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International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Barriers and Willingness to Accept Re-Employment
among Unemployed Senior Workers:
The SeniorWorkingLife Study
Kristina Thomassen *, Emil Sundstrup, Sebastian V. Skovlund and Lars L. Andersen
National Research Centre for the Working Environment, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; [email protected] (E.S.);
[email protected] (S.V.S.); [email protected] (L.L.A.)
*
Correspondence: [email protected]
Received: 9 May 2020; Accepted: 23 July 2020; Published: 25 July 2020
Abstract:
Labor market participation has a positive impact on social inclusion and is linked to
financial security. This study identifies barriers and willingness to accept re-employment among
unemployed seniors that could highlight opportunities for societal action. From the first wave
of SeniorWorkingLife in 2018 combined with the Danish version of the International Standard
Classification of Occupations register (ISCO),
+50-year-old
unemployed senior workers (n
=
1682)
were stratified into mainly seated work (ISCO 1–4) and mainly physical work (ISCO 5–9), respectively,
in their latest employment. We used SurveyFreq and SurveyLogistics of SAS combined with
model-assisted weights based on national registers to estimate representative frequencies and odds
ratios (OR) for barriers and willingness to accept re-employment. Higher age was perceived as a
general barrier for re-employment in both groups. Health was a more pronounced barrier for seniors
with mainly physical work compared to seniors with mainly seated work (OR 2.35; CI95 1.31–4.21).
Overall, seniors showed a large degree of flexibility and willingness to re-enter the labor market.
Different barriers and willingness to accept re-employment exist among currently unemployed
seniors. These results highlight the need for different approaches across occupational groups to help
unemployed seniors back into the labor market.
Keywords:
seniors; unemployment; return to work; occupational groups; labor market
1. Introduction
Being a part of the labor market—even at a older age—is important for financial security, and it
has a positive impact on social inclusion and self-rated health [1,2]. However, re-employment among
currently unemployed seniors is not always without challenges.
Once unemployed, seniors (+50 years) experience more difficulty re-entering the labor market
compared with younger job seekers and are, therefore, at increased risk of becoming long-term
unemployed [3,4]. Long-term un-employment also decreases the chances of re-entering the labor
market [5,6]. Previous literature shows that employers are more likely to hire workers who have not
been long-term unemployed as long term unemployment illustrates possible unwanted characteristics
or lack of motivation [6]. This can induce a vicious circle that is hard to break. Seniors’ difficulties
re-entering the labor market are often characterized by negative assumptions. Age discrimination
and comprehension about seniors’ ability to work have been mentioned as an important barrier
to re-employment [1,7,8], although seniors may be more productive, loyal and experienced [3,8].
The likelihood of returning to the labor market also depends on the seniors’ health since poor health
before unemployment decreases the likelihood of returning to the labor market [9]. Other pronounced
barriers to re-employment include lack of training opportunities and support for job search [4,10,11].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health
2020,
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www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
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While the likelihood of returning to the labor market decreases with long-term unemployment, an early
and coordinated effort—e.g., support by job centers (Job center: “The jobcenter is charged with
procuring jobs for jobseekers and ensuring that companies find the labor they need. The jobcenter
assists all applicants in finding help and guidance on recruitment, job hunting or general information
on the labor market” [12])—has a positive effect on re-employment [13–15].
The changing demographics towards a growing proportion of elderly people makes the older
population an increasingly important part of the total workforce, with an important economic
contribution to society [1]. Therefore, several countries are developing policies to encourage elderly
people to stay longer in the labor market [16]. The high level of unemployment among senior workers
in many countries shows that further action is needed [17]. In this regard, exploring the possibilities of
re-employment and elucidating what barriers and possibilities exist among unemployed seniors to
re-enter the labor market are vital. Gender differences are also important to consider as women in
general retire earlier than men. Men and women are often employed in different occupations, which
may affect the possibilities for re-employment [18].
