by the passage of steam through the plant raw

material in a suitable apparatus. The steam is introduced from an external source or

generated by boiling water. At last steam and oil vapors are condensed, and the

water/essential oil mixture is separated by decantation.

Extracts

are preparations of liquid (liquid extracts and tinctures) and solid (dry

extracts) consistency, obtained from herbal drugs, which are usually in a dry state.

Liquid extracts (extracta

ﬂuida)

are liquid preparations in which, generally, one

part by mass or volume is equivalent to one part by mass of the dried herbal and

animal matter. These preparations are adjusted, if necessary, so they satisfy the

requirements in terms of residual solvent content and, where applicable, of constit-

uents. Liquid extracts are prepared by using ethanol in a proper concentration or

water to extract the herbal drug or by dissolving a soft or dry extract (which has

been produced using the same strength of extraction solvent as is used in preparing

the liquid extract by direct extraction) or the herbal drug in either ethanol or water.

Liquid extract may be ﬁltered, if necessary. A slight sediment may form on

standing, which is acceptable as long as the composition of the liquid extract

does not change signiﬁcantly. Dry extracts are solid preparations obtained by

evaporation of the solvent used for their production. Dry extracts usually have a

loss on drying or a water content not greater than 5 % m/m.

Tinctures

(tincturae) are liquid preparations usually obtained using one part of

herbal drug or animal matter and ten parts of extraction solvent or one part of herbal

drug or animal matter and ﬁve parts of extraction solvent. Tinctures are prepared by

maceration or percolation using only ethanol for extraction or by dissolving a soft

or dry extract of the herbal drug or animal matter in ethanol. Tinctures are usually

clear and are ﬁltered, if necessary. A slight sediment may form on standing, which

is acceptable as long as the composition of tincture does not change signiﬁcantly.

Lyophilization (freeze-drying)

is carried out using the simple principle of

physics called sublimation. This technology is important in pharmaceutical, food,

and cosmetic industries (Salamon et al.

2015).

The process of freeze-drying consists

of freezing at atmospheric pressure and sublimation at reduced pressure. On a larger

scale, the process is usually done using a freeze-drying machine. In this step, it is

important to cool the material below its triple point (the lowest temperature at

which the solid and liquid phases of the material coexist). This ensures that

sublimation, rather than melting, will occur in the subsequent step. Due to the

fact that larger crystals are easier to freeze-dry, it’s fundamental, in order to produce

larger crystals, to freeze product slowly (for example cycling temperature up and

down).

Primary drying

means the sublimation of ice to water vapor and its dissipation

from space of lyophilization.

Secondary drying

is the process of removing residual

moisture and is carried out at increased temperatures.

After the freeze-drying process is complete, the vacuum is usually broken with

an inert gas, such as nitrogen, before the material is sealed. At the end of the

operation, the ﬁnal residual water content in the product is extremely low, around

1–4 %. The work on optimizing the lyophilization usually consists of two parts:

(1) optimization of sample dilution, due to the fact that, after evaporation of

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Processing Plants and Technologies for a Sustainable Mediterranean Food Chain

349

solvents, extracts from plants become viscous, and (2) optimization of lyophiliza-

tion program.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Geophysical Techniques for Plant, Soil,

and Root Research Related to Sustainability

Giovanni Bitella, Roberta Rossi, Antonio Loperte, Antonio Satriani,

Vincenzo Lapenna, Michele Perniola, and Mariana Amato

Abstract

The sustainable management of human activities, from production to

waste disposal and the cycling of ﬁnite resources, is one of the great challenges of

research for the coming decades, stemming from societal needs and the growing

awareness of environmental mechanisms.

Research on geophysical methods provides an interdisciplinary approach to such

challenges by addressing the need for techniques to assist in designing and moni-

toring strategies for sustainability in agriculture and other environment-related

sciences.

In the past few decades, technological advances have produced new tools or

have improved existing techniques for near-surface geophysical investigation in a

robust, cost-effective, and noninvasive way. Experimental results have proved that

soil physical properties thus detected and mapped can be used as a proxy of

physical, chemical, and biological features relevant for the appropriate manage-

ment of soils, based on their behavior, spatial variability, and time dynamics.

This chapter reviews principles of the techniques and reports selected research

results on environmental and agronomic research.

G. Bitella • M. Perniola • M. Amato (

)

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali (SAFE), Universit degli Studi

della Basilicata (UNIBAS), Via Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza (PZ), Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

R. Rossi (

)

CRA Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l’analisi dell’economia agraria, Rome, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

A. Loperte • A. Satriani • V. Lapenna

CNR-IMAA Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. Istituto di Metodologie per l‘Analisi

Ambientale, C.da Santa Loja Tito Scalo, 85050 Potenza, Italy

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_23

353

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354

G. Bitella et al.

1 Introduction

Research in the coming decades faces challenges stemming from the most urgent

needs of society, from a growing population to the reduced availability of important

resources and problems in cycling of renewable ones. Among them pursuing

sustainability plays a key role and requires the knowledge of environmental mech-

anisms and the ability to monitor the impact of strategy implementation. The

concept of “sustainable agriculture” well identiﬁes the relationship between agri-

culture and environment, with the speciﬁc challenge to produce sufﬁcient food and

ﬁber, as well as raw materials for “green chemistry” with acceptable environmental

costs and to manage difﬁcult environments while preserving and enhancing the

amount and quality of environmental resources. The integration of the environ-

mental concerns into agricultural policy is the key strategy for enhancing the

sustainability of agro-ecosystems (EEA Report

2013).

This relationship is more

evident if we consider the increasing frequency of the climate-related hazards and

the role of the agriculture in the climate adaptation strategies (see IPCC Report

2014 by Field et al.

2014).

The arena where agricultural land use and environmental processes meet is the

soil: the thin upper part of Earth Crust (Earth Skin) represents one of the more

complex systems in which lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere interact and are

strongly linked. The thickness of the zone beneath the Earth surface that is of

interest for the agriculture science is within the range 0–2 m. There is a growing

demand of near-surface observing technologies for studying a wide spectrum of

phenomena in the soil having implications on agriculture and environment, from

the analysis of time-dependent change of water content to the detection of pollut-

ants and from the analysis of soil salinization and fertility to the study of soil–root

plant interactions (Allred et al

2008;

Vereecken et al.

2006).

Geophysics addressed these challenging themes with novel observing technol-

ogies based on completely innovative sensors (i.e., optical ﬁbers, electromagnetic

devices), advanced algorithms for 2D and 3D tomographic imaging, and new

technologies for ﬁeld surveying (i.e., drones and Land Unmanned Vehicles). To

date, geophysics provides a set of robust, cost-effective, and completely noninva-

sive or minimally invasive technologies for near-surface investigations able to

estimate the physical properties of the shallow layers of soil and subsoil.

Such technologies are used in a range of applications, from archaeology to

hydrology or precision agriculture, and allow to acquire information that can be

directly used for the description and monitoring of relevant features or can guide

strategies for sampling (Rossi et al.

2011).

Research on geophysical applications in agriculture and the environment has

been conducted in Basilicata in the past decade, and this chapter provides an

introduction to the techniques and an overview of selected results obtained within

this context.

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Geophysical Techniques for Plant, Soil, and Root Research Related to.

. .

355

2 Principles of Geophysical Techniques for Agriculture

and the Environment

Sheriff (1991) has deﬁned “applied geophysics” as: “making and interpreting

measurements of physical properties of the earth to determine subsurface condi-

tions, usually with an economic objective, e.g., discovery of fuel or mineral

depositions.” By working at different scales, geophysical methods may be applied

to a wide range of investigations. The geophysical exploration methods or geo-

physical surveying measurements within geographically restricted areas are used to

determine the distributions of physical properties at depths that reﬂect the local

subsurface geology.

There is a broad division of geophysical surveying methods into those that make

use of natural ﬁelds of the Earth and those that require the input into the ground of

artiﬁcially generated energy. The natural ﬁeld methods utilize the gravitational,

magnetic, electrical, and electromagnetic ﬁelds of the Earth, searching for local

perturbations that may be caused by concealed subsurface features. Artiﬁcial source

methods involve the generation of local electrical or electromagnetic ﬁelds that

may be used like natural ﬁelds or, in the most important single group of geophysical

surveying methods, the generation of seismic waves whose propagation velocities

and transmission paths through the subsurface are mapped to provide information

on the distribution of geological boundaries at depth. Generally, natural ﬁeld

methods can provide information on Earth properties at greater depths and are

logistically more simple to carry out than artiﬁcial source methods.

The basic physical principles are quite simple: an energizing source, generally

located on the surface, sends a primary signal (i.e., elastic waves, electromagnetic

pulse) into the ground and a receiving system detects a secondary signal generated

by the interaction between the soil and the primary signal. The analysis of the

geophysical signals measured by means of the receiving system allows us to

reconstruct the spatial pattern of the physical properties of the subsoil (i.e., density,

electrical resistivity, electrical permittivity). In absence of an artiﬁcially generated

signal, the geophysical methods are identiﬁed as passive and the sensors can only

detect the ﬂuctuations of the natural geophysical ﬁeld (magnetic, electric, gravi-

metric). The investigation depth and the spatial resolution of the geophysical

methods are strictly connected to the frequency of the energizing signal and to

the electrodic distance between the transmitting and receiving sensors (Steeples

2001).

As the range of applications of geophysical methods has increased, the

subdiscipline of “environmental geophysics” has been deﬁned as follows: “The

application of geophysical methods to the investigation of near-surface physico-

chemical phenomena which are likely to have (signiﬁcant) implications for the

management to the local environment” (Greenhouse

1991;

Steeples

1991).

A wide range of geophysical surveying methods applied to environmental

problems exists, for each of which there is an “operative” physical property to

which the method is sensitive. Methods are listed in Table

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356

Table 1

Geophysical methods

Method

Seismic

Measured parameter

Travel times reﬂected/refracted

seismic waves

Spatial variations in the strength

of the gravitational ﬁeld of the

earth

Spatial variations in the strength

and of the geomagnetic ﬁeld

Earth resistance

Polarization voltages or

frequency-dependent ground

resistance

Electrical potentials

Response to electromagnetic

Travel times of reﬂected radar

pulses

G. Bitella et al.

Operative physical property

Density and elastic moduli, which deter-

mine the propagation velocity of seismic

waves

Density

Gravity

Magnetic (Mag)

Electrical

resistivity

Induced

polarization

Self-potential

(SP)

Electromagnetic

Radar

Magnetic susceptibility

Electrical resistivity

Electrical conductivity (EC)

Electrical capacitance

Electrical conductivity (EC)

Electrical conductivity (EC) and

inductance

Dielectric constant

Geophysical methods are often used in combination because in the phase of

interpretation the ambiguity arising from the results of one survey method may

often be resolved based on results from another method. The main ﬁelds of

application of geophysical surveying and the most appropriate surveying methods

are listed in Table

Geophysical imaging techniques offer high spatiotemporal resolution combined

with a noninvasive character and are a very attractive tool for soil characterization

without disturbance (Michot et al.

