Udlændinge-, Integrations- og Boligudvalget 2015-16
UUI Alm.del Bilag 236
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1 | The Global Perspective
a
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THE GROWING CRISIS FOR REFUGEE
AND MIGRANT CHILDREN
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WESTERN
EU
ROPE
Austria
Belgium
Switzerland
Germa
CA
ERI
AM
N
ER
TH
OR
N
Migration – both
forced and voluntary
– is bringing the
world ever closer
together. Among
the 244 million
international
migrants whose
journeys are
reflected in this
diagram, there are
31 million children.
Every one of these
children – as well
as those uprooted
within their own
borders – deserves
to be protected
and to enjoy their
full complement of
rights.
Franc
Neth
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rland
s
NO
RT
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RN
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Kinnited
gdo
m
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United
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ny
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RO
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EU
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iti
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Cuba
zuel
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ate
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sia ion
Rusderat
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P
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eru
Colo
uador
mbi
a
Brazil
Arge
ntina
e
Ukrain
ROPE
HERN
EU
SOUT
OCEANIA
New Zeala
nd
Australia
Republic of
Korea
Japan
China,
Hong Kong
SAR*
Albania
and
Bosnia ovina
Herzeg
Spain
Greece
Croatia
Italy
nd
Thaila
pore
Singa
es
ppin
Phili
Mal
Pa
l
pa
Ne
nka
c
La
mi )
Sri
(Isla ic of
n ubl
Ira ep
R
Ind
Uzbek
is
Yemen
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic
and Social Affairs, Population Division, Trends
in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by
destination and origin, United Nations, New York,
2015.
CEN
TRAL
ASIA
Kazakh
Turkey
Afgh
A
SI
A
SIA
anis
Ban
tan
*Full
country or area names: China, Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region, Lao People’s
Democratic Republic, Venezuela (Bolivarian
Republic of)
stan
SO
UT
HE
A
RN
glad
tan
RN
HE
A
UT
IC
SO
FR
A
esh
IA
N
AS
WESTER
EA
S
AF
TE
RI
RN
CA
M
ID
AF
DL
E
RI
CA
Note:
Countries or areas with
more than 1,000,000 immigrant
and emigrant populations are
labelled. Migration arrows have
no gaps at origin, but do have
gaps at destination. A more
detailed explanation on how to
interpret the chord diagram is
on page 26.
kis
tan
D
R emo
of tepubl crati
he ic c
Con
Eth
go
iop
Ke
nya ia
lia
dan
ma
Su
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uth
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AF
RI
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W
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r
nma
Mya
PDR*
Lao
odia
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Cam
esia
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aysi
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i
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eria
Burki
na Fa
so
Côte
d’Ivo
ire
Ghan
a
NO
Moroc
co
Suda
n
RTH
E
AFR
RN
ICA
IA
EASTERN
AS
China
Viet Na
m
Portugal
Serbia
Algeria
Egypt
N
ER
ST
EA
TH-
SOU
IA
AS
So
b
Ara
ted s
Uni irate
Em
a
eni
n
Arm
erbaija
Az
Iraq
l
Israe
an
Jord
it
Kuwa
on
Leban
Oman
State of e
Palestin
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Syrian Arab
Republic
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THE GROWING CRISIS FOR REFUGEE
AND MIGRANT CHILDREN
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ii
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Editorial, Data & Analysis
Core report team: Emily Garin, Jan Beise, Lucia Hug and Danzhen You
Managing editor, research and writing: Emily Garin
Data analysis, research and writing: Jan Beise, Lucia Hug and Danzhen You
Additional research, writing and production support: Anna Mukerjee
Further support for data analysis and research: Beth Fang, Yuhan Sun, Mengyuan Tao, Irene de Lorenzo-Caceres Cantero, Joe Costanzo and
Julianne Whittaker
Stories and child interviews: Christopher Tidey, Patrick Moser, Ashley Gilbertson, Kinanti Pinta Karana and Bismarck Swangin
Design and production
Graphic design and layout: Upasana Young
Data visualisation support: Lucia Hug, Jan Beise, Beth Fang, Mengyuan Tao and Yuhan Sun
Additional design support: Olga Oleszczuk, Beth Fang and Ane Louise Gaudert
Fact-checking: Hirut Gebre-Egziabher, Yasmine Hage and Xinyi Ge
Copy-editing: Timothy DeWerff
Acknowledgements
This report has benefitted from the valuable inputs of many colleagues throughout UNICEF and beyond, including colleagues from UNICEF
Regional Offices, UNICEF Headquarters, UNICEF National Committees and UNICEF Country Offices throughout the world.
Special thanks go to the following for providing information on data or an external review of the paper: Petra Nahmias and Htun Zaw Oot
(United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees); Bela Hovy, Vladimira Kantorova, Pablo Lattes, Clare Menozzi and Philipp Ueffing (United
Nations Population Division); Frank Laczko (International Organisation for Migration); Guy Abel (Asian Demographic Research Institute,
Shanghai University)
Within UNICEF specific thanks go to Justin Forsyth, Jeffrey O'Malley, Afshan Khan, Ted Chaiban, Paloma Escudero, George Laryea-Adjei, Attila
,
Hancioglu, David Anthony, Priscilla Idele, Claes Johansson, Claudia Cappa, Khin Wityee Oo, Cornelius Williams, Joanne Dunn, Kerry Neal, Saskia
Blume, Marta Arias, Verena Knaus, Irene de Lorenzo-Caceres Cantero, John Budd, Mirela Shuteriqi, Segolene Adam and Gary Risser.
Note on maps: All maps included
in this publication are stylized and
not to scale. They do not reflect a
position by UNICEF on the legal
status of any country or area or
the delimitation of any frontiers.
The dotted line represents approx-
imately the Line of Control agreed
upon by India and Pakistan. The
final status of Jammu and Kash-
mir has not yet been agreed upon
by the parties. The final boundary
between the Sudan and South Su-
dan has not yet been determined.
The final status of the Abyei area
has not yet been determined.
© United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
September 2016
All reasonable precautions have been taken by UNICEF to verify the information contained in this publication. For corrigenda subsequent to
printing, please see www.unicef.org/publications
Permission is required to reproduce any part of this publication. Permission will be freely granted to educational or nonprofit organizations.
Please contact:
Division of Data, Research and Policy, UNICEF
3 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 USA
,
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_92710.html
Cover photo: In May 2015,
Addis, holding his 30-month-
old son Lato, sits in a cell
at the Alguaiha detention
centre on the north-western
coast of Libya.
© UNICEF/UNI187398/Romenzi
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iii
CONTENTS
1........
Foreword
3........Executive
summary and key findings
14........Introduction
1|
THE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
.......