Like the general population, unemployed seniors are a heterogeneous group, and factors such as
previous work characteristics, gender and age may influence both barriers and willingness to accept
re-employment [19]. Thus, this study aimed to determine factors influencing re-employment among
unemployed seniors across different occupational groups in Denmark. We hypothesize that there is
an association between previous work characteristics of unemployed seniors and factors influencing
re-employment. Shedding light on perceptions of barriers and willingness to accept re-employment
among different groups of unemployed seniors can help guide societal action plans.
This study draws on data from the first wave (2018) of the SeniorWorkingLife study, which include
a representative sample of
+50-year-old
currently unemployed people in Denmark.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Material and Methods
2.1.1. Study Design and Study Population
The present study is based on the first wave of SeniorWorkingLife where questionnaires were
sent to 30,000 participants
+50-years
between July and October 2018 [20]. This included both
employed and unemployed, as well as people receiving voluntary early retirement benefits and
disability benefits. The present article draws on data from 1576 unemployed individuals. The purpose
of SeniorWorkingLife is to identify a wide range of push and stay mechanisms for labor market
participation [20]. Participants were randomly drawn by Statistics Denmark and invited to participate
with a personal questionnaire-link via e-Boks (online digital mailbox linked to the Danish social
security number). The survey data were merged with high-quality national registers through the
unique social security number assigned to all Danish residents at birth or immigration. This has been
described in more detail in the published protocol paper [20]. The study is registered as a cohort study
in
ClinicalTrials.gov
(identifier: NCT03634410). A longitudinal follow-up will be ready by the end
of 2020.
Not all participants answered all survey questions; thus, the exact number of participants varies.
2.1.2. Subgroups
We extracted information on the participants’ latest employment to classify them into the
International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO). All participants were stratified into nine
occupational groups based on the official Danish version of the ISCO. Each ISCO group is based
on specific requirements ranging from 1 (most basic) to 4 (most advanced). ISCO groups 1–4 are
characterized by high skill levels and/or predominantly seated work (ISCO 1–4). ISCO groups 5–9 are
characterized by physically demanding work, e.g., walking, standing, lifting, using arms, back and
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legs. The dichotomization was based on a previous analysis showing that the majority in ISCO groups
1–4 have seated work and the majority in ISCO groups 5–9 have physical work [16]. In the present
population of unemployed seniors, a similar pattern was observed (Table
1).
ISCO is described in
detail elsewhere [16,20].
2.1.3. Questionnaire about Barriers and Willingness to Accept Re-Employment
Participants were asked to answer two multiple-choice questionnaire batteries concerning (1)
perceived barriers for re-employment and (2) willingness to accept re-employment. The first battery
contained nine multiple-choice response options concerning barriers to re-employment: Choose the
conditions that prevent or make it difficult for you to get a job: (1) your health, (2) your age, (3) your
qualifications are somewhat outdated, (4) you are overqualified for the vacancies, (5) you have already
set your mind to retire from the labor market, (6) you have family obligations, (7) you are trying to start
your own business, (8) you are lacking a network of acquaintances who can help you to find vacancies,
(9) none of the above.
The latter battery contained ten multiple-choice response options concerning willingness to
accept re-employment: Which of the following conditions would you be willing to accept to get a job
(compared to your most recent job)? (1) lower salary, (2) work-time reduction, (3) poorer working
conditions, (4) take another job function, (5) doing work with less responsibility, (6) handle job tasks
that are significantly below your competencies, (7) take a completely different job than your education,
(8) move, (9) increased transport time compared to your previous job, (10) none of the above.
Participants could choose multiple answers in each battery without prioritization. The multiple-
choice response options in both batteries were given in a random order for each participant, except for
the last option “none of the above”, which was always the last option.
2.2. Statistics
The SurveyLogistics procedure (SAS, version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA)) was
used to model odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals for barriers and willingness to accept
re-employment for senior workers with mainly seated and physically demanding work, respectively.