2003;

Samouelian et al..

2003;

al Hagrey

2007;

Besson et al.

2010).

Among the numerous techniques, electrical and electromagnetic methods are

most often used, and we will describe some of them, with emphasis on methods

which have been used in case studies from research teams in Basilicata.

Self-Potential and Magnetometry are passive methods based on measurements

of electrical and magnetic natural ﬁelds carried at the earth surface. They are the

oldest geophysical methods and have been ﬁrst applied using purely qualitative

approaches. Nowadays, thanks to novel algorithms for tomographic data inversion,

these old methods are becoming modern tools for innovative application in

hydrogeophysics and environmental sciences (Chianese and Lapenna

2007;

Soueid

Ahmed et al.

2013).

The SP method is a very promising tool for studying the water–

plant root interactions, while the Mag method is suitable for mapping the presence

of heavy metal in soil.

Electrical conductivity (ECa) or its inverse resistivity (ER) is one of the most

utilized variable to indirectly assess soil spatial variability in agricultural ﬁelds

(Corwin and Plant

2005).

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Geophysical Techniques for Plant, Soil, and Root Research Related to.

. .

Table 2

Main ﬁelds of application and relevant methods of geophysical survey

Application

Exploration for fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal)

Exploration for metalliferous mineral deposits

Exploration for bulk mineral deposits (sand and gravel)

Exploration for underground water supplies

Engineering/construction site investigation

Archaeological investigations

Agriculture

357

Appropriate survey methods*

S, G, M, (EM)

M, EM, E, SP, IP, R

S, (E), (G)

E, S, (G), (Rd)

E, S, Rd. (G), (M)

Rd, E, EM, M, (S)

G, M, S, EM, E, SP, IP, R, Rd

gravity,

magnetic,

seismic,

electrical resistivity,

self-potential,

induced polariza-

tion,

electromagnetic,

radiometric,

ground-penetrating radar. Subsidiary methods in

brackets.

Source: Kearey et al. (2002)—An introduction to geophysical exploration (modiﬁed)

The techniques commonly used to measure the ECa variation within the root

zone at ﬁeld scale are essentially two: Electrical resistivity (ER) and Electromag-

netic induction (EMI).

EMI methods use dual coil systems in which a transmitter coil is used to generate

a primary electromagnetic ﬁeld. When this electromagnetic ﬁeld travels through the

soil, eddy currents are generated as a function of soil conductivity, and this pro-

duces a secondary magnetic ﬁeld which is detected by the receiving coil together

with the primary magnetic ﬁeld.

Electrical conductivity is then calculated as a function of the difference between

the primary and the secondary magnetic ﬁelds. The explored soil volume is function

of: the distance between transmitting and receiving coils, coils’ operating fre-

quency, coils’ orientation, and distance from the soil.

The ﬁrst applications in agriculture were on soil water (Edlefsen and Anderson

1941)

and salinity (Rhoades and Ingvalson

1971),

but a major diffusion of the

technique in the 1980s is linked to the development of precision agriculture, based

on optimization of agricultural management within a ﬁeld. Technologically, this

was also made possible by the growing availability of GPS which allowed the use in

dynamic mode. Electromagnetic tools are easy to carry in the ﬁeld and do not

require contact with soil, therefore horizontal variations are easily mapped even in

harsh environments (frozen/dry soil), during the cropping season by lifting the

instruments above the canopy or with crop residues covering the soil surface

(Brevik et al.

2003).

Characterizing electrical conductivity in the soil proﬁle,

though, is not simple, given the nonlinear relation between EC and depth (with

few exceptions). This requires complex processing of data (Corwin and Lesch

2005).

Furthermore, calibration is not easy; it is time consuming and needs to be

repeated in case of lengthy measurements, since readings are affected by air

temperature (Dabas and Tabbagh

2003).

Also, metals interfere with magnetic

ﬁelds, and metallic objects in measurement areas may totally prevent a campaign.

DC Electrical Resistivity (ER) methods are widely used in agricultural and

environmental sciences and allow to overcome some of the limitations of other

methods as far as calibration and proﬁle characterization are concerned<Q>.

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358

G. Bitella et al.

The most appropriate methods for obtaining information on the variability of the

electrical resistivity of the subsoil are the Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

and the Automated Resistivity Proﬁling (ARP). The ERT methods are able to

describe the resistivity pattern at different levels of depth in subsoil, while the

ARP is an optimal tool for the fast resistivity surveying of large areas.

The working principle of the ERT is the injection of a known DC electric current

into the subsurface through an array of transmitting electrodes and in the subse-

quent measurement of the voltage difference with an array of receiving potential

electrodes. In this way, ERT is able to provide information about the spatial

distribution of the electrical resistivity (i.e., the electrical conductivity) in the

subsoil.

The electrical resistivity tomography of subsurface investigation is based on the

variability of resistance to the conductance of electrical current, in subsurface

materials, depending on variations in moisture content, density, and chemical

composition. In electrical resistivity investigation, an electrical current [I (mA)]

is applied through two current electrodes, and the potential difference [ΔV (mV)]

between two or more potential electrodes is measured to detect the resistivity of the

material at depth. In order to reduce electrode polarization effects, which could

affect the accuracy of the measure, the injected current is modulated as a

low-frequency square or sinusoidal wave. There are several possible electrode

arrangements, and Fig.

depicts the most used ones, which are the Wenner,

Schlumberger, and dipole–dipole arrays.

Whichever the used array, the ERT is based on the measure of the ground

electrical potential while the current is injected. In this way, it is possible to

calculate the apparent resistivity (ρa):

ΔV

ρa

where

ρa

is expressed in

Ωm

and

is a geometrical factor depending on the

adopted array conﬁguration (Fig.

1).

The spatial arrangement of measured soil

volumes depends on the position of the electrodes at the surface and on the used

array conﬁguration (Edwards

1977).

The choice of the array conﬁguration depends on the site features as well as on

depth, size, and composition of the target as well as on the desired signal/noise

ratio. Details about array conﬁgurations and their sensitivity functions are reported

in Loke (2001). Modern georesistivimeters have multielectrode systems able to

acquire a large number of data by automatically switching quadrupoles for each

array, which is composed of a consistent number of electrodes properly ﬁtted on the

ground. All possible quadrupole spacings along the line are used for measurements,

from the lowest—corresponding to adjacent electrodes—to maximum spacing,

determined by the total array length.

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Geophysical Techniques for Plant, Soil, and Root Research Related to.

. .

359

Fig. 1

Some common collinear electrode conﬁgurations for resistivity studies. A–B: current

electrodes; M–N: potential electrodes; a: electrode spacing; k: geometric factor; n: ratio of the

distance between the A–M electrodes and the A–B dipole spacing

Processing of data with numerical methods then allows to reconstruct the

heterogeneous spatial distribution of resistivity in the subsurface. This distribution

can be represented as 2D or 3D tomograms (Loke and Barker

1996)

(Fig.

2).

The continuous or automatic proﬁling of resistivity is an extremely fast and cost-

effective tool for mapping the horizontal spatial variability of the apparent resis-

tivity in large areas. Two devices have been developed for applications in agricul-

ture: the ARP (ARP

©,

Geocarta, Paris) in France and Veris 3100 (Veris

Technologies, Salina, KS) in the USA.

The ARP (Automatic Resistivity Proﬁling—Fig.

is an evolution of the Mucep

(Panissod et al.

1997),

developed in France by CNRS and the University of Paris IV

since 1979. It is a multielectrode system which measures at three soil levels

simultaneously 0–50, 0–100, 0–200 cm from the soil surface. The system is

designed to be used on-the-go, towed in the ﬁeld, and has a V-shaped 2D geometry

(deﬁned “vol-de-canard” by Panissod et al.

1997)

where rolling electrodes are

teethed wheels. A doppler radar is coupled with a GPS and positioned on the device

to provide precise positioning.

The spatial information collected by the ARP system is used for positioning

measurements but also for computing a DEM (Digital Elevation Model) providing

topographic attributes such as slope and position that facilitate the interpretation of

resistivity variation and the deﬁnition of management zones (Rossi et al.

2013a).

The Veris system uses a linear geometry with a Wenner array and explores two

soil layers: 0–30 and 0–90 cm from the soil surface. Electrodes are metal discs.

The ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is an active electromagnetic technique and

nondestructive for physical detection, which utilizes similar principles to the

reﬂection seismic method.

An electromagnetic pulse in the range of 10 MHz to 1 GHz is radiated by a

transmitting antenna and propagates through the soil to be investigated, and a

receiving antenna gathers the backscattered signal engendered by hidden targets,

i.e., anomalies arising into the electromagnetic features of the surveyed medium.

The result of a single GPR measurement is a trace where the amplitude of the

backscattered ﬁeld is represented along the two-way-travel time (Fig.

4).

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G. Bitella et al.

Fig. 2

Representation of a 2D section of soil resistivity obtained after data inversion with

numerical modeling

dGPS

Rota ng

electrodes

Resis vimeter

Fig. 3

(a) Picture of the on-the-go resistivity meter (ARP

©,

Automatic Resistivity Proﬁling,

Geocarta, Paris, France) trained by a ﬁled vehicle; (b) schematic representation of the multiple

rotating electrode system; and (c) maps of soil electrical resistivity distribution at the three

consecutive exploration depths (V1

0–0.5 m;

0–1 m;

0–2 m)

Accordingly, the outcome of the GPR survey is a radargram built as the superpo-

sition of the time traces collected at the single measurement points (Daniels

2004)

The velocity at which the EM energy travels in the ground depends on the

material. If the velocity of the propagated EM wave was known, then the depth of

wave reﬂection can be obtained as:

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Fig. 4

Schematic representation of the GPR working principle (a) manual data acquisition

system; (b) raw-data radargram

where

depth of wave reﬂection;

velocity of EM wave; and

time range

of the wave propagating path and reﬂecting path, and

denotes the velocity of

electromagnetic signal into the probed medium. Such a velocity depends on the

relative dielectric permittivity (ε

) of the surveyed medium:

¼ p

ﬃﬃﬃﬃ

being the speed of light in vacuum, which can be approximated to 0.3 m/ns. The

relative dielectric permittivity can be estimated by using direct or indirect methods

(Conyers and Goodman

1997;

Daniels

2002),

and its values for several materials

encountered in geological surveys are given in Table

Data can be collected along arrays by dragging antennas on the ground.