16
17
....WHO: The demography of childhood migration and displacement
22....WHERE: The geography of childhood migration and displacement
34....WHY: Factors that influence migration and displacement
36....WHAT
HAPPENS:
The promise and potential peril of migration and displacement for children
2-6|
THE REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE
.......
50
52....2|
Africa
64....3|
The
Americas
74....4|
Asia
88....5|
Europe
100....6|
Oceania
7|
THE POLICY PERSPECTIVE
.......
110
110....7|
An Agenda for Action on Children, Migration and Displacement
APPENDICES
.......
114
115....1 | A call for better data
116....2 | Endnotes
123....3 | Regional classifications
124....4 | Tables: Children, migration and displacement
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FIGURES
Global
18 Figure 1.1
18 Figure 1.2
19
Figure 1.3a
19
Figure 1.3b
20 Figure 1.4
20 Figure 1.5
21 Figure 1.6
22 Figure 1.7
24 Figure 1.8a
24 Figure 1.8b
24 Figure 1.8c
25 Figure 1.9
26 Figure 1.10
27 Figure 1.11
29 Figure 1.12a
29 Figure 1.12b
29 Figure 1.12c
30 Figure 1.13a
31 Figure 1.13b
31 Figure 1.13c
31 Figure 1.13d
33 Figure 1.14
47 Figure 1.15
Africa
53 Figure 2.1
53 Figure 2.2
54 Figure 2.3
55 Figure 2.4a
55 Figure 2.4b
55 Figure 2.5
57 Figure 2.6
58 Figure 2.7
59 Figure 2.8
62 Figure 2.9
The Americas
65 Figure 3.1
65 Figure 3.2
65 Figure 3.3a
65 Figure 3.3b
66 Figure 3.4
67 Figure 3.5
69 Figure 3.6
72 Figure 3.7
Number of international migrants by age, 1990–2015
Number of displaced persons, 2000–2015
Distribution of international migrants under age 18 by status, 2005, 2010 and 2015
Distribution of child and adult international migrants by status in 2015
Age distribution of international migrants by income group of country of residence, 2015
Age distribution of international migrants by region of country of residence, 2015
Age distribution of refugees, international migrants and total population, 2015
Number of international migrants by region of origin and destination, 2015
Number of international migrants under 18 years of age by country of residence, 2015
Top 20 hosting countries of international migrants under 18 years of age, 2015
Distribution of international migrant children and all children by region, 2015
Number of international migrants by income group of country of origin and country of destination, 2015
International migrants by region of origin and destination, 2015
Number of refugees by region of origin and destination, 2015
Number of refugees by age and country of origin, 2015
Largest refugee populations by country of origin and age, 2015
Distribution of refugees by major countries of origin, 2015
Number of refugees by age and country of residence, 2015
Top five countries of origin for refugees by country of residence, 2015
Number of refugees by age and country of residence and as a percentage of total population, 2015
Refugees per 1,000 population in countries hosting over 10,000 refugees, 2015
Number of conflict-related internally displaced persons, 2015
Number of countries that have ratified key human rights instruments, by region, July 2016
International migrants from Africa by region of destination, 2015
International migrants to Africa by region of origin outside of Africa, 2015
International migrants by region of origin and destination in Africa, 2015
Top 10 countries with largest numbers of immigrants or emigrants in Africa, 2015
Top 10 countries hosting the largest numbers of international migrants under 18 years of age in Africa, 2015
Thirty largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in Africa living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
Refugees from Africa, by country of origin, 2015
Conflict-related internally displaced persons in Africa by country, 2015
Fifteen largest populations of refugees from a single country of origin in Africa living in a single country of destination, 2015
Number of countries in Africa that have ratified key human rights instruments, July 2016
International migrants from the Americas by region of destination, 2015
International migrants to the Americas by region of origin outside the Americas, 2015
Top 10 countries with largest numbers of immigrants and emigrants in the Americas, 2015
Top 10 countries hosting the largest numbers of international migrants under 18 years of age in the Americas, 2015
International migrants by region of origin and destination in the Americas, 2015
Thirty largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in the Americas living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
Refugees and asylum-seekers in the Americas, by country of destination, 2015
Number of countries in the Americas that have ratified key human rights instruments, July 2016
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Asia
75
75
75
75
76
77
80
82
82
84
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3a
Figure 4.3b
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
International migrants from Asia by region of destination, 2015
International migrants into Asia by region of origin, 2015
Top 10 countries with largest numbers of immigrants and emigrants in Asia, 2015
Top 10 countries hosting the largest numbers of international migrants under 18 years of age in Asia, 2015
International migrants by region of origin and destination in Asia, 2015
Thirty largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in Asia living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
Refugees from Asia, by country or territory of origin, 2015
Conflict-related internally displaced persons in Asia by country, 2015
Fifteen largest populations of refugees from a single country of origin in Asia living in a single country of destination, 2015
Number of countries in Asia that have ratified key human rights instruments, July 2016
Europe
89 Figure 5.1
89 Figure 5.2
90 Figure 5.3
91 Figure 5.4a
91 Figure 5.4b
91 Figure 5.5
93 Figure 5.6
95 Figure 5.7
98 Figure 5.8
International migrants from Europe by region of destination, 2015
International migrants into Europe by region of origin, 2015
International migrants by region of origin and destination in Europe, 2015
Top 10 countries with largest numbers of immigrants and emigrants in Europe, 2015
Top 10 countries hosting the largest numbers of international migrants under 18 years of age in Europe, 2015
Thirty largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in Europe living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
Sea arrivals of registered refugees in Europe, January to July 2016
Refugees and asylum-seekers in Europe, by country of destination, 2015
Number of countries in Europe that have ratified key human rights instruments, July 2016
Oceania
101 Figure 6.1
101 Figure 6.2
102 Figure 6.3a
102 Figure 6.3b
103 Figure 6.4
103 Figure 6.5
109 Figure 6.6
International migrants from Oceania by region of destination, 2015
International migrants into Oceania by region of origin, 2015
Top 5 countries with largest numbers of immigrants or emigrants in Oceania, 2015
Top 10 countries hosting the largest numbers of international migrants under 18 years of age in Oceania, 2015
International migrants by region of origin and destination in Oceania, 2015
Ten largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in Oceania living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
Number of countries in Oceania that have ratified key human rights instruments, July 2016
BOXES
28
33
41
42
43
58
79
Box 1.1
Box 1.2
Box 1.3
Box 1.4
Box 1.5
Box 2.1
Box 4.1
Same borders, different futures: Internal migration
In danger within borders: Internally displaced persons
When parents migrate and children stay home
Children of immigrant parents
Focus on adolescents and youth
Internal Displacement in Africa
Internal Displacement in Asia
STORIES
34
38
42
70
71
78
79
94
94
Story 1.1
Story 1.2
Story 1.3
Story 3.1
Story 3.2
Story 4.1
Story 4.2
Story 5.1
Story 5.2
No place for a child
No safe harbour
Future unknown
A dream denied
The anguish of not knowing
Searching for safer shores
Waiting for 'before'
Going it alone, together
Not yet daring to dream
ISSUES IN FOCUS
60
70
81
106
Migration detention in Northern Africa
Unaccompanied and separated children on the move in the Americas
Education for displaced children in Asia
Children, climate change and migration in Oceania
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Foreword
1
FOREWORD
Some things, once seen, can never be unseen.