For ISCO, groups 1–4 were used as reference, i.e., ORs for groups 5–9. For sex, men were used as
reference, i.e., ORs for women. For age, the estimates indicate the OR’s of each one-year increase in age
(continuous variable). These factors were entered in the statistical model simultaneously, i.e., they were
mutually adjusted. To produce estimates of prevalence and 95% confidence intervals SurveyFreq
procedures were used.
Due to the different size and response percentages of subgroups, model-assisted weights were
used. These weights were used for both the SurveyFreq and SurveyLogistic procedures and were
based on information from high-quality national registers at Statistics Denmark and took into account
sex, age, occupational industry, highest completed education, family income, family type and origin.
This ensured that the reported estimates are representative of unemployed
+50-year-old
people
in Denmark.
3. Results
Table
1
illustrates demographics, work characteristics and ISCO group of the study sample of 1576
unemployed seniors. Mean age for ISCO groups 1–4 was 57.2 for woman and 57.1 for men. For ISCO
groups 5–9 the mean age was 56.6 for woman and 57.8 for men.
Table
2
shows prevalence’s and odds ratios of perceived barriers to re-employment. Over half of
the seniors perceived age as a barrier for re-employment (54%). Other general barriers were “Your
qualifications are somewhat outdated” (26%), “Your health” (19%) and “You are lacking a network of
acquaintances who can help to find to find vacancies” (17%). Mean age was approximately the same
in both ISCO groups as well as for women and men. Our results show an age effect, and increasing
age was perceived as a significant barrier to re-employment (OR 1.10; CI 1.03–1.19). When comparing
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groups, health was a significantly more pronounced barrier for seniors in ISCO 5–9 compared to
seniors in ISCO 1–4 (OR 2.35; CI95 1.31–4.21). There was a significant association between seniors with
previously seated jobs and perceiving to be overqualified as a barrier to re-employment (OR 0.47; CI95
0.23–0.98). We observed other significant differences, but the prevalence’s were low.
Table 1.
Characteristics of the population and work characteristics in ISCO groups 1–4 (mainly seated)
and 5–9 (mainly physically demanding work).
ISCO 1–4 (Seated Work)
Men
Variable Label
Age, mean (SD)
Physical activity work, percentage (95% CI)
Seated
Standing or walking
Standing or walking with a lot of lifting or carrying
Heavy or fast work that is physically strenuous
60 (49–70)
24 (15–34)
12 (6–18)
4 (0–9)
65 (57–74)
24 (16–32)
7 (4–11)
3 (0–6)
31 (17–44)
17 (10–23)
33 (22–43)
20 (10–30)
23 (10–36)
17 (9–26)
38 (26–50)
22 (10–34)
n
=
408
57.1 (12.6)
Women
n
=
622
57.2 (12.3)
ISCO 5–9 (Physical Work)
Men
n
=
340
57.8 (10.7)
Women
n
=
312
56.6 (10.7)
Table 2.
Barriers to re-employment among men and women in ISCO groups 1–4 and 5–9. The first five
columns are percentages of the respondents indicating this barrier, and the last three columns are OR’s
and 95% CI. Significant associations are marked with bold.