In recent years, research efforts have been done for implementing advanced data

processing based on addressing GPR data processing as an inverse electromagnetic

scattering problem. This gives better results in determining target location and

geometric features (Soldovieri et al.

2011).

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Table 3

Relative dielectric permittivity of geologic materials measured at 100 MHz

Material

Air

Dry sand

Dry silt

Ice

Asphalt

Volcanic

ash/pumice

Limestone

Granite

Permafrost

Coal

Relative dielectric

permittivity (ε

)

3–5

3–30

3–4

3–5

4–7

4–8

4–6

4–5

Material

Shale

Clay

Concrete

Saturated silt

Dry sandy coastal land

Average organic-rich

surface soil

Marsh or forested land

Organic-rich agricul-

tural land

Saturated sand

Freshwater

Relative dielectric

permittivity (ε

)

5–15

5–40

10–40

20–30

3 Applications and Case Studies in Agriculture

and the Environment

The EM and ERT methods have been largely applied in agriculture and environ-

mental studies, from monitoring of saltwater intrusion in coastal areas to the

diffusion of pollutants in groundwater; the time-dependent change of soil water

content; the surveying of plant root biomass (Amato et al.

2008);

the analysis of

water–soil–root plant interactions and many other signiﬁcant applications (Werban

et al.

2008;

Calamita et al.

2012).

The ARP is increasingly used in precision farming (viticulture) giving contrib-

utes for improving the management strategies aimed to improve and enhance the

quality of the crop production (Rossi et al.

2013a).

The GPR method can be applied to a wide range of agriculture and environ-

mental problems such as the detection of pollutant leakage in groundwater, the

mapping of the root–plant geometry, and the rapid mapping of soil water content.

Recently, novel applications in precision farming have been carried out using

advanced system of semi-automatic vehicles for GPR data acquisition (Hubbard

et al.

2002;

Rubin

2006).

A case study where a combination of techniques was used in an agricultural ﬁeld

to highlight variation at different scales regards a study in a wheat ﬁeld located at

Gaudiano-Lavello—Basilicata (41

N, 15

E), managed by ALSIA

(Agenzia Lucana di Sviluppo ed Innovazione in Agricoltura). The ﬁeld subjected to

two tillage management (conventional tillage at 35 cm and sod seeding) from

3 years.

On-the-go multi-depth resistivity meter (ARP

©,

Geocarta, Paris) (Rossi

et al.

2013a)

was used to measure simultaneously at three different depths that

correspond to the distance between receiving wheels (V1

0.50 m,

1 m,

2 m). Data were real time referenced by DGPS. Data were collected on

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363

2.16 ha along parallel transects 4 m distant between each other. A total number of

59,376 measurements were taken. The entire area was surveyed in about 40 min at

an average speed of 3.76 m/s.

A 2D resistivity survey was conducted with a Syscal R2 (Iris Instruments,

Orleans, France) resistivity meter with a Wenner–Schlumberger array with 48 elec-

trodes lined up on the soil surface for a total length of 47 m and with an electrode

spacing of 1.0 m.

A GPR survey was also carried out on the same survey lines by using an

acquisition module GSSI SIR 2000 equipped with a 400 MHz antenna and having

survey cart and encoder.

In 2D ERT sections (Fig.

5),

resistivity ranged between 30 and 400

Ωm,

up to a

depth of about 5 m. The highest resistivity values (from 80 to 400

Ωm)

can be

associated to the presence of resistive structures with values above 100

Ωm.

Conversely, the lowest resistivity values (from 30 to 80

Ωm)

could be attributed

to a higher water and/or clay content. In addition, at about 3.0 m depth, the 2D

tomogram shows a low-resistivity feature than can be ascribed to the groundwater

table with overlying capillary fringe.

The radargram corresponding to the ERT proﬁle shows a higher attenuation of

the signal in the right side, and this can be associated to increased soil water.

Conversely, the left side of the radargram shows a continuous series of reﬂectors

and can be related to the presence of discontinuities like stones or compacted soil.

The three maps of resistivity from ARP (Fig.

show that resistive areas are

mostly concentrated in southern part of the ﬁeld, while an area of low resistivity is

discernible in the north-eastern area of the ﬁeld. Summary statistics of soil electrical

resistivity measured at the three consecutive depths are reported in Table

Buvat and coauthors (2014) used the multi-depth resistivity dataset to develop a

“geophysical taxonomy” based on the vertical succession of the three apparent

resistivity values. They found that the resistivity-based clusters well matched soil

pedological proﬁles and were consistent with soil unit boundaries. Following an

approach similar to these authors, we used the vertical succession of resistivity

values to map soil layering, based on the difference between the resistivity mea-

sured in the ﬁrst (V1) and in the second layer (V2) values, which were grouped into

three classes: D (decreasing values), C (constant values), and I (increasing values).

The geophysical taxa show distinct clusters following a north-south gradient. ER

increased with depth predominantly in the southern half of the ﬁeld while it

decreases in the northern corner (Fig.

7).

At the adopted imaging resolution and at this time of the year (about 6 months

after tillage) we didn’t distinguish any spatial pattern related to tillage type, which

splits the ﬁeld longitudinally in two blocks; instead the presence of a structured

spatial pattern underlies the necessity of accounting for soil spatial variability in

evaluating tillage effects. ER varied from 18 to peak values of about 200

Ωm;

highest values were found in the third layer. This range of values can be attributed

to different soil features (Samouelian et al.

2005)

hence, as in all geophysical

exploration, map interpretation requires ground-truth calibration.

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364

G. Bitella et al.

Fig. 5

(a) 2D tomogram of electrical resistivity measured in the experimental ﬁeld, P1 and P2

arrows point the management systems, respectively, P1

No Tillage and P2 conventional tillage.

(b) GPR Radargram carried out in the same direction of resistivity proﬁle in the two management

systems (NT no tillage and

conventional tillage)

Other studies where a combination of geophysical techniques have been applied

are related to coastal areas as shown in the work of Nowroozi et al. (1999), Abdul

Nassir et al. (2000), Choudhury and Saha (2004), Sherif et al. (2006), Khalil (2006),

Cimino et al. (2008). In the characterization of the coastal saltwater intrusion in the

Metapontum forest reserve, Satriani et al. (2012a) used ER tomography alone to

highlight the spatial distribution of saline water in the pine forest (Fig.

Geophysical prospecting has an important ﬁeld of application in archaeology.

Loperte et al. (2011) used an integrated geophysical approach based on magnetic,

Ground-Penetrating Radar, and geoelectrical survey to investigate a construction

work site in the Greek and Roman settlement of Paestum, southern Italy (Fig.

9).

The survey showed features that could be ascribed to archaeological remains, as

was conﬁrmed by subsequent excavations where walls, canals, and tombs were

found.

The high potential of geophysical survey in agriculture has been now recog-

nized; over the last decade geophysical sensors based on the nondestructive mea-

surement of soil electrical conductivity (or its inverse resistivity) have been

extensively used in precision agriculture, alone or coupled with terrain information,

to help delineating uniform management zones (Peralta et al.

2013;

Moral

et al.

2010;

Kitchen et al.

2005).

Using such techniques, we are able to visualize

soil features related to their electrical behavior; as current ﬂux in soil is mostly

electrolytic, resistivity is very sensitive to the two components that are mainly

involved in charge transfer: the degree of pore water saturation and salinity (Lesch

2005)

and the speciﬁc surfaces associated to the presence of clay particles

(Tabbagh et al.

2000).

Resistivity is even sensitive to the microstructure of clays,

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365

4.8

2.4

35.57

63.25

112.47

200

2.8

1.4

35.57

63.25

112.47

200

2.5

1.3

35.57

63.25

112.47

200

Fig. 6

ARP multi-depth apparent resistivity maps and relative frequency distribution (red

shade

indicate high values and

blue shade

depict low values):

top V1

0–0.5 m layer,

middle

0–0.1 m layer,

bottom V3

0–2 m layer

based on lab measurements of worldwide collected clay samples; a ﬁrst database of

clays resistivity was compiled by Giao and coauthors (Giao et al.

2003).

A soil

conductivity survey conducted across different soils showed strong and consistent

correlations with clay (Sudduth et al.

2005).

This sensitivity is very useful in

agricultural soil mapping, since many relevant properties are heavily inﬂuenced

by and covariate with clay content, such as: water holding capacity, organic matter

content, soil structure, temperature, and cation exchange capacity. For the opposite

reason resistivity readings can also be used to localize resistive features, that act as

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366

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of the multi-depth apparent resistivity layers

Mean

Median

Standard deviation

Kurtosis

Skeweness

Minimum

Maximum

Number of observations

45.24

42.87

12.25

1.68

1.07

18.34

110.46

54,997

52.43

49.21

17.80

0.81

0.91

18.22

134.54

54,997

G. Bitella et al.

57.80

51.96

23.25

2.12

1.30

23.10

201.84

54,997

“C”

“D”

“I”

ER Ohm m

Fig. 7

Bottom left:

map of apparent resistivity taxa, based on the difference between the resistivity

measured in the ﬁrst (V1) and in the second layer (V2) values were grouped in three classes: D

(decreasing values

blue), C (constant values

green), and I (increasing values

red).

Bottom

right:

bar plot of

(solid

gray bar)

and

(solid

black bar)

resistivity average values (and

relative standard error bars) of the three geophysical taxa (D, C, I)

barriers to current ﬂux, such as gravel lenses (Tetegan et al.

2012;

Rossi

et al.

2013b);

this is of great value, because of the strong inﬂuence that rock

fragments exert on soil hydrology, workability, thermal regime, and nutrients

pools (Poesen and Lavee

1994)

but also because these techniques help ﬁlling the

well-known methodological gap of quantitative research in stony soils (Eriksson

and Holmgren

1996).

This extraordinary sensitivity of the technique to the presence

of insulating materials constituted the base for the use of the technique for imaging

woody plant root system (Amato et al.

2008;

Rossi et al.

2011).

Plant roots are the

key component of plant survivorship and ecology but at the same time are

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Fig. 8

Electrical resistivity tomograms from the Metapontum forest reserve

Fig. 9

Map of processed magnetometric results (left) and 3D visualization of GPR prospecting

(right) at a construction work site in Paestum (SA). The main electromagnetic anomalies are

marked by

capital letters

while the

black arrows

indicate the travertine bank

considered the most elusive aspect of belowground studies; this is mainly related to

the lack of methodologies to study root systems at the appropriate spatiotemporal

scale without interfering with their growth and development (Amato

2004).

Quan-

titative research on the use of resistivity tomography for mapping root system

spatial variability has shown that ligniﬁed coarse plant roots exhibit a strong

electrical response, that rooted soil resistivity can increase several hundred Ohm

meter (Amato et al.

2008),

and that their effect can be dominating in agricultural

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368

G. Bitella et al.

soil (Rossi et al.