A toddler’s small body washed up on a beach after drowning at sea.
A mother’s terror as she passes her baby over a barbed wire fence at a border crossing.
A holding room in a detention centre, filled to overflowing with adolescent children, many fleeing forced participation or retribution by violent
street gangs.
A small child sitting in an ambulance, bloody, exhausted, and stunned into silence after the building where he and his family lived was destroyed
in a brutal attack.
Such indelible images command the world’s attention and invoke its compassion.
But only one image, one child at a time.
The moment passes – the news cycles move on. But the danger and desperation that drive so many children and families to flee their homes
are not moving on. Lately, they seem only to get worse.
So we must not forget that each child, each picture, represents many millions of children in danger at home – and many millions of children who
have left their homes. This demands that our compassion for the individual children we see be matched with urgent – and sustained – action for
all child refugees and migrants.
Uprooted: The growing crisis for refugee and migrant children
presents new data that paint a sad and sobering global picture of the lives and
situations of millions of children and families affected by violent conflict and other crises that make it seem safer to risk everything on a perilous
journey than to remain at home.
Around the world today, 50 million children have migrated across borders or been forcibly displaced within their own countries. More than half
– a shocking 28 million – have been uprooted by horrific conflicts. As this report shows, the number of child refugees jumped by roughly 75 per
cent between 2010 and 2015. It’s no coincidence that the same time period saw 15 conflicts either break out or reignite – from the Syrian Arab
Republic to South Sudan, from Yemen to Afghanistan.
Many are trapped in horrific conflicts in their home countries – forgotten or, often, beyond the reach of humanitarian assistance.
Ahmad, 14, lives in the Kawergosk camp
for Syrian refugees, just west of Erbil, in
the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.
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Foreword
And it’s difficult to overestimate the peril of the millions of children on the move … beyond their borders … the barriers they face … their
extreme vulnerability.
Travelling in often-desperate circumstances, without adequate food, clothing, or temporary shelter. Detained at borders, possibly separated
from their families in the confusion there. And, all too often, travelling alone, without caring adults to shield them from abuse and the worst
forms of exploitation.
The danger doesn’t stop at the journey’s end. Nor the deprivations.
Though many communities and people around the world have welcomed refugee and migrant children, xenophobia, discrimination, and
exclusion pose serious threats to their lives and futures. Language barriers make it difficult for children and their families to seek the help they
need. Legal barriers can prevent them from accessing education, health care and other services. These obstacles are magnified for the 70,000
children who are born stateless every year, often as a result of their parents’ migration.
What can the future hold for these children – denied so much of what they need?
Were we to follow the future lives of some of the children – those who have survived – in the pictures that so move us today, what would we
find?
The answer depends on what we do today.
Many of the youngest refugees have known only conflict and deprivation in their short lives. If we fail to provide them – and all child refugees
and migrants – with opportunities for education and a more normal childhood, how will they be able to contribute positively to their societies?
What price will we collectively pay for that failure?
But if young refugees are accepted and protected today, if they have the chance to learn and grow, and to develop their potential, they can be a
source of stability and economic progress.
When pathways are safe and destinations are welcoming, migration can be a positive force: expanding opportunity, and strengthening, not
tearing, the social fabric of societies.
And by protecting these children, we preserve our deepest values and fulfil our highest duty: To nurture the next generation – and thus the
future of the world.
We must meet this moment. For every time the eyes of the world focus on an image of a child refugee – and nothing changes for that child and
for millions more – the eyes of history are on all of us.
Anthony Lake
Executive Director, UNICEF
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Executive summary and key findings
3
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Around the world, nearly 50 million children have migrated across borders or been forcibly displaced – and this is a conservative estimate.
More than half of these girls and boys fled violence and insecurity – 28 million in total.
These children may be refugees, internally displaced or migrants, but first and foremost, they are children: no matter where they come from,
whoever they are, and without exception.
Children do not bear any responsibility for the bombs and bullets, the gang violence, persecution, the shriveled crops and low family wages
driving them from their homes. They are, however, always the first to be affected by war, conflict, climate change and poverty.
Children in these contexts are among the most vulnerable people on earth and this vulnerability is only getting worse. The number of child
refugees under the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees’ (UNHCR) mandate has more than doubled in just 10 years – this
shocking statistic is simply unacceptable.
Their world is no place for a child.
Migrating and displaced children are at risk of some of the worst forms of abuse and harm. Often dependent on human smuggling, they can
easily fall victim to traffickers and other criminals. Many are subjected to extreme forms of abuse and deprivation during their journeys.
The violations have to stop.
When, and if, these children reach destination countries, the threats they face do not disappear. Despite extraordinary and generous actions to
help them in many places and by many people and organizations, children and their families struggle to gain a foothold. Refugee and migrant
children disproportionately face poverty and exclusion at a time when they are in desperate need of essential services and protection.
Supporting displaced and migrant children at home and globally is a shared responsibility – shared because no one is untouched by the
impacts of the multiple crises in the world.
Children’s voices, their plight and the issues they face must become the focus of international debates on migration and displacement.
This report presents, for the first time, comprehensive, global data about these children – where they are born, where they move, and some
of the dangers they face along the way. The report sheds light on the truly global nature of childhood migration and displacement, highlighting
the major challenges faced by child migrants and refugees in every region.
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Executive summary and key findings
Action for children cannot wait
Based on the findings of the report and its work in the field, UNICEF has developed six goals and practical
suggestions to protect child migrants and refugees and provide them with hope for the future:
>> Protect child refugees and migrants, particularly unaccompanied children, from exploitation and violence
Introduce measures to strengthen child protection systems, including the training of social and child workers and working
with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and professional groups. Clamp down on trafficking, not only through enhanced
law enforcement, but also by providing better support to migrant children through the systematic appointment of qualified
guardians; better access to information regarding their own situation and the management of their cases; and access to legal
assistance. Governments should also develop clearer guidance for case officers when determining the migration status of
children, to prevent the return of children and families to persecution, dangerous or life-threatening situations, using the best
interest of the child principle to guide legal decision-making in all cases.