ISCO 1–4
All
n
=
1576
Your age
Your qualifications
are somewhat
outdated
Your health
You are lacking a
network of
acquaintances who
can help you to find
vacancies
You are
overqualified for the
vacancies
You have already set
your mind to retire
from the labor
market
You have family
obligations
You are trying to
start your own
business
None of the above
54%
Men
n
=
389
59%
Women
n
=
586
59%
ISCO 5–9
Men
n
=
311
44%
Women
n
=
290
53%
ISCO 5–9
vs. 1–4
OR
(95%CI)
0.63
(0.39–1.02)
1.05
(0.62–1.79)
2.35
(1.31–4.21)
Woman
vs. Men
OR
(95%CI)
1.21
(0.76–1.94)
1.15
(0.69–1.91)
0.72
(0.40–1.29)
Age
OR
(95%CI)
1.10
(1.03–1.19)
0.95
(0.91–1.00)
1.00
(0.93–1.07)
26%
22%
23%
21%
26%
19%
15%
12%
31%
23%
17%
14%
16%
11%
27%
1.32
(0.74–2.36)
1.65
(0.94–2.91)
0.94
(0.89–0.99)
15%
23%
14%
10%
9%
0.47
(0.23–0.98)
0.61
(0.34–1.11)
0.97
(0.92–1.02)
8%
7%
10%
7%
3%
0.61
(0.32–1.16)
0.86
(0.30–2.46)
0.29
(0.12–0.70)
1.74
(0.91–3.33)
1.40
(0.64–3.07)
0.23
(0.07–0.82)
0.78
(0.25–2.40)
0.86
(0.46–1.61)
1.23
(1.13–1.33)
0.78
(0.58–1.04)
0.82
(0.72–0.93)
0.93
(0.84–1.03)
3%
3%
1%
3%
0%
3%
5%
4%
1%
1%
19%
17%
16%
27%
24%
Adjusted for sex, age and ISCO group. Estimates are weighted for sex, age, occupational industry, highest completed
education, family income, family type and origin.
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Table
3
shows prevalence’s and odds ratios of willingness to accept re-employment. Seniors in
both groups were generally willing to accept several conditions. Around half of the seniors were
willing to take another job function (53%) and to take a completely different job from their education
(47%). Seniors were also willing to do work with less responsibility (43%) and accept work-time
reduction (41%)
Table 3.
Willingness to accept re-employment among men and women in ISCO groups 1–4 and 5–9.
The first five columns are percentage of the respondents indicating this willingness, and the last three
columns are OR’s and 95% CI. Significant associations are marked with bold.
ISCO 1–4
All
n
=
1576
Take another job
function
Take a completely
different job than
you your education
Doing work with
less responsibility
Work time reduction
Lover salary
Handle job tasks
that are significantly
below your
competencies
Increased transport
time compared with
your previous job
Accept poorer
working conditions
Move
None of the above
53%
Men
n
=
389
59%
Women
n
=
586
53%
ISCO 5–9
Men
n
=
311
39%
Women
n
=
290
56%
ISCO 5–9
vs. 1–4
OR
(95%CI)
0.72
(0.45–1.16)
1.02
(0.64–1.63)
0.35
(0.22–0.55)
0.55
(0.33–0.92)
0.28
(0.16–0.50)
0.51
(0.31–0.84)
Woman
vs. Men
OR
(95%CI)
1.01
(0.63–1.61)
1.45
(0.92–2.29)
1.37
(0.86–2.19)
1.63
(1.01–2.63)
0.68
(0.41–1.14)
0.95
(0.59–1.54)
Age
OR
(95%CI)
0.90
(0.85–0.95)
0.96
(0.91–1.01)
0.94
(0.89–0.99)
0.95
(0.91–1.00)
0.91
(0.87–0.96)
0.98
(0.93–1.03)
47%
41%
52%
43%
51%
43%
41%
35%
50%
38%
52%
55%
52%
40%
22%
28%
18%
34%
35%
21%
32%
38%
37%
23%
23%
28%
37%
28%
15%
31%
0.63
(0.36–1.09)
0.74
(0.31–1.79)
2.08
(0.76–5.70)
1.56
(0.82–2.97)
0.92
(0.55–1.54)
0.57
(0.26–1.24)
0.47
(0.18–1.19)
1.04
(0.55–1.98)
0.90
(0.85–0.95)
0.94
(0.88–1.01)
0.89
(0.81–0.97)
1.22
(1.11–1.35)
11%
5%
19%
18%
6%
18%
8%
3%
15%
8%
10%
22%
12%
6%
22%
Adjusted for sex, age and ISCO group. Estimates are weighted for sex, age, occupational industry, highest completed
education, family income, family type and origin.