2011).

First research on herbaceous roots (Amato et al.,

2009)

has

shown that even at very low density they increase resistivity, but that their resis-

tivity values overlap those of other common soil materials; thus ﬁne roots could

only be discerned and quantiﬁed keeping the other sources of variability low and

unstructured.

A combination of Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) and Electrical Resistivity

Tomography (ERT) has been used by Satriani et al. (2010) to produce high

resolution images that were obtained in laboratory measurements, and they have

clearly shown the presence of soil volumes with a high density of ﬁne and woody

roots.

Several research reports have shown that resistivity could be used to map

permanent soil properties at farm scale (Andre et al.

2012;

Buvat et al.

2014).

some cases, soil texture can dominate the resistivity pattern overshadowing soil

structure and water-related properties (Banton et al.

1997).

For a given texture,

though, soil structural state variation, by altering the proportions between water and

air ﬁlled porosity, can exert a strong effect on resistivity; this is at the base of the

successful use of high resolution resistivity tomography for mapping soil alterations

induced by tillage (Besson et al.

2004;

Basso et al.

2010).

Basso and coauthors

(2010) found that resistivity mapping allowed to discern between tilled, freshly

tilled, and untilled soils better than penetrometry. Time lapsed resistivity tomogra-

phy was later used to evaluate soil structural recovery after compaction (Besson

et al.

2013).

Satriani et al. (2012b) monitored water content and distribution in

drybean using resistivity tomography and time-domain reﬂectometry in two differ-

ent irrigation treatments with applications for the reduction of water use without

reducing yield.

Repeated resistivity measures were also used to infer within-ﬁeld spatiotemporal

organization of soil water, discounting this way the effect of soil texture (Besson

et al.

2010).

Whether resistivity is going to be used to discern permanent or transient

soil properties, some baseline conditions must be satisﬁed: the target soil property

variation must be large enough and must have a sufﬁcient degree of contrast with

the surrounding matrix (Banton et al.

1997),

and of course the scale of measure-

ments must be proportional to the target. Once these prerequisites are met, map

interpretation requires ground-truth calibration, since several soil constituents show

overlapping resistivity ranges (Samouelian et al

2005)

or offsetting resistive behav-

ior (i.e., rock fragments coated in clay; sandy saline layers) which can lead to

ambiguous interpretation. The choice of the sampling strategy is crucial since the

high costs of destructive sampling can rapidly counterweight the beneﬁts of using a

low-cost ancillary information instead of traditional expensive and labor-

demanding soil survey methods. The issue of geophysical sensor data ground-

truth sampling schemes has been addressed by Lesch (2005) that suggests the use

of a model-based sampling strategy as an alternative to probability-based sampling.

Model-based or directed sampling instead of relying on randomization principle is

focused toward the estimation of a regression model; hence sampling locations are

explicitly chosen to cover the full range of the target variable (feature space).

Directed sampling strategies typically allow to reduce the number of samples for

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369

an efﬁcient model parameter estimation (Fitzgerald et al.

2006).

Additional spatial

optimization criteria can be included to maximize the spread of data to minimize

the autocorrelation between observations (Lesch

2005),

to reduce the costs of

measurements (Minasny and McBratney

2006),

or to intensify the number of

samples where the variation is large (Minasny et al.

2007).

Acknowledgments

This work was partly ﬁnanced by the Project psr BASILICATA 2007–2013.

MISURA 124 “Approcci innovativi per il miglioramento delle performances ambientali e

produttive dei sistemi cerealicoli no-Tillage BIO-TILLAGE” CUP C32I14000080006.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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Satellite Technologies to Support

the Sustainability of Agricultural Production

P D’Antonio, C D’Antonio, V Doddato, and M Mangano

Abstract

Precision farming is a form of multidisciplinary and technologically

advanced agriculture, which recourses to machines equipped with “intelligent

systems,” able to dose the productive factors (fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) according

to the real needs of the homogeneous areas constituent to the plot (Verhagen and

Bouma, Modeling soil variability. In: Pierce FJ, Sadler EJ (eds) The state of site

speciﬁc management for agriculture. ASA Publications, 1997).

Experimental trials have been conducted in order to compare two satellite-

guidance devices and two correction systems of the GPS signal: the EZ-Steer/

RTK and Autopilot/EGNOS. The machines used in the tests were the tractor New

Holland T7060, the rotary harrow Alpego DG-400, and the burier Forigo DG-45, to

determine which of the two systems ensured the best quality of work. The results

obtained showed that the EZ-Steer/RTK system guaranteed a lower stability of the

theoretical trajectory than the Autopilot/EGNOS system, above 1.69 %. From the

elaboration of data of the two guidance systems behavior to manage the only width

of transposition, it is observed that the EZ-Steer/RTK system is able to guarantee a

better hold of the line compared to the Autopilot/EGNOS system, which provides a

mistake of 176 cm on the total width of transposition and 2 cm on the mean value.

In the matter of the normalized transposition surfaces, the Autopilot/EGNOS

system ensures a better work quality.

1 Introduction

Precision farming (PF) is a management philosophy or approach to the farm and is

not a deﬁnable prescriptive system (Dawson

1997).

It identiﬁes the critical factors

where yield is limited by controllable factors and determines intrinsic spatial

variability. It is an essentially more precise farm management made possible by

modern technology (Mandal and Ghosh

2000).

The variations occurring in crop or

soil properties within a ﬁeld are noted and mapped and then management actions

are taken as a consequence of continued assessment of the spatial variability within

P. D’Antonio (

) • C. D’Antonio • V. Doddato • M. Mangano

School of Agricultural, Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata, Via

dell’Ateneo, 85100 Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_24

373

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374

P. D’Antonio et al.

that ﬁeld. The development of geomatics technology in the later part of the

twentieth century has aided in the adoption of site-speciﬁc management systems

using remote sensing (RS), GPS, and geographical information system (GIS).

This approach is called PF or site-speciﬁc management (Brisco et al.

1998;

Carr

et al.

1991;

Palmer

1996).

The farming tends to manage every factor of production in varying measures,

treating small areas inside the lot as separate surfaces. By doing so, the economic

margin of crops can be increased, reducing the input of the technical means.

Furthermore, the environmental impact and the quantity of the production factors

used, such as pesticides and fertilizers, are signiﬁcantly reduced. Therefore, the

precision farming aims to adapt the contributions in a point manner, taking into

account the local variability of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics

of the ﬁeld and the timing of implant (Pierce and Sadler

1997).

At the same time,

also the soil preparation work must be performed accurately, in order to avoid

overlap, which would cause an increase of the costs. For this aim, a detailed

mapping of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the ﬁeld has been

used, so that they can be managed by the control computer of the cultivation

operations, placed beside the machines. Therefore, the implementation of the

actions demands an automatic positioning system (GPS, global positioning system),

which allows the machine to recognize the exact location on the map, differentiat-

ing the agricultural operation to carry out. A group of 24 satellites in orbit around

the Earth forms the GPS. With three satellites and a receiver and through the three-

dimensional triangulation, the receiver will indicate its position on the Earth. That

is done through the analysis of the high-frequency signals that the satellites send to

the receiver, which calculates how long it takes to receive the signal and its position

is displayed on a screen. In addition, it reduces the environmental damage and the

risks in agriculture. During the crop production, the uncertainty of the yield may be

reduced and the safety of the farmers’ incomes can be increased if the technological

elements are used and combined correctly (Auernhammer

2001;

Gandonou

et al.

2004;

Chavas

2008).

Precision agriculture is a systems approach to farming. To be viable, both

economic and environmental beneﬁts must be considered, as well as the practical

questions of ﬁeld-level management and the needed alliances to provide the

infrastructure for technologies.

That study was conducted to investigate the convenience in the use of two

normally used system of guidance, examining their reliability and the opportunity

of reducing production costs, and therefore also have a fuel saving, with clear

environmental beneﬁt.

2 Materials and Methods

The experimental trials were conducted on two satellite-guidance devices using two

different correction systems of the GPS signal:

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Satellite Technologies to Support the Sustainability of Agricultural Production

Fig. 1

Motorized roll

375

• The EZ-Steer, with RTK precision system

• The Autopilot, with EGNOS precision system

The EZ-Steer is an assisted guidance system, wherein the management of the

tractor direction happens by a motorized roll, placed beside the steering, which is

operated by the control unit positioned in the tractor cabin (Fig.

1).

This system doesn’t overcome the value of 90 points (on a scale that ranges from

50 to 150), because of a non-instantaneous reaction of the starter to the course

correction pulses issued by the control unit and because of the roll slipping light on

the wheel; it was observed that, using a precision RTK and setting a value more than

90 points.

The Autopilot, instead, is an integrated system, which uses the hydrostatic

guidance system for the management of the tractor through a hydraulic control

unit (Fig.

2),

which communicates with the control unit, placed in the control room.

In that case, the control unit communicates, both, with the GPS antenna and with

the sensors proximal to the wheels, which indicate how the feed axis diverts respect

to the orthogonal of the tractor. The Autopilot’s hydraulic circuit, differently from

the EZ-Steer, allows to work with a value up to 135 points before going in

overcorrection, which means it has a remarkable ability to maintain the correct

trajectory also on land which is full of holes and/or soft. The GPS with EGNOS

error correction can obtain a positioning accuracy, which is a precision between

consecutive passes, of 20 cm, and a repeatability year after year of 90 cm (it’s a free

service); the RTK, instead, is a high-precision technology, with an accuracy

between consecutive passes of 2.5 cm and a repeatability year after year of

2.5 cm. The RTK is able to provide an elevation accuracy of 5 cm, with an

improvement of almost two orders of height compared to the GPS standard

(DGPS), since this system is able to extract the additional information, examining

the carrier wave of the GPS signal (Tyler et al.

1997).

The RTK system’s disad-

vantages are a higher cost, the need to establish a local base station, and a signiﬁcant

decrease compared to the GPS standard methods. A light-bar provides information

of the visual guide to the operator, who may make some corrections of manual

steering.

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376

Fig. 2

Hydraulic

control unit

P. D’Antonio et al.

During the trials in the ﬁeld, the tractor New Holland T7060 was used, while as

operating machines the following have been used:

•

The rotary harrow, Alpego DG-400

The burier, Forigo DG-45

The rotary tiller, MASCHIO Pantera 420

The plow scrambler, SILVER 66/15

It was decided to carry out investigations on ﬂat surfaces and, in any event, not

surrounded by mountains in the circumstances, so that the rover and the eventual

RTK antenna could be served by the largest number of satellites; 8 plots away from

trees, power lines, and farms were chosen as areas of experimental interest for the

same reason, because these elements could create interferences between the

receiver and the satellite.