>> End the detention of children seeking refugee status or migrating
Introduce practical alternatives to detention wherever children (or their families) are involved, given the negative impact of
detention on a child’s development. Children are particularly vulnerable to physical and psychological violence. Examples of
alternatives to detention include: the surrender of passport and regular reporting requirements; guarantors or bailees who may
be family members or community supporters; foster care and supervised independent living for unaccompanied and separated
children; and compulsory registration with authorities.
>> Keep families together as the best way to protect children and give children legal status
Develop clear policy guidance to keep children from being separated from their parents during border control processing and
any migrant legal processes. States should speed-up procedures and make it easier for children to reunite with their families,
including with their extended families in destination countries. States should pursue all practical measures to reunify children
with their families. Children born to migrant parents need legal identity for their future wellbeing. Governments should provide
birth registration and/or other identity documents to enable children to access services and avoid statelessness.
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Executive summary and key findings
5
>> Keep all refugee and migrant children learning and give them access to health and other quality services
An increased collective effort by governments, communities and the private sector is needed to provide education, health, shelter,
nutrition, water and sanitation, and access to legal and psychosocial support to these children. This is not only a collective responsibility,
it is in all societies’ common interests. A child’s migration status should never represent a barrier to accessing essential services.
>> Press for action on the underlying causes of large scale movements of refugees and migrants
Address the root causes of conflict, violence and extreme poverty in countries of origin. This should include increasing access to
education and social protection; expanding opportunities for family income and youth employment; and fostering more accountable
and transparent governance. Governments should facilitate community dialogue and engagement towards peaceful conflict resolution,
tolerance and a more inclusive society; and should take measures against gang violence.
>> Promote measures to combat xenophobia, discrimination and marginalization in countries of transit and destination
Coalitions of NGOs, communities, private sector, religious groups and political leaders should take responsibility for influencing public
opinion to prevent the rise of xenophobia and discrimination towards refugees.
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Executive summary and key findings
KEY FINDINGS
Nearly
The Global Perspective
The story of child migrants and refugees is a global story, not one confined to a single region
1 in 200
children in the world
is a child refugee
Nearly
Child refugees
>
>
31 million children live outside their country of birth, including 11 million child refugees and
asylum-seekers.
Nearly one in three children living outside their
country of birth is a refugee; for adults, the
proportion under UNHCR’s mandate is less
than 1 in 20.
In 2015, just two countries – the Syrian Arab
Republic and Afghanistan – accounted for
nearly half of all child refugees under UNHCR’s
mandate; about three-quarters of all child
refugees under UNHCR’s mandate came from
only 10 countries.
Today, nearly 1 in every 200 children in the
world is a child refugee. Between 2005 and
2015, the number of child refugees under the
UNHCR’s mandate more than doubled. During
the same period, the total number of all child
migrants rose by 21 per cent.
Approximately 10 million child refugees are
hosted across the world, primarily within the
regions where they were born.
Data about children are crucial to decision
making but are incomplete
Children are too often relegated to the fringes
of the world’s debates about migration and
displacement. One reason is the lack of hard
numbers to support the case for children.
Without reliable data, evidence-based debates
and policymaking are hampered.
Global estimates are incomplete and do not
tell us the whole story. We do not know where
all the world’s child refugees and migrants
were born, how old they are, or whether their
migration was forced or voluntary. There are
even fewer comprehensive and comparable
indications about how child migrants fare in their
countries of origin, transit and destination.
This report is an effort to bring together the best
data that are available, but effectively addressing
the rights and needs of children requires
concerted action to fill the gaps that remain.
1 in 3
children living outside
their country of birth
is a refugee
>
>
2x
as many child
refugees* in 2015
than in 2005
2015
2005
>
>
Girls and boys are equally represented among registered refugees, although children’s risk
of specific protection violations – such as recruitment by armed forces and armed groups, or
sexual and gender-based violence – may differ between girls and boys.
Overall, the refugee population is much younger than the migrant population. While a clear
majority of the world’s migrants are adults, children now comprise half of all refugees.
The 10 countries hosting the largest numbers of refugees are all in Asia and Africa, with Turkey
hosting by-far the largest total number of refugees under UNHCR’s mandate. Although complete
age-disaggregated data are not available for refugees in Turkey, its substantial share of total
refugees makes Turkey likely the host of the largest number of child refugees in the world.
>
>
*Under UNHCR’s mandate
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Executive summary and key findings
7
Internally displaced children
>
>
By the end of 2015, some 41 million people were displaced by violence and
conflict within their own countries; an estimated 17 million of them were children.
At the end of 2015, 19.2 million people had been internally displaced by violence
and conflict across Asia, a staggering 47 per cent of the global total for similar
internal displacements.
Together, the Syrian Arab Republic, Iraq and Yemen accounted for nearly one-third
of the world’s total of conflict-induced internal displacements by the end of 2015.
There were 12.4 million people internally displaced by violence and conflict
across Africa in 2015. Four countries in Africa – Nigeria, Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Central African Republic and South Sudan – were among the top 10
countries globally for new, violence-induced internal displacements in 2015.
>
>
Child migrants
>
>
Globally, three out of every five international child migrants live in Asia or Africa.
Since 1990, the proportion of international child migrants within the global
child population has remained stable at just over 1 per cent, but a rising global
population means that the absolute number of child migrants has increased
significantly in the past 25 years.
Today, 1 in every 70 children worldwide lives outside their country of birth. Like
adults, most children who move migrate primarily within their own geographical
region.
When girls and boys move across international borders, they do so in almost
equal numbers. This pattern is contrary to adult migration, where there are
pronounced differences in the proportion of men and women by region.
Half of all the world’s child migrants live in just 15 countries, led by the United
States of America, which is home to 3.7 million child migrants.
>
>
>
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The Regional Perspective
Childhood migration and displacement look different in each region of the world
More than half of all international migration is composed of movements within regions, and the three largest migration movements in the world are all intra-
regional. Refugee movements are even more concentrated within regions than they are with general migration.
Africa
>
>
Some 86 per cent of African refugees find asylum in other African countries.
5.4 million refugees originate from African countries and children are
disproportionately represented among them.
Approximately one half of African refugees are children – nearly 3 million children
who have been forced from their own countries and are confronting the world’s
harshest realities. Africa has one of the world’s lowest rates of child migration,
with just 1 in 90 African children living outside their country of birth.
While the total rates of migration are low, the share of children among Africa’s
migrants is the largest for any region. Nearly one in three African migrants is a
child, more than twice the global average.