Physical characteristics of seniors’ previous job demands were associated with their willingness
to work with less responsibilities (OR 0.35; CI95 0.22–0.55) and to handle job tasks significantly below
their competencies (OR 0.51; CI95 0.31–0.84). Furthermore, did our results showed an association
between previous job demands and seniors’ willingness to accept worktime reduction (OR 0.55; CI95
0.33–0.92) and lower salary (OR 0.28; CI95 0.16–0.50). Significant gender differences were in relation to
work-time reduction, where women were more likely to accept work-time reduction compared to men
(OR 1.63; CI95 1.01–2.63). We observed other significant differences, but the prevalence’s were low.
4. Discussion
In the analysis of 1576 unemployed seniors, we found several important possibilities for
re-employment. Seniors’ willingness and barriers to return to work differed between those with a
previous seated job and those with a previous physically demanding job. Although some general
findings were obtained—e.g., age as a perceived barrier—the results also demonstrate that unemployed
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seniors are a heterogeneous group indicating the need for a differentiated approach benefitting seniors
across occupational groups to re-enter the labor market.
Increasing age was in both groups perceived as a barrier to re-employment. Relating this result to
retirement reasons, research shows a demographic characteristic such as age is a reason to retire as
aging may in many ways affect the possibility to work [21]. Age could consequently be a reason to
not wanting to get back into the labor market, fx due to lack of work motivation [8,22]. Older age is
also stated to be linked to age discrimination and prejudice [8]. Research from Denmark reported that
among unemployed workers
+50
years, almost 25% had experienced age discrimination [8]. In the
present study, we asked more broadly about age as a barrier for re-employment, and the underlying
factors may be related to both seniors’ own assessment of their age and re-employment as well as to age
discrimination. Employers’ negative attitudes towards senior workers are based on beliefs that seniors
are slow and that learning new things is difficult [21]. These negative generalized beliefs do however
not stand alone as it is argued that seniors are more reliable and experienced [21]. Generalized attitudes
and beliefs towards seniors could have serious consequences for their employment opportunities,
giving seniors a disadvantage to re-enter the labor market.
This study investigated factors influencing re-employment across different occupational groups.
Health was a significantly more pronounced barrier for seniors in ISCO groups characterized by
physically demanding work. One possible explanation for these health differences may be the general
characteristics of the populations. Health conditions vary among occupational groups, and workers
with short education experience to a larger extent musculoskeletal disorders and sickness absence [23].
ISCO groups 1–4 are characterized by having on average longer education, and it was previously
reported that health inequalities are related to sociodemographic determinants such as education and
job function, i.e., less educated people have fewer years of good health [9]. Health issues in this study
are unknown. It was however previously reported that persons, especially seniors, with poor health
before unemployment, were less likely to return to the labor market [9,24]. These health differences
could also be linked to seniors’ previous job demands. ISCO groups 5–9 are generally characterized
by physically strenuous work and high physical work demands, and it has been reported that these
workers would withdraw later from the labor market if the work was less physically strenuous [16].
Thus, the combination of poor health and hard physical work can be a major barrier—not only for those
working—but also for those trying to get back into the labor market. Continued education and the role
of the job centers may be a way forward to channel this particular group of senior workers into jobs
that are less physically demanding. This may require re-training or development of certain skills to be
able to handle other types of work tasks than usual. As discussed in the following, the willingness to
“change track” is high among seniors.
The high prevalence’s illustrated in Table
3
indicate a widespread degree of flexibility and
willingness among unemployed seniors across ISCO groups to compromise to return to the labor
market. Most pronounced were seniors’ willingness to take another job (53%) and to take a completely
different job from their education (47%). This should be supported by re-training and job-seeking
support taking the full advantage of this workforce, especially when lacking a network of acquaintances
was also reported as a barrier to re-employment. This is consistent with a previous study reporting
that lacking a network with job contacts increases the duration of unemployment [6].