To carry out the measurement, a tape measure to 20 m, a measuring tape from

3 m steel rods for reinforcement, and a line from carpentry, squaring surveyor have

been used. The distance between each pair of pickets has been detected, obtaining

the so-called length of transposition, except that, by connecting the two pegs with a

ﬁshing line, in order to detect the maximum distance, taken perpendicularly to the

line, between the latter and the margin of transposition, identifying the width of

transposition. The measurements were carried out over several days of the cam-

paign and developed over a distance of 6,200 m for each of the systems examined.

With regard to the eight plots, the measures that characterize them are summarized

in Table

(Fig.

1).

The data collected for each of the two systems is not concordant; in fact, while

for the EZ-Steer/RTK, 80 observations were carried out, for the Autopilot/EGNOS

system, 75 observations were performed. But it is an obvious consequence, since

the two systems are independent, while what makes them comparable is the fact

that they have been tested on a common route of 6,200 m. So for the analysis of

variance (ANOVA), it is necessary to standardize the number of measured data.

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Satellite Technologies to Support the Sustainability of Agricultural Production

Table 1

Size of 8 plots

EZ-Steer/RTK

Plot 1

Plot 2

Greater side (m)

Smaller side (m)

Surface (ha)

120

1.08

125

1.00

Plot 3

110

1.06

Plot 4

115

1.04

Autopilot/EGNOS

Plot 5

Plot 6

Plot 7

120

1.02

140

1.05

130

1.04

377

Plot 8

125

1.06

3 Results

The experiments were performed over several days in the countryside on a route of

13,000 m and 80 observations for each plot. The basic parameters that have

characterized the two trials are summarized in Table

and in Table

are the

machine operating data.

The surveys have been performed on pairs of contiguous swaths, to identify

areas where an overlap or some variations happen, so that even the measure results

reasonable.

For each transposition, then, the apparent area has been calculated, multiplying

the transposition length for its width. Obviously, since in the analysis of variance

for one factor (ANOVA) it is necessary to standardize the number of the detected

data, to the nonexistent data, a value of 0 has been assigned and the average was

calculated considering these terms.

Thanks to the elaboration of data in relation to the behavior of the two satellite-

guidance systems that manage the only direction of tractor advancement, we have

obtained the following results in Table

On the basis of these results, you gather that the EZ-Steer/RTK system ensures a

lower capacity of the theoretical path; in fact, the total of the traveled route shows

an error of 229.42 m and with respect to the Autopilot/EGNOS system above

3.806 %. From the elaboration of data relating to the behavior of the two guidance

systems in managing only the transposition width, we have obtained the following

results in Table

Regarding to longitudinal measures, the quality of work is given by the optimal

length of transposition anything, from a comparison of the data shows how complex

the EZ-Steer/RTK, despite surgical correction of the accuracy of the satellite signal

ensured by RTK, ensures a lower seal of the theoretical trajectory, in fact, the total

of the journey performed, shows a longitudinal transposition of 229.42 m more than

the Autopilot/EGNOS system, equal to 3.806 % of 6,200 m paths. It follows that,

between the two systems, the Autopilot/EGNOS is able to correct before and better

the deviation from the theoretical trajectory.

Each system consists of two devices, each of which has a different ability to

correct the accuracy, the RTK and the EGNOS, and to manage the accuracy,

EZ-Steer and Autopilot. EZ-Steer is a guidance system of the type witnessed soothe

control of direction of the tractor is the case for action on the steering board of a roll

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378

Table 2

Basic nominal geometric parameters

EZ-Steer/RTK

A swath average length(m)

Total number of passes made

Meters traveled (m)

Contiguous passes’ number

Single pass width (m)

Two contiguous passes’ width (m)

Swath total width (m)

Two contiguous passes’ surface (m

)

of work surface (m

)

Table 3

Operative data of the machines

Forigo

DG-45 New

H. T7060

Average

speed (km/h)

(m/min)

Work front

width (m)

Processing

depth (m)

Fuel con-

sumption

(l/h)

3.6; 60

Alpego

DG-400 New

H. T7060

4.0; 66.7

Zappatrice

MASCHIO Pantera

420 New H. T7061

3.8; 60

118

6,136

4.07

8.15

211.5

961.7

24,957

P. D’Antonio et al.

Autopilot/EGNOS

130

6,240

4.07

8.15

194.65

1,059.5

25,304.5

Aratro rimescolatore

SILVER 66/15 New

H. T7062

6.0; 69.7

3.8

0.2

15.4

4.00

0.1

15.8

4.20

0.29

16.10

4.30

0.25

15.80

Table 4

Transposition length results

EZ-Steer/

RTK

Average length of a swath (m)

Total route traveled (m)

Total transposition length (m)

Transposition average length (m)

Transposition length of total traveled route (%)

Minimum transposition length (m)

Maximum transposition length (m)

118

6,136

998.64

12.493

16.275

1.3

28.7

Autopilot/

EGNOS

130

6,240

769.22

9.6153

12.469

2.45

17.1

Variation

À2

À104

229.42

2.877

3.806

À1.15

11.6

motor, the management of which, in turn, is assigned to the control unit accommo-

dated in the tractor cabin; it is such an architecture that focuses on the limit of the

EZ-Steer system to allow the tractor to emphasize the theoretical path, and because

the motor cannot handle the multiple pulse course correction issued by the control

unit, it shows a very ready reaction to them, except that, roll ﬁlms are observed with

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Satellite Technologies to Support the Sustainability of Agricultural Production

Table 5

Transposition width results

EZ-Steer/RTK

Width of the work front (m)

Width of two contiguous wipes (m)

Swaths’ total width (m)

Total transposition width (m)

Average transposition width (m)

Minimum transposition width (m)

Maximum transposition width (m)

4.075

8.15

52.875

11.6

0.145

0.05

0.355

Autopilot/EGNOS

4.075

8.15

48.6625

13.237

0.165

0.08

0.375

379

Variation

4.2125

1.64

0.02

0.03

0.02

slight shifts on the steering wheel, which reduce the sensitivity of the system. All

these elements are summarized by the aggressiveness parameter, which explains

the ability of the system to follow a rectilinear proﬁle and faithful to the trajectory

theoretical.

There is, however, a limit, called overcorrection and is proportional to the

architecture of the system. The EZ-Steer system, however, is implemented by an

RTK correction, with an experimental aim to compensate greatly reduced aggres-

sion and, therefore, to signiﬁcantly reduce the length of implementation, even

bringing it below what would have been possible with an Autopilot/EGNOS

system. In the EZ-Steer/RTK, the transposition length equals to 998.64 m, while

for the Autopilot/EGNOS system, transposition length equals to 769.22 m. Appar-

ently, the ability to control the actual trajectory on the racing line and therefore the

aggressiveness of the two drive systems, the EZ-Steer and Autopilot, are likely to

prevail on the correction accuracy of the satellite signal carried by the devices and

RTK EGNOS.

The results on the widths of transposition, instead, in a sense, stressing the

different correction capabilities of precision, were made by the RTK mode and

the EGNOS mode, in fact, whereas with the Autopilot/EGNOS system, it has an

average width of transposition equal to 16.5 cm, with the EZ-Steer/RTK an average

width of transposition of 14.5 cm. For all EZ-Steer/RTK, 14.5 cm is, however, a

result that does not respect the potential of 2.5 cm RTK correction, while the

complex Autopilot/EGNOS is fully integrated in the range of 20 cm guaranteed

by the EGNOS correction. The reason, also in this case, is attributable to the

aggressiveness of the two different driving systems, satellite; this is because the

aggressiveness of 90 points induces the tractor to be moved further from the ideal

trajectory, unlike what happens with the high aggressiveness of 135 points obtained

on the Autopilot.

With regard to operating machines, the Autopilot/EGNOS and the EZ-Steer/

RTK showed a homogeneous regularity of work due to the ability of stabilizing

active suspension of the tractor New Holland T7060, except that the regularity of

the surfaces were the backdrop to the trials and machinery.

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the lengths of transposition is that the

calculated F (F) is greater than the critical value of F (Fcrit), except that as the value

of signiﬁcance (

value) is less than the value of reliability (α

0.05), we reject the

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380

P. D’Antonio et al.

null hypothesis (H0), which suggests that there is no signiﬁcant difference between

the means, and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1), which emphasizes, however,

that there is a signiﬁcant difference between the means; therefore, this means that

the values of length of transposition collected in the ﬁeld for the EZ-Steer system/

RTK and Autopilot/EGNOS deviate signiﬁcantly from the average. With regard to

the widths of transposition and similarly the length of implementation, the analysis

of variance showed that the calculated F (F) is greater than the critical value of F

(Fcrit); we reject the null hypothesis (H0), which suggests that there is no signif-

icant difference between the means, and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1),

which tells us that the means are signiﬁcantly different from each other. Therefore,

from what the analysis of variance shows, the values of transposition length

collected in the ﬁeld for the two systems differ signiﬁcantly from the average.

In the analysis of variance on the standard surfaces, differently from what

happens with the length and width of a transposition, it appears that the calculated

F (F) is less critical than the F (Fcrit) and the signiﬁcance value (

value) is greater

than the value of reliability (α

0.05); we accept the null hypothesis (H0), which

suggests that there are signiﬁcant differences between the means, and reject the

alternative hypothesis (H1), which tells us that the means are signiﬁcantly different

from each other. The analysis of variance on standard surfaces, so that the values

obtained for the EZ-Steer/RTK and the Autopilot/EGNOS do not differ signiﬁ-

cantly from the average.

Relating to the data collected about the transposition width and the total width of

the work front, the results are summarized in Table

The collected data showed that the Autopilot/EGNOS system is useful ensuring

a better quality of work than the EZ-Steer/RTK system; in fact, it provides a

precision on the transposition total area, approximately 6,200 m

. The area of

transposition, therefore, is the parameter that most of all allows to compare the

two combinations of guidance systems, as it is a datum that merges the longitudinal

behavior of transposition with the latitudinal one. As for the transposition width

also for the surface of transposition, the proportion (%) of the transposed area is not

considered with respect to the total worked area, in that with increasing the work

front and, therefore, the surface unitarily worked and the surface transposed being

equal, it follows its reduction if we consider it in percentage terms.

The average depth of work respects the operating nominal depth when the tractor

is supported either by the EZ-Steer/RTK system or by the Autopilot/EGNOS

system. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) affected parameters such as transposi-

tion length, transposition width, and normalized areas. For the calculation of the

variance of the transposition length, we have analyzed the data obtained, which

have reported in the graph relative to the transposition lengths provided by the two

guidance systems (Graph

1).