African migrants is a child
>
>
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Executive summary and key findings
9
The Americas
>
>
>
Four out of five child migrants in the Americas live in just three countries: the
United States, Mexico, and Canada.
The Americas are home to 6.3 million child migrants – 21 per cent of the
global total.
One in 10 migrants in the Americas is a child, but that average masks two
distinct realities: children make up a relatively small proportion of migrants
living in Northern America, South America and the Caribbean (8, 15, and 15
per cent, respectively); and children comprise 43 per cent of all migrants
living in Central America.
There is a high and increasing number of vulnerable children moving on
their own within the Americas – often fleeing violence in their homes and
communities.
Dramatic increases in the number of children apprehended by immigration
authorities at the southern border of the United States reflect underlying
challenges for children in their countries of origin and underscore the
importance of United States’ migration legislation, policy and enforcement
decisions for children throughout the region.
The Americas are home to
6.3 million
child migrants, 1/5 of the global total
>
>
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Executive summary and key findings
Asia
Asia is home to
of the world’s
child migrants
>
Nearly 12 million of the world’s international child migrants live in Asia. This represents
39 per cent of all international child migrants, well below Asia’s 56 per cent share of the
global child population.
As a result of its large overall population, Asia is home to the largest total number of
child migrants in the world. However, a relatively low proportion of its children migrate:
just 1 in 110 of Asia’s children live outside their country of birth.
Saudi Arabia hosts the largest number of child migrants in Asia and the second highest
number of child migrants in the world.
Other Asian countries hosting large numbers of child migrants – which include Jordan,
Lebanon, Pakistan and Turkey – all host large numbers of child refugees. This reflects
the continuing toll of conflict rather than a trend of voluntary child movement.
The five countries and territories hosting the largest numbers of refugees in the world
are all in Asia.
In 2015, around 45 per cent of all child refugees under UNHCR’s mandate had origins in
the Syrian Arab Republic and Afghanistan.
>
>
>
>
>
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11
Europe
>
At the end of 2015, Europe hosted approximately one in nine of all refugees under
UNHCR’s mandate, a total of 1.8 million people. An additional 1 million asylum-seekers in
Europe were also awaiting the outcome of their asylum applications.
Data availability and disaggregation vary widely across the region. Among the European
countries hosting the largest numbers of refugees, only Germany and Serbia publically
report comprehensive numbers and percentages of children in their overall totals of
refugees.
More than twice as many children applied for asylum within the European Union and free
movement zone in 2015 compared to 2014; in the first half of 2016, nearly 70 per cent of
children seeking asylum in the European Union and free movement zone were fleeing
conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic, Afghanistan and Iraq.
The 5.4 million child migrants in Europe are just 7 per cent of all the region’s migrants. This
is the lowest share of children in a total migrant population for any region. Approximately
one in six of the world’s child migrants lives in Europe.
*European Union and free movement zone
>
children seeking asylum in Europe*
in 2016 were fleeing conflict in Syrian
Arab Republic, Afghanistan and Iraq
>
>
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Executive summary and key findings
Oceania
Oceania is the destination for nearly
>
>
>
>
7 million
migrants
from outside
the region
Child migrants constitute a high proportion of all children in Oceania. Six in
every 100 children in the region are migrants.
The 670,000 child migrants living in Oceania represent 2 per cent of child
migrants in the world.
Children represent a relatively small proportion of the migrant population in
Oceania, making up just 8 per cent of all migrants in the region.
Between 1990 and 2015, the total number of child migrants increased in
Oceania from 430,000 to 670,000, but overall migration rose faster, meaning
that children now make up a slightly smaller proportion of the migrant
population than they did 25 years ago.
Just over 48,000 refugees live in Oceania. While disaggregated data on the
number of children in that total are not available, recent reports indicate that
children seeking refuge in the region face serious danger as they attempt to
reach safer shores.
>
Two young asylum-seekers looking at a map
on the wall at a reception centre in Sicily, Italy.
Asylum-seekers should be transferred from the
centre after 72 hours, but due to over-crowding
of the system, children are often there for one to
two months.
© UNICEF/UN020011/Gilbertson VII
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13
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Introduction
KEY TERMS IN MIGRATION AND DISPLACEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Around the world, 31 million children
are living outside their country of birth,
including 11 million child refugees and
asylum-seekers; another 17 million
children have been displaced within
their own countries by violence and
conflict.
They make their way to new homes by
land, by air and by sea.
Some are in search of safety and
security; some are re-joining family
members; others are pursuing new
opportunities. Nearly all have multiple
reasons for moving.
Some move with their families and
others are alone; some have planned
their journeys for years while others
must flee without warning.
All are seeking a different future from
the one they have left behind.
No matter why they move or how
they arrive, children are at the centre
of the world’s population movements.
Whether they are migrants, refugees
or internally displaced, they are always
children: entitled to protection, support
and all the rights enshrined in the
Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Children at the centre
Children have the most to gain and the
most to lose when decisions are made
about migration and displacement,
and they deserve a place in every
discussion on these issues. When
children and their families have safe,
legal routes for migration, it can offer
tremendous opportunities for both
the children who migrate as well as
the communities they join. When safe
pathways are not available, migration
and displacement continue, but with
much greater risk. In these situations,
it is children who face the most
immediate dangers and most profound
consequences.
Wherever they are and regardless of
their migration status, children have a
right to be protected, to keep learning
and to receive the care and services
they need to reach their full potential.
Every child has the same rights, and
they retain those rights no matter
where they are.
Fulfilling the rights of these children
and their families is both a moral and
a practical imperative. The Convention
on the Rights of the Child (CRC) – the
most widely ratified human rights
treaty in history – obligates ratifying
countries to respect and protect
the rights of all children within their
territories, regardless of a child’s
background or migration status.
While the legal framework protecting
refugee and other migrant adults
is fragmented, the CRC outlines a
clear and solid set of protections for
every child, taking into account their
particular vulnerabilities. For a global
Migrants
are individuals who are moving or have moved across an international border
or within a state away from their habitual place of residence, regardless of: (1) the
person’s legal status; (2) whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary; (3) what the
causes for the movement are; or (4) what the length of the stay is.
While the term ‘migrant’ is sometimes also used to refer to people who move either
within their own countries, unless otherwise noted, the term refers exclusively to
international migrants in this report. Throughout this report, data about migrants include
refugees as a subset of the migrant population.
Refugees
are, in accordance with the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees
(and its 1967 Protocol), individuals who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted
for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or
political opinion, are outside the country of their nationality and are unable or, owing
to such fear, unwilling to avail themselves of the protection of that country; or who, not
having a nationality and being outside the country of their former habitual residence as a
result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.