Furthermore, seniors in ISCO groups 1–4 reported being overqualified for the vacancies as a
barrier to re-employment. They were however willing to handle job tasks that are significantly below
their competencies and to do work with less responsibilities. These results indicate that many seniors
are willing to compromise to return to the labor market. In stark contrast to seniors’ flexibility and
willingness to re-enter the labor market, a study from Sweden showed that employers were believed to
generalize about senior workers as not being flexible and lacking competence [21]. The same study
also stated that almost half of the employers believed seniors not to be adaptable to changes at the
workplace [21]. Negative assumptions about seniors have also been associated with employers age,
as older employers tend to have a more positive attitude towards seniors, not only due to age difference
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but because older employers have more experience working with seniors [21]. Having a negative
attitude towards seniors for not being flexible and lacking competence based on stereotypes is a serious
matter and is impairing seniors’ possibility to re-enter the labor market. Taking advantage of seniors’
willingness to work could in a larger perspective lead to a more flexible working market, where some
workers could fill in the gaps in occupations where there is a lack of available workforce.
We found that seniors’ willingness to accept different conditions is strongly related to their previous
job. Seniors with mainly seated work (ISCO 1–4) were more likely to accept a lower salary compared to
seniors with mainly physically demanding work (ISCO 5–9). ISCO groups 1–4 are—besides differences
in physical work demands—also generally characterized by higher skill requirements, i.e., on average
longer education and higher salary [16]. Thus, giving seniors in ISCO groups 1–4 more room to accept
these conditions. This is consistent with findings from a previous study showing that those with longer
education were more willing to compromise their salary to find a job compared to those without a
higher degree [6]. Additionally, seniors in ISCO groups 1–4 were willing to accept work-time reduction,
which again could be related to income as fewer working hours usually result in a lower salary.
Willingness to accept different working conditions for re-entering the labor market was also
dependent on gender. Women were more likely to accept fewer working hours than men. Factors
concerning gender-specific retirement reasons show that women are more likely to retire due to family
reasons such as family care and spending time with grandchildren [25,26]. Thus, these family reasons
could also be expected among unemployed seniors and explain our findings.
Strengths and Limitations
Non-response is always a study limitation. This was, however, accounted for in the statistical
analysis that was performed using model-assisted weights based on high-quality national registers,
to produce representative estimates of
+50-year-old
unemployed seniors in Denmark. Using the
Danish version of ISCO, seniors were stratified into ISCO groups based on their latest occupation.
This is an internationally accepted way to group occupations and eliminates any self-report bias.
However, self-report bias could have influenced the present results, as the responses are dependent on
the perception of the unemployed senior replying to the questionnaire.
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, older age was a general barrier to re-employment. Health was a more pronounced
barrier for seniors with physically demanding work. Seniors with mainly seated work were more likely
to accept lower salaries and work-time reduction. Gender differences existed in relation to work-time
reduction, where women were more likely to accept work-time reduction compared to men. Thus,
different barriers and willingness to accept re-employment exist among currently unemployed seniors
across occupational groups. These results indicate that there is a need for different approaches across
occupational groups to help unemployed seniors back into the labor market.
Author Contributions:
K.T. drafted the manuscript and, E.S., S.V.S. and L.L.A. provided important intellectual
feedback on the content. L.L.A. is project leader and responsible for the study design, questionnaire development,
definition of population and data collection. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding:
This study was supported by a grant from the Danish foundation TrygFonden.
Acknowledgments:
The authors are grateful for important discussions and input during the development of the
study, to the many people from Aalborg University, Team Arbejdsliv, National Research Centre for the Working
Environment, Statistics Denmark, as well as to the members of the Advisory Board. The authors encourage
collaboration and use of the data by other researchers. Data is stored on the server of Statistics Denmark,
and researchers interested in using the data for scientific purposes should contact the project leader, L.L.A.,
[email protected].
Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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