The results obtained showed that the values of transposition length surveyed in

the ﬁeld for the EZ-Steer/RTK and the Autopilot/EGNOS systems one deviate

signiﬁcantly from the average. Like to the calculation of the variance of the

transposition width, the data collected have been analyzed which have shown in

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Satellite Technologies to Support the Sustainability of Agricultural Production

Table 6

Results on the surface of transposition

EZ-Steer/RTK

Area of two contiguous wipes (m

)

Total worked area (m

)

Total transposition area (m

)

Transposition average area (m

)

Minimum transposition area (m

)

Maximum transposition area (m

)

3,847

24,957

11,484.36

1.81

0.065

10.19

Autopilot/EGNOS

4,238

25,305

10,182.17

1.59

0.196

6.5

381

Variation

À391

À348

1,302.19

0.22

À0.131

3.69

Graph 1

Transposition lengths provided by the two guidance systems

the graph of the transposition widths provided by the two guidance systems

(Graph

2).

For the calculation of the variance of the transposition normalized areas,

obtained by multiplying for each survey the transposition length for its width, we

have analyzed the collected data which have shown in Graph

The analysis of variance on the normalized areas shows that the values obtained

from the systems EZ-Steer/RTK and Autopilot/EGNOS do not deviate signiﬁcantly

from the average.

The survey results are summarized in Table

to deduce the behavior of the two

systems and draw conclusions.

In longitudinal terms, a good work quality is given by the null transposition

length. It’s clear from the comparison with the data that the EZ-Steer/RTK system

provides a lower capacity of the theoretical trajectory. In fact, the total of the route

that has been carried out shows a longitudinal transposition of 229.42 m more than

the Autopilot/EGNOS system, equal to 3.806 % of 13,000 m routes. It follows that,

between the two systems, the Autopilot/EGNOS is able to correct before and better

the deviation from the theoretical route.

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382

P. D’Antonio et al.

Graph 2

Comparison between the transposition widths provided by the two guidance systems

Graph 3

Comparison between the transposition normalized surfaces provided by two guidance

systems

Table 7

Results about the two guidance systems

EZ-Steer/

RTK

Total transposition length (m)

Average transposition length (m)

Variance – average transposition length

Percentage of the transposition length on the total of

traveled route (%)

Total transposition width (m)

Average transposition width (m)

Variance – transposition average width

Total transposition area (m

)

Average transposition area (m

)

Variance – average transposition area

998.64

12.483

38.3352

16.275

11.6

0.145

0.0037

11,484.36

1.81

1.5861

Autopilot/

EGNOS

769.22

9.6153

18.3766

12.469

13.237

0.165

0.0043

10,182.17

1.59

0.888

Variation

229.42

2.87

19.96

3.806

À1.64

À0.02

0.00

1,302.19

0.22

0.70

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Satellite Technologies to Support the Sustainability of Agricultural Production

383

4 Conclusions

Experimentation has shown that the two satellite-guidance systems examined had

no signiﬁcant differences in the quality of work, although the complex autopilot/

EGNOS has a higher reliability on the length of transposition. It follows that the

two combinations of satellite guidance, in view of the similar amount of latitudinal

transposition, make it suitable for all those jobs which tolerate such an error, such as

plant protection treatments, fertilizing, harrowing, mowing, harvesting, etc., while

for jobs requiring great precision, e.g., sowing, weeding, planting, and processing

of ﬁles, there is the need to use a combination that guarantees maximum precision

and, therefore, to optimize the system supporting it with the Autopilot RTK

correction. The maximum precision that results, however, also involves the greatest

savings on the factors of production; therefore, this solution would be desirable to

also increase their procurement costs and increase with ﬁrm size.

Otherwise, that study wanted to check the accuracy of only the devices RTK and

EGNOS, and this would have raised the need to follow a different approach to the

ﬁndings; in fact, it would be necessary to use a single device driving, such as

Autopilot, except that it would be necessary detecting the precision of the real

trajectory in relation to time.

The precision between consecutive passes measures the relative accuracy of

15 min intervals, e.g., a receiver with precision between consecutive passes of

2.5 cm allows to work for 95 % of the time with an offset or overlap less than

2.5 cm. Also, the precision year after year is a measure of repeatability over the time

of the accuracy or the ability of the same rows after 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, or 1 year.

At the actual level of technology there are many perspectives of full automation

in agriculture, thanks to the use of robots and of internet, which would improve the

transfer of data even thousands of miles away. This change, although it has its

economic value, may also represent the input to give importance to agricultural

systems, to date, the common feeling, less attention apparently more powerful than

loans qualifying, and also seeking new employment prospects, requiring more and

more people able to open your mind multidisciplinary interaction. In conclusion, a

snapshot of the distribution of the solutions of precision agriculture in Italy, if taken

today, allows to highlight how in recent years the development of this sector has

been slow due to the reorganization of the company structure, reducing the number

of operators and increasing the size and strength of the business of some ﬁgures

between farms and agromechanical.

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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References

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strategy for increasing fertilizer proﬁtability. J Prod Agric 4:57–61

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pp. 45–58

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environmental damages in developing countries: a case study of cotton production in Benin.

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Virginia Cooperative Extension Service, Blacksburg

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and tomorrow. Curr Sci 79(12)

Palmer RJ (1996) Positioning aspects of site-speciﬁc applications. In: Proceedings of site-speciﬁc

management for agricultural systems. Scientiﬁc Publication of ASA-CSSA-SSSA, Madison,

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Pierce FJ, Sadler EJ (1997) The state of site speciﬁc management for agriculture, ASA Publica-

tions, ASA, CSSA e SSSA, Madison, WI

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In: The state of site-speciﬁc management for agriculture 1997. ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison,

WI, pp 161–181

Verhagen J, Bouma J (1997) Modeling soil variability. In: Pierce FJ, Sadler EJ (ed) The state of

site speciﬁc management for agriculture 1997. ASA Publications, ASA, CSSA e SSSA,

Madison, WI

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Electrolysed Water in the Food Industry

as Supporting of Environmental

Sustainability

Maria Antonietta Colangelo, Marisa C. Caruso, Fabio Favati,

Teresa Scarpa, Nicola Condelli, and Fernanda Galgano

Abstract

Food safety is a priority for the food industry and to achieve this result a

correct plant sanitation programme is of the utmost importance. Among various

disinfection techniques, an emerging one is represented by the use of electrolysed

water (EW) as the disinfecting agent. The use of EW is compliant with the desire to

ﬁnd alternatives to chlorination and heat treatments, representing a green cleaning

alternative to toxic disinfectants. EW is an activated liquid, obtained by passing a

diluted saline solution (NaCl, KCl or MgCl

) through an electrolytic cell, thus

causing the production from the anode side of electrolysed oxidising water,

containing high dissolved oxygen, free chlorine and characterised by a low pH

(2.3–2.7) and a high oxidation–reduction potential (ORP

1,000 mV). At the same

time from the cathode side electrolysed reduced water is produced, with high pH

(10.0–11.5), high dissolved hydrogen and low ORP (À800 to

À900

mV). Unlike

other chemical disinfectants, EW is not harmful for skin and mucous membranes

and is quite easy to handle. Furthermore, the use of EW is relatively inexpensive

and, above all, is a sustainable technique. Currently used sanitisers

(e.g. glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, etc.) are effective, but their adverse effects

on the environment are well known. Differently from these chemicals, the use of

EW has a reduced impact on the environment and because of its properties, it may

ﬁnd several applications in the food industry. In this work, the characteristics and

some EW applications as sustainable sanitation technique applied in the food

industry are reported and discussed.

M.A. Colangelo • M.C. Caruso • T. Scarpa • N. Condelli • F. Galgano (

)

School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Basilicata,

Potenza, Italy

e-mail:

[email protected]

F. Favati

Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy

The Author(s) 2015

A. Vastola (ed.),

The Sustainability of Agro-Food and Natural Resource Systems in

the Mediterranean Basin,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_25

385

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M.A. Colangelo et al.

1 Introduction

Chlorine is commonly used as a disinfectant in food processing industries. How-

ever, the continuing outbreaks of food infection raise concerns and doubts about

food safety. A large part of the food industry uses hypochlorite as disinfectant, but it

is not often used under optimum conditions compromising its effectiveness. The

excessive use of this disinfectant involves the presence of undesirable by-product

residues on food (Gil et al.

2009).

In addition, the chlorine-based disinfectants are a

risk for human health and the environment (Olmez and Kretzschmar

2009).

In fact,

it is known that from the reaction of chlorine with organic matter are generated

carcinogenic halogenated by-products (DBP), for example trihalomethanes

(THMs) and halogenated acids (HAAs) (Gil et al.

2009;

Singer

1994).

Moreover,

the use of chlorine allows the production of large amounts of wastewater with high

levels of biological oxygen demand (BOD). Chlorine dioxide, ozone, organic acids,

peroxyacetic acid, hydrogen peroxide and EW are the main alternative sanitising

agents that arouse interest (Olmez and Kretzschmar

2009).

In particular, EW

represents a good alternative to chlorination and heat treatments, representing a

green cleaning alternative to toxic disinfectants. Unlike other chemical disinfec-

tants, EW is not harmful for skin and mucous membranes and is quite easy to

handle. Furthermore, the use of EW is relatively inexpensive and, above all, is a

sustainable technique. The cost of use is relatively low; the highest cost is the

purchase of an electrolytic unit, but, after the initial investment, the costs are very

low, requires only water, salt and electricity (Huang et al.

2008).

Another important

aspect is the low environmental impact which involves the use of EW. When the

EW is in contact with the organic matter or is diluted with ordinary tap water by

reverse osmosis, water becomes again “normal”. As a result, the impact on the

environment is much less negative compared to the use of chemical disinfectants,

the use of which is also linked to the difﬁculties of transporting and storing

potentially hazardous chemicals (Nakagawara et al.

1998;

Tanaka et al.

1999).

On the other hand, the main disadvantage is that EW rapidly loses its antimicrobial

activity. The solutions REW and OEW maintain for a limited time their properties

(12–21 days), if they are stored away from light and heat. Between the two

solutions, the OEW loses its effectiveness more quickly, because the chlorine

present in gaseous form is dispersed rapidly by volatilisation, so decays the

bactericidal power (Kiura et al.

2002).

This sustainable technology is already

applied in various countries. Since 2002 in Japan EW is enclosed in the list of

permitted food additives; moreover, in the USA the EPA (Environmental Protection

Agency) has approved the use of electrolysed water in the food industry (Venturini

2013).

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Electrolysed Water in the Food Industry as Supporting of Environmental.

. .

387

2 Electrolysed Water

EW is an activated liquid, obtained by passing a diluted saline solution (NaCl, KCl

or MgCl

) through an electrolytic cell, thus causing the production from the anode

side of electrolysed oxidising water (OEW), containing high dissolved oxygen, free

chlorine and characterised by a low pH (2.3–2.7) and a high oxidation–reduction

potential (ORP

1,000 mV). At the same time from the cathode side electrolysed

reducing water is produced (REW), with high pH (10.0–11.5), high dissolved

hydrogen and low ORP (À800 to

À900

mV) (Huang et al.