For statistical purposes, since 2007 the refugee population has also included people
in refugee-like situations facing the same protection concerns as refugees but whose
refugee status has not been formally ascertained. In this report, refugee totals generally
include both individuals under the protection of the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR) as well as those registered with the United Nations Relief and
Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).
Internally displaced persons (IDPs)
are individuals or groups of people who have
been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in
particular as a result of, or in order to avoid the effects of, armed conflict, situations of
generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and
who have not crossed an internationally recognized state border. For statistical purposes,
since 2007, the population of internally displaced persons has also included people in an
IDP-like situation.
In line with the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the terms ‘child’ and ‘children’ in
this report refer to all people below the age of 18.
Throughout the report, ‘displacement’ and ‘forcible displacement’ are used
interchangeably to reference movement that is not voluntary. It is not meant to have
a specific legal definition, but rather to capture all people forced to move across
international borders, without specific regard to their legal status. All references
to displacement within the borders of a particular country are noted as ‘internal
displacement’.
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Introduction
15
WHY A DATA-DRIVEN REPORT?
The world is seemingly awash in information
about children and migration. From heart-
breaking tales of violence and loss to uplifting
accounts of successful integration, there is no
shortage of stories about the promise and perils
of migration for children. There is, however, a
very serious gap in data that paint the larger
picture of childhood migration and displacement.
Without reliable data, evidence-based debates
and policymaking are hampered.
There are many understandable reasons why
this data gap exists: people are difficult to track
when they move; families with uncertain legal
status are often missed in official statistics; and
some of the worst violations of children’s rights
are regularly un- or under-reported. When data
about children are available, they are frequently
for just a small, compartmentalized subset of
children. These challenges remain, but they
cannot become an excuse for inaction.
This report is an effort to bring together the
best data that are available and to address the
gaps that can be filled. Many data shortcomings
remain, but the information presented here
is intended to bring the faces of children into
clearer focus in the global picture of migration
and displacement.
community committed to reaching the children left
furthest behind, the double vulnerability of being
both a migrant and a child makes the equity case
for protecting children all the more urgent.
The practical benefits of addressing these issues
are equally compelling. Evidence from multiple
contexts clearly demonstrates that child refugees
and migrants – and the generations that follow
them – live better lives and are more able to
contribute to society when they have opportunities
to learn and advance wherever they are.
1
Migrant
children also play an invaluable role in linking
their older family members to new societies and
accelerating their engagement and inclusion. When
children have opportunities to thrive, both the
countries they leave behind as well as the countries
they settle in can benefit from their skills, creativity
and diverse perspectives. In an increasingly mobile
and integrated world, policymakers, businesses
and their partners in the global community cannot
afford to ignore either the needs of these children
or the opportunities they present.
To bring children to the centre of ongoing
discussions about managing the movement of
people around the world, this report outlines the
best available data about children, migration and
displacement. It highlights the global trends related
to children and migration and explores some of the
specific dynamics of migration and displacement
in each region of the world. It concludes with an
agenda for action, identifying the areas where
children’s rights are most endangered by current
migration practices and the steps that must be
taken to protect children. The report is intended to
begin closing the data gaps on children, migration
and displacement, inserting essential facts into
discussions too often influenced by other factors.
Throughout the report, the data are broken down
into many categories and children are varyingly
referred to as asylum-seekers, refugees, internally
displaced persons or migrants. Those terms have
specific and important legal meanings, but they
can mask a simple reality: they are all being used
to describe children. Ultimately, it is always about
a child – a boy or girl, in search of a different and
more promising future.
The report brings together data about children who
move for many different reasons and under widely
varying circumstances. Some of those children
are realizing the promise of migration while others
are confronting its perils. Each of these children is
entitled to the same rights and protections, but the
report places particular emphasis on those children
most likely to face difficulties, discrimination and
danger as they seek and settle into new lives
outside their homelands. The report frequently
focuses on the needs of children who have been
recognised as refugees, although they are far from
the only vulnerable children in these contexts.
Children who migrate for other reasons – especially
those without recognized legal status – may
encounter the same dangers and require the same
protections. The children most in need of protection
are the primary focus of this report for just that
reason: their needs require immediate attention.
As migration and displacement intensify across the
world, the responsibilities and the opportunities of
migration will continue to grow. For the 31 million
children already outside their homelands, there is
no time to waste. They rely on immediate global
action to protect their rights, meet their needs and
open pathways to brighter futures. Millions more
children will follow their footsteps in the decades
to come. The decisions taken today will determine
whether those journeys offer safe refuge or
continue to be fraught with unacceptable dangers.
The choice is ours and the time for action is now.
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1| The Global Perspective
THE GLOBAL
PERSPECTIVE
A young girl stands outside her
tent after fleeing with her family
to a temporary camp in Khyber-
Pakhtunkhwa province in Pakistan.
© UNICEF/UNI167881/Zaidi
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1 | The Global Perspective
17
1
The Global Perspective
Between 2010 and 2015, an estimated 36 million people moved from one country to
another,
2
an average of 20,000 people every single day. Individual decisions, some made
over the course of years and others in just hours, combine to create the global picture
of migration and displacement. This chapter puts children at the centre of that global
picture, outlining the demography, geography, drivers and implications of childhood
migration and displacement.
WHO: The demography of childhood
migration and displacement
In 2015, there were 244 million people worldwide living outside their country of birth; 31
million of them were children (Figure 1.1).
3
Among the world’s migrants are more than
21 million refugees – some 10 million of whom are children – who have been forcibly
displaced from their own countries.
4
IN 2015, THERE WERE 244 MILLION PEOPLE WORLDWIDE LIVING OUTSIDE THEIR
COUNTRY OF BIRTH; 31 MILLION OF THEM WERE CHILDREN
Ashley, 8, stands in an area inhabited
by migrants, where she lives with her
grandmother, in the settlement of Cole
Bay in Sint Maarten.
© UNICEF/UNI120045/LeMoyne
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1| The Global Perspective
Since 1990, the proportion of
international child migrants as part
of the world’s child population has
remained remarkably stable at just over
1 per cent, but a rising global population
means that the absolute number of
child migrants has increased in the
past 25 years. The same is true for the
overall international migrant population,
which has remained around 3 per cent
of the total population. In 2015, there
were 244 million international migrants,
compared to 153 million just 25 years
before.
5
Recent trends have made the
numbers much starker for children
forcibly displaced across international
borders: today, nearly 1 in every 200
children in the world is a child refugee.
In 2005, the ratio was roughly 1 in every
350 children.
Worldwide, nearly 28 million children
have been forcibly displaced. This
number includes some 10 million child
refugees, approximately 1 million
asylum-seeking children and an
estimated 17 million children displaced
within their own countries by violence
and conflict (Figure 1.2). Yet more
children have been displaced by natural
disasters and other crises, though they
are not included in this total.