2008;

Venturini

2013;

Rui et al.

2011).

Of the two solutions, one, the acidic and oxidiser solution, contains

hypochlorous acid (HOCl), hydrogen chloride (HCl) and free gas (O

and Cl

); the

other, the basic and the reductant solution, contains sodium hydroxide (NaOH),

and, from this, H

gas is liberated. In Fig.

the electrolytic cell for the production

of electrolysed water is schematically shown. Using a bath electrolysis without

separation bafﬂe, a solution with a pH close to neutral (6.2–6.5), with a low

concentration of free chlorine (NEW), is obtained (Venturini

2013).

Due to its properties, and particularly for its bactericidal effect, EW may ﬁnd

several applications in the agriculture and food industry. The disinfectant action is

due to several factors that act synergistically: pH; ORP; presence of free chlorine

(the disinfecting action is mainly due to the presence of hypochlorous acid)

(Venturini

2013).

Additionally, the high redox potential induces the modiﬁcation

of the metabolic ﬂows and inﬂuences the ATP production, probably due to the

variation of the ﬂow of electrons in the cell (McPherson

1993).

HOCl, the most

Fig. 1

Scheme of the electrolytic cell for electrolysed water (Venturini

2013)

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388

M.A. Colangelo et al.

active of the compounds of chlorine, seems to be the main responsible for the death

of the microbial cell, inhibiting the oxidation of glucose, due to the oxidation of the

sulfhydryl groups of enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism (Marriott and

Gravani

2006).

3 Application of EW as Surface Disinfectant

EW has been successfully utilised as surface disinfectant, for example for cutting

surfaces made with different materials (glass, steel, glazed ceramic tiles). OEW can

be used to reduce bacterial contamination on teﬂon, stainless steel and ceramic

using short treatments (5 min) (Serraino et al.

2010;

Park et al.

2002).

However, the

bactericidal efﬁcacy of EW depends on the amount of organic matter present on the

surfaces. In fact, many disinfectants, including hypochlorite, have a reduced effec-

tiveness in presence of a large amount of organic substance (Bach et al.

2006;

Liu

et al.

2006).

This effect can be reduced using the alkaline EW before application of

the acidic solution. Alkaline water contains high concentrations of sodium hydrox-

ide, which exerts a detergent action dissolving fats, proteins and polymeric com-

pounds outside the bacterial membranes. In this manner the action of the acid

solution will be greater (Ayebah et al.

2005).

Møretrø et al. (2012) reported the

effectiveness of EW for the disinfection of surfaces contaminated with

Salmonella,

even in the presence of bioﬁlm. Bartolome et al. (2011a) used EW for cleaning and

disinfecting a circuit milking and cooling tank in a herd of dairy cattle by compar-

ing its effectiveness with traditional cleaning chemicals. In this study, EW has been

used as a replacement to a chlorinated alkaline detergent with phosphates and an

acid descaling. The obtained results suggested that the EW not only preserves the

integrity of the milking systems but also ensures a greater degree of sanitisation,

compared to the traditional chemical products, besides being a clean and environ-

mentally friendly system.

4 EW on Fruits and Vegetables

The use of EW could be useful also for the treatments of fruits and vegetables, in

pre and post-harvest. In fact, in the various studies (Guentzel et al.

2010;

Vandekinderen et al.

2009;

Tomas-Callejas et al.

2011)

is reported that the use of

EW, NEW and OEW does not leave signiﬁcant residues of chlorine and does not

affect quality the sensory and nutritional of the fruits and vegetables. In pre-harvest,

EW can be used for irrigation inhibiting the microbial growth in water

(Phytophthora spp.,

Fusarium

spp.,

Algae).

The OEW can be used to protect

products from deterioration post-harvest caused by fungal species, such as

Asper-

gillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium,

and from the presence of mycotoxins produced

by these fungal species. OEW, diluted with water in a 1:4 ratio, is effective to

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Electrolysed Water in the Food Industry as Supporting of Environmental.

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389

prevent the gray rot of peaches due to the germination of

Botrytis cinerea

(Venturini

2013).

Guentzel et al. (2010) reported about the use of near-neutral

EW (pH 6.3–6.5) on surfaces of peaches and grapes to inactivate pure cultures of

B. cinerea

and

Monilinia fructicola

responsible of gray mould and brown rot on

fruits surfaces. From the study resulted that the dipping and daily spraying treat-

ments prevent the microbial growth better than dipping alone. Moreover, EW is

effective for washing and disinfection of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. The water

can represent a vehicle of cross-contamination; for this reason chlorine is usually

added to the washing water but EW represents a valid alternative to this practice

(Graca et al.

2010;

Yudin et al.

2010).

Yang et al. (2003) reported that a reduction of

Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli

O157:H7 and

Listeria monocytogenes

2 log CFU/g can be obtained by plunging fresh-cut lettuce in EW at pH 7,

containing 300 mg/L of free chlorine, for 5 min. Also Abadıas et al. (2008)

indicated that diluted NEW (50 mg/L free chlorine) has a bactericidal power against

E. coli, Salmonella, Listeria innocua

and

Erwinia carotovara

on fresh-cut lettuce,

carrot, endive, corn salad and Four season salad. In addition, the result obtained

showed that the NEW has an efﬁcacy comparable with NaClO (120 mg/L free

chlorine). Tomas-Callejas et al. (2011) used neutral and acidic electrolysed water

(AEW) for fresh-cut mizuna baby leaves. The results of the study suggests that EW

has a disinfecting power equal to NaClO. Furthermore, NEW has a higher effect

against enterobacteria and mesophilic bacteria, while AEW against psychrotrophic

and lactic acid bacteria. In another study (Graca et al.

2010)

NEW and AEW were

used to inactivate food-borne pathogens on the surface of fresh-cut apples, pears

and oranges. From this study emerged that both solutions (NEW and AEW) are able

to reduce the microbial population, but AEW has a higher efﬁcacy. Deza

et al. (2003) reported that the neutral solution had the same or greater efﬁcacy

than AEW on the surface of tomatoes. Koide et al. (2009) reported about the use of

slightly acidic EW (pH 6, 1.20 mg/L available chlorine) on fresh cut cabbage. This

study showed that slightly acidic EW has a disinfectant efﬁcacy equivalent or

higher than NaClO. Gmez-Lpez et al. (2013) investigated about the production

of trihalomethanes in baby spinach washed with EW. According to this study,

although the EW contains a certain amount of chlorine, it is not involved in the

production of dangerous levels of THMs. Even in the washing and cleaning of

mushrooms (Pleurotus

ostreatus),

EW has been useful for the purpose of removing

E. coli

O157:H7,

Listeria, S. typhimurium

and

Bacillus cereus,

which hardly were

eliminated with normal washing procedures (Venturini

2013).

Ding et al. (2011)

also reported about the use of EW with a neutral pH (6.2–6.5) value and low

concentration of free chlorine (5 mg/L) on oyster mushroom to eliminate food-

borne pathogens. The study showed that the EW with neutral pH and low concen-

tration of free chlorine allows to obtain the same results of using strong acid

electrolysed water (pH 2.5–2.7, 50 mg/L available chlorine), with less dangers for

human health. Pangloli and Hung (2013) reported that EW with 30 mg/L of free

chlorine can be successfully used to wash blueberries reducing the population of

E. coli

O157:H7 that may be present. Nimitkeatkai and Kim (2009) observed the

effect of EW on washing apples. For the test were used strong acidic EW (pH 2.8)

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390

M.A. Colangelo et al.

and weak acidic EW (pH 6.5). The authors assessed the efﬁcacy of the two

sanitising solutions, and the better choice is to wash apple with weak acidic EW

(either 2 or 5 min) or strong acidic EW for 2 min to preserve sensory quality of

apples. Liu et al. (2013) used EW during the production of germinated brown rice

(GBR). In fact, although the production of GBR is quite simple, the growth of

contaminating microorganisms may constitute a problem. The EW (with different

parameters) was used to wash the brown rice. The study showed that the acidic EW

promotes the accumulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) during the ger-

mination of brown rice. The accumulation of GABA is positive because it has many

beneﬁcial properties for human health (Liu et al.

2013).

Moreover, both strong

acidic EW and slightly acidic EW were more effective in inhibiting microbial

growth during germination and also promoted the growth of GBR compared with

alkaline EW. This aspect has been conﬁrmed in a previous study in which the

alkaline EW inhibited the growth of mung bean sprouts; on the contrary, strong

acidic EW promoted the growth of mung bean sprouts (Liu et al.

2011).

In addition,

Rui et al. (2011) studied the application of EW for the washing of mung bean

sprouts. The use of EW as washing water, but also of irrigation, was effective for

the reduction of populations of

Salmonella

and

E. coli.

Issa-Zacharia et al. (2011)

used slightly acidic EW (pH 5.6–5.8) on Chinese celery, lettuce and daikon sprouts.

The efﬁcacy of the electrolysed solution was compared to sodium hypochlorite

solution. It was found that slightly acidic EW is efﬁcacy, as much as the sodium

hypochlorite, to reduce the population of indigenous aerobic mesophilic bacteria.

5 EW on Animal Products

EW is also effective on animal products against pathogenic microorganisms. For

example, the EW can be used to reduce the concentration of

E. coli

O157:H7,

Salmonella

spp.,

L. monocytogenes

and

Yersinia enterocolitica,

conveyed through

the faeces, on shell eggs. Normally, prior to incubation, the eggs are subjected to a

disinfection treatment that involves the use of formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde or

hydrogen peroxide. Although effective, these treatments may have toxic effects, not

only on the operator who uses them but also on the chick. The EW achieves the

same results in terms of disinfection without toxicity (Favier et al.

2000;

et al.

2013;

Cao et al.

2009).

The washing with EW of chicken carcasses before

plucking and evisceration was useful to reduce the risk of cross-contamination and

to remove

Campylobacter jejuni

from the surface of carcasses (Park et al.

2002;

Fabrizio and Cutter

2004).

Rahman et al. (2012) used both slightly acidic EW

(pH 6.2–6.5, 10 mg/L of available chlorine) and strong acidic EW (pH 2.5–2.7,

50 mg/L of available chlorine) for dipping treatment of fresh chicken breast meat.

The results showed that the two solutions have similar antimicrobial activity and

not affect negatively the overall sensory quality of meat. On the contrary, EW

treatment improved sensory attributes of meat (freshness, texture, odour) and

extended the shelf life of the product. Azad et al. (2013) also reported about the

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Electrolysed Water in the Food Industry as Supporting of Environmental.