In the ten-year period between 2005
and 2015, the global number of child
refugees under the protection of the
United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) more than doubled
from 4 million to over 8 million. In just
the five years between 2010 and 2015,
the number of child refugees under
UNHCR’s mandate shot up by 77 per
cent. By comparison, the total number
of child migrants rose by only 21 per
cent during the decade between 2005
and 2015.
6
FIGURE 1.1
In 2015, the number of international migrants reached 244 million; 31 million of them were children
Number of international migrants by age, 1990–2015 (in millions)
Note:
‘International migrants’ refers to people living in a country or area other than where they were born. In cases where information on the country of birth was not available,
it refers to people living in a country other than that of their citizenship.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New
York, 2015.
FIGURE 1.2
Both internal and international forced displacements have been rising rapidly over the past five years
Number of displaced persons, 2000–2015 (in millions)
41
38
Internally
displaced
persons
33
21
25
25
25
25
24
24
26
26
27
28
26
29
17
displaced persons, 17
million were children
Of the 25 million refugees
11 million were children
Of the 41 million internally
11
and asylum seekers,
Refugees
and
asylum
seekers
17
17
16
17
16
16
16
16
16
18
21
25
15
15
14
15
2000 2001 2002 2003
2004
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Note:
These numbers include refugees under UNHCR’s mandate, Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA and asylum applications that had not yet been adjudicated by the end of a
given reporting year. Internally displaced persons are as reported by the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) of the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC). Since 2007 the refugee
population category also includes people in a refugee-like situation, most of whom were previously included in the ‘others of concern’ group.
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2015, UNHCR, Geneva, 2016; United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees
in the Near East (UNRWA), 2016; and Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) of the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), 2016. The number of displaced children in 2015 comes from
UNICEF analysis based on aforementioned sources.
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1 | The Global Perspective
19
FIGURE 1.3
Nearly one-third of children living outside their country of birth are refugees
A. Distribution of international migrants under 18 years of age by status, 2005, 2010 and 2015 (in millions)
4
Other international
child migrants
5
Other international
child migrants
8
Other international
child migrants
Children are dramatically over-represented
among the world’s refugees. Children
make up less than one-third of the global
population, but they constituted 51 per
cent of the world’s refugees in 2015.
7,8
Today, nearly one-third of children living
outside their countries of birth are child
refugees; for adults, the proportion is less
than 5 per cent (Figure 1.3).
INTERPRETING THE DATA
The analysis in this report is based on the
most recent, comparable global migration
data available. Unless noted otherwise, data
related to international migrant populations
are based on estimates from the United
Nations Population Division. Data related
to refugee populations are drawn from
both UNHCR and United Nations Relief and
Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the
Near East, as applicable. Other sources are
cited as relevant throughout the text.
International migrant population data
include both refugees as well as other
migrants who move across international
borders for other reasons. The refugee
population is part of the broader
international migrant population.
This report draws heavily on what are
known as international migrant stock
data, which reflect the total number of
people present in a country who have ever
changed their country of residence. This
is different from identifying the number of
people who move over a specific period,
which are generally referred to as migration
flow data. Unless otherwise noted, migrant
and refugee populations reflect the total
numbers of people who have moved over
time, not only those who moved within a
specific time frame.
Total 25 million
Total 28 million
Total 31 million
Note:
This figure refers to child refugees under UNHCR's mandate. If children registered with UNRWA are included, there were approximately10 million child
refugees in 2015.
B. Distribution of child and adult international migrants by status in 2015 (percentage)
International child migrants
International adult migrants
Other international child migrants
Other international adult migrants
Note:
Refugees under UNHCR’s mandate. An additional 5.2 million Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA are not included.
Source
:
UNICEF analysis based on United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International
Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015; and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Global Trends:
Forced displacement in 2015, UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
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1| The Global Perspective
FIGURE 1.4
Migrants living in low-income countries tend to be younger than in high-income countries
Age distribution of international migrants by income group of country of residence, 2015
A. International migrants (in millions)
B. Percentage
Source:
UNICEF analysis
based on United Nations,
Department of Economic
and Social Affairs, Population
Division,
Trends in
International Migrant Stock:
Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York,
2015.The national income
classifications follows
the World Bank income
classification. The detailed
classification can be found at:
<http://data.worldbank.org/
about/country-classifications/
country-and-lending-groups>,
accessed 13 July 2016.
FIGURE 1.5
Africa has the highest proportion of children in its migrant population
Age distribution of international migrants by region of country of residence, 2015
A. International migrants (in millions)
B. Percentage
Source:
UNICEF analysis
based on United Nations,
Department of Economic
and Social Affairs,
Population Division,
Trends in International
Migrant Stock: Migrants
by age and sex,
United
Nations, New York, 2015.
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1 | The Global Perspective
21
Gender and age dimensions of migration and displacement
When boys and girls move across international borders, they do so in almost
equal numbers at both global and regional levels. This is notably different from
adult migration, in which there is rough global parity, but there are pronounced
differences in the proportion of men and women by region.
While there are widespread references to the feminization of migration, this
trend is not evident by looking at global migration totals alone. At a global level,
women have been nearly equal participants in international migration with men
for decades. As discussed above, the total number of both male and female
migrants has increased significantly in recent decades, although their share of
the global population has remained steady. At a global level, the same is true
of the sex ratios within that total number: in 1960, 47 per cent of international
migrants were women. By 2000, that share had risen to 49 per cent before
falling slightly to 48 per cent by 2015. While the overall ratios are relatively
stable, the dynamic of migration that has changed more noticeably is the
tendency of women to migrate either on their own or as part of a family, but with
independent economic goals.
9
Boys and girls are equally represented among registered refugees, reflecting the
reality that the forces pushing families from their homes endanger the well-being
of girls and boys alike.
10
While boys and girls are equally represented among
refugees, their risk of particular protection concerns – such as recruitment and
use by armed forces and armed groups or sexual and gender-based violence –
may vary by sex.
The age at which people leave their home countries varies substantially with
the circumstances under which they migrate. Globally, ages for voluntary
migration show somewhat predictable patterns – there is relatively little
voluntary movement among young children (who generally move with their
parents), followed by an uptick among adolescents and young people pursuing
higher education or job opportunities. After that peak, the likelihood of voluntary
migration continues to decline until retirement age, when some adults choose to
return to their native countries.
11
This pattern holds when analysing migrant destinations by most national income
classifications, as shown in Figure 1.4. In low-income countries, however, the
total migrant population is notably younger. This is likely driven by a combination
of two factors: a larger percentage of refugees (a group where children are over-
represented) in the total migrant population in low-income countries, as well as
the generally younger populations in low-income countries.