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391

use of EW, as drinking water, to reduce the oxidative damage to skeletal muscle of

broiler chickens exposed to heat stress. The oxidative damage is due to the

production of ROS (reactive oxygen species). From the study resulted that the

chickens treated with EW water and exposed to a temperature of 34

C for 5 days

showed higher feed consumption, considerable improved growth performance and

lower ROS production compared with the control with normal drinking water.

Moreover, Bartolome et al. (2011b) evaluated the possibility of using EW as

drinking water of dairy cattle, and the effects on the quality of milk produced. In

milk from cows that had ingested EW, there was a signiﬁcant reduction in the

number of somatic cells and the concentration of coagulase-positive microorgan-

isms. The use of EW for the washing of fresh meat was also investigated. Bosilevac

et al. (2005), Fabrizio and Cutter (2004) and Fabrizio et al. (2002) compared the

effectiveness of EW with the chlorinated water, ozonated water, acetic acid and

trisodium phosphate in reducing the bacterial population on fresh meat. From the

studies resulted that the low pH of acidic EW allows a greater reduction, compared

to the common chlorinated water, of the phenomenon of cross-contamination due to

the sequential washes of carcasses. The EW is also effective to inactivate the

bacteria present on ﬁsh and seafoods. In fact, it is the efﬁcacy to reduce the

population of

E. coli

O157:H7 on salmon raw or to prolong the shelf life of yellow

ﬁn tuna during chilled and frozen storage (Huang et al.

2006).

Phuvasate and Su

(2010) also evaluated the possibility of using EW and EW ice to minimise the

growth of histamine-producing bacteria on ﬁsh skin and food contact surface. High

levels of histamine cause scombroid syndrome, a common illness due to consump-

tion of highly contaminated ﬁsh. From this study it resulted that soaking ﬁsh skin

inoculated with histamine-producing bacteria in EOW (50 ppm) for 120 min can be

obtained a reduction of bacteria slightly higher compared with distilled water

treatment, but using EW containing 100 ppm of chlorine resulted in a better

reduction of bacteria. The treatment with EW ice (100 ppm) was very effective to

reduce bacteria on ﬁsh skin. This result suggested that EW ice treatment, reducing

microbial load on ﬁsh skin, can reduce the possibility of cross-contamination when

ﬁsh ﬁllet is prepared. In the same study, EW containing 50 ppm of chlorine resulted

in a good sanitiser to eliminate histamine-producing bacteria on food-contact

surface. Feliciano et al. (2010) evaluated the efﬁcacy of sanitised ice in reducing

bacterial load on ﬁsh ﬁllet and in the water collected from the melted ice. The

results of this study showed that the sanitised ice allows to reduce the microbial load

on raw ﬁsh ﬁllet and minimise the microbial growth in water collected from the

melted ice. In fact, melting ice may be a reason of cross-contamination if not

discarded properly. Furthermore, according to Doi (2002), using a non-diaphragm

cell can be produced sterile seawater by ﬁltered seawater and adding HCl solution.

The sterile solution obtained in this manner can be used for the treatment of ﬁsh and

seafood without affecting taste and smell. In the study of Lin et al. (2014), shrimps

were stored under acidic EW ice. From the observations, it appeared that the

shrimps in EW ice maintained longer, compared to the sample under traditional

ice, their initial characteristics. Particularly, a delay in colour change, a slight

variation in the pH, a lower production of volatile basic nitrogen, and no negative

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M.A. Colangelo et al.

effect on the texture of the product have been observed. In addition, Wang

et al. (2014) reported that using acidic EW ice in dark condition can be obtained

a stronger bactericidal effect compared with light condition; in fact, in light

condition acidic EW had the highest chlorine loss rate. In this condition, acidic

EW ice caused a lower change of pH compared with the control treated with tap

water ice, lower accumulation of alkaline compounds and nitrogenous materials.

6 Combined Treatments

In order to increase the efﬁcacy of EW has been proposed its use in combination

with other treatments on different foods, without damaging the eco-friendly char-

acter of the treatments. Martınez-Hernandez et al. (2015) investigated about the use

of NEW combined with ultraviolet C light (UV-C) and with superatmospheric O

packaging (HO) to reduce

Salmonella enteritidis

and

E. coli

on fresh-cut kalian-

hybrid broccoli. The results showed that NEW + UV-C or NEW + OH is more

effective in reducing pathogens compared with NaClO or NEW and UV-C alone.

On the contrary, the use of triple combination (NEW + UV-C + OH) did not

improve the bacteriostatic effect of double combination. Liu et al. (2013) attested

that EW in combination with ultrasound has better antimicrobial properties than

EW alone. Zhou et al. (2011) used EW in combination with chitosan or

carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) to preserve the characteristics of the puffer ﬁsh

(Takifugu

obscurus)

during refrigerated storage. On the product treated with EW

+ chitosan and EW + CMC was detected a microbial load signiﬁcantly lower than

control (untreated) or than the sample treated with EW alone. However, the

combination of EW with chitosan showed better antimicrobial efﬁcacy than the

combination of EW with CMC. Rahman et al. (2011) investigated about the

combination treatment of alkaline EW and citric acid with mild heat to ensure

microbial safety and sensory quality of shredded carrots. The results showed that

the dipping in sanitiser solution for 3 min at 50

C is effective to reduce the

microbial count but did not inﬂuence the tissue, pH and surface colour of shredded

carrots, compared to the untreated control. Similar results were obtained on cab-

bage, in which the combination of alkaline EW with 1 % of citric acid for 5 min of

dipping at 50

C has a strong sanitising effect on total count on cabbage (Rahman

et al.

2010).

Zhou et al. (2012) indicated that the immersion of Nanhui peaches in

EW or in EW and 1-methylcyclopropene (MCP) contributes to maintain the colour

of peach ﬂesh during storage. In fact, peaches treated with EW or EW-MCP showed

lower ﬂesh colour changes, lower production of ethylene, lower changes in poly-

phenol oxidase and peroxidase activity, compared with untreated fruits. Therefore,

was also detected a lower production of malondialdehyde, one of the compounds

resulting from oxidation processes. In Table

are summarised the main applica-

tions of EW on different foods.

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Electrolysed Water in the Food Industry as Supporting of Environmental.

. .

Table 1

Main applications of EW on different foods

Food

Fresh-cut

fruit and

vegetables

Results of treatment

EW with different param-

eters was used for wash-

ing or dipping treatment.

It was found that EW is a

good sanitiser and did not

affect the sensory and

nutritional quality of

products.

Combined treatment

For fresh cut broccoli was

used EW combined with

UV-C (ultraviolet C light)

and HO

(superatmospheric O

packaging). The com-

bined treatment was more

effective in reducing

pathogens compared with

single treatment.

On GBR EW in combina-

tion with ultrasound had

better antimicrobial prop-

erties than EW alone.

References

393

Germinated

brown rice

(GBR)

Mung bean

sprouts

EW with different param-

eters was used as washing

water but also for irriga-

tion. It resulted that AEW

was more effective in

inhibiting microbial

growth during germina-

tion and promoted the

growth of GBR and mung

bean sprouts.

Vandekinderen

et al. (2009), Tomas-

Callejas et al. (2011),

Graca et al. (2010),

Yang et al. (2003),

Abadıas et al. (2008),

Deza et al. (2003),

Koide et al. (2009),

Martınez-Hernandez

et al. (2015)

Rui et al. (2011), Liu

et al. (2011,

2013)

Shredded

carrots and

cabbage

Peaches and

grapes blue-

berries

apples

The washing treatment

with EW was effective to

preserve the overall qual-

ity of the products and

reduce the population of

microorganism that cause

loss in quality.

EW + citric acid is effec-

tive to reduce the micro-

bial count but did not

inﬂuence the tissue, pH

and colour, compared to

untreated control.

EW + MCP

(1-methylcyclopropene)

was used for washing of

Nanhui peaches. It was

observed lower ﬂesh col-

our changes and lower

production of ethylene

and peroxidase activity,

compared with untreated

fruits.

Rahman et al. (2010,

2011)

Guentzel et al. (2010),

Pangloli and Hung

(2013), Nimitkeatkai

and Kim (2009), Issa-

Zacharia et al. (2011),

Zhou et al. (2012)

Chinese cel-

ery, lettuce,

daikon

sprouts

Baby

spinach

The slightly AEW was

effective, as much as the

sodium hypochlorite, to

reduce the population of

indigenous aerobic

mesophilic bacteria.

The EW is not involved in

the production of danger-

ous levels of THM.

Issa-Zacharia

et al. (2011)

Gmez-Lpez

et al. (2013)

(continued)

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394

Table 1

(continued)

Food

Oyster

mushroom

Results of treatment

EW with a neutral pH

(6.2–6.5) was used to

wash mushroom. The

treatment had the same

disinfectant efﬁcacy of

strong acidic EW.

The EW gave good results

in terms of disinfection

without toxicity for chick

compared to the treatment

with formaldehyde, glu-

taraldehyde or hydrogen

peroxide.

Reduction of microorgan-

isms from the surface of

carcasses. The treatment

did not affect the overall

sensory quality, compared

with the common chlori-

nated water.

EW was used as drinking

water for cows and broiler

chickens. The treatment

positively affected the

quality of milk from cows

that had ingested EW and

the growth of chickens.

The EW ice was effective

to reduce the histamine-

producing bacteria on ﬁsh

skin and to preserve the

quality of seafood ﬂesh.

Combined treatment

M.A. Colangelo et al.

References

Graca et al. (2010)

Eggs

Favier et al. (2000), Ni

et al. (2013)

Meat

Fabrizio and Cutter

(2004), Rahman

et al. (2012),

Bosilevac

et al. (2005), Fabrizio

et al. (2002)

Azad et al. (2013),

Bartolome

et al. (2011b)

Milk and

poultry

Fish and

seafoods

The combined treatment

of EW + Chitosan was

better than EW + CMC

(carboxymethyl chitosan)

for reducing microbial

load and improving the

overall quality of

puffer ﬁsh.

Huang et al. (2006),

Phuvasate and Su

(2010), Feliciano

et al. (2010), Lin

et al. (2014), Wang

et al. (2014), Zhou

et al. (2011)

7 Conclusions

From the reported studies, it is evident that the EW represents a sanitising technique

as supporting of environmental sustainability. It can be used as disinfectant surface

but also for the treatment of food products. In particular, from the cited studies, it

resulted that AEW has a better antimicrobial activity compared with NEW. How-

ever, in order to preserve the sensory and nutritional quality of food, it is advanta-

geous to use the NEW or slightly AEW. In any case, the effects of EW used in

different conditions have to be further investigated depending on the type of food.

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Electrolysed Water in the Food Industry as Supporting of Environmental.

. .

395

Open Access

This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution

Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in

any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

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