Departures from the general age pattern are also evident when analysing the
migrant population by destination region. Globally, half of all migrants were under
FIGURE 1.6
The refugee population is much younger than the overall
migrant population
Age distribution of refugees, international migrants and total population, 2015
(percentage)
Refugees
International
migrants
(including refugees)
Total population
Note:
Refugees under UNHCR’s mandate. An additional 5.2 million Palestinian refugees registered with
UNRWA are not included.
Source:
UNICEF analysis based on United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Global Trends: Forced
displacement in 2015, UNHCR, Geneva, 2016; United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New
York, 2015; and United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
World
Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
the age of 39 in 2015. In Africa, the migrant population was considerably
younger, with a median age of 29, followed by Asia and Latin America
and the Caribbean (35 and 36 years, respectively). In contrast, migrants in
Europe, Northern America and Oceania are older, with median ages all at 42
or above.
12
In Africa, as in the low-income grouping above, the relatively high
proportion of refugees within the region’s overall migrant population moves
the median age downward (Figure 1.5).
The age distribution of refugees is markedly different from that of
international migrants: the refugee population is much younger than the
overall migrant population (Figure 1.6). While a clear majority of the world’s
migrants are adults, children are roughly half of all refugees. Children’s large
and rising share of the refugee population is further evidence of the fact that
they continue to bear the burdens of decisions and disasters far beyond their
control.
As the world debates the path forward for addressing the challenges that
refugees and other migrants face, these figures make it clear that children
must be central to the discussion.
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1| The Global Perspective
WHERE: The geography of
childhood migration and
displacement
In every region of the world, children are profoundly
impacted by migration and displacement. The maps and
data that follow highlight where migrating and displaced
children begin their journeys and where they move.
13
FIGURE 1.7
Migration within regions accounts for more than half of all international migration
Number of international migrants by region of origin and destination, 2015 (in millions)
Asia
to
5.5
rica
1
Am
e
hern
Nort
Migrant journeys
Today, 1 in every 70 children worldwide lives outside
the country of his or her birth. Like adults, most
children who move migrate primarily within their
own regions. Globally, more than half of international
migrants have moved to another country within the
same region where they were born.
Approximately one-quarter of all the world’s migrants
were born in Asia and live in a different country within
Asia; another 17 per cent of international migrants
are Europeans who have moved within Europe.
Owing in large part to its substantial share of the total
population, Asia is also the region of origin for the
highest number of migrants who leave their region
of birth. In 2015, there were 40 million international
migrants born in Asia but living outside Asia.
14
Their
movements and other large population movements
are mapped in Figure 1.7
.
The breakdown of international migration within,
versus outside, a given region varies substantially by
continent. In Europe, for example, two-thirds of all
European-origin migrants have moved within Europe;
in Asia, the proportion of intra-regional migration is
quite similar, at 60 per cent. A staggering 85 per cent
of migrants in Latin America and the Caribbean move
within the Americas.
Within
Northern
America
e
Europ
to
m
ern
A
N
or
t
h
7.5
erica
a
be
rib
a
meri
ern
A
orth
oN
nt
ca
24.6
Within
Latin America
and the
Caribbean
La
ti
n
Am
er
ica
an
d
e
th
C
5.9
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23
Top 10 movements of
international migrants by
origin to destination
(in millions)
20.2
Asia
to
Europe
Within Europe
39.9
2
9.
Africa
to
Euro
pe
Europe
to
Asia
6
.9
Within Asia
59.4
Within Africa
16.4
Note:
This figure does not include 9.8 million
international migrants with origin classified as
other or unknown.
Within
Oceania
Source:
United Nations, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock:
Migrants by destination and origin,
United
Nations, New York, 2015.
This map does not reflect a position by UNICEF on the
legal status of any country or territory or the delimitation
of any frontiers. The dotted line represents approximately
the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon
by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and
Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.
The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan
has not yet been determined. The final status of the
Abyei area has not yet been determined.
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FIGURE 1.8
Together, Africa and Asia host three out of every five child migrants
A. Number of international migrants under 18 years of age by country of residence, 2015
The bubble size indicates the
number of international migrants
under age 18 (in millions)
5 million
3 million
1 million
B. Top 20 hosting countries of international migrants under 18 years of age, 2015 (in millions)
C. Distribution of international migrant children and all children by region,
2015 (percentage)
International migrant children
Asia
Africa
Latin America
and the
Caribbean
Europe
Northern America
Oceania
All children
39%
21%
6%
18%
14%
2%
9%
6%
4%
0%
25%
56%
Source:
UNICEF analysis based on United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
This map does not reflect a position by UNICEF on the legal status of any country or territory or the delimitation of any frontiers. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by
the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined. The final status of the Abyei area has not yet been determined.
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1 | The Global Perspective
25
These numbers – like most others used in this report – refer to the
migrant stock: the total number of people living outside their country
of birth. The migrant stock is a long-term measure of migration that
reflects the sum of both recent and older migration movements as well
as mortality patterns for migrants. Migration flows, in contrast, capture
the number of migrants moving from one country to another over a
specific period of time. Migration flow data are not widely available, but
estimates show that the migration flows over the past few decades
have shifted a higher share of the world’s international migrants toward
Asia, highlighting the region’s growing importance in global migration.
15
FIGURE 1.9
International migrants tend to move to higher-income countries
Number of international migrants by income group of country of origin and country
of destination, 2015 (in millions)
Where the world’s child migrants live
Nearly 12 million of the world’s international child migrants live in Asia.
This represents almost 40 per cent of all migrant children, although it is
actually much lower than Asia’s proportion of global child population (56
per cent of all children). Africa’s proportion of child migrants most closely
matches its share of the global child population (21 and 25 per cent,
respectively). Together, Africa and Asia host three out of every five child
migrants (Figure 1.8).
Half of all the world’s child migrants live in just 15 countries, led by the
United States of America, which is home to 3.7 million child migrants.
The countries with the highest numbers of child migrants generally
share one of two characteristics. Some countries, including Lebanon,
Jordan and Mexico, have high proportions of children in their overall
migrant population (43, 46 and 62 per cent respectively).
16
In others,
including Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Canada and the United
States, children comprise a relatively small percentage of the migrant
population, but those countries’ overall migrant populations are so large
that the total number of migrant children is still quite high.
17
Across the world, roughly 8 in 10 migrants move to a country with a per
capita gross national income at least 20 per cent higher than in their
country of birth.
18
While 72 per cent of the world’s migrants live in high-
income countries, the origins of those migrants are mixed. As shown
in Figure 1.9, migrants in high-income countries come in roughly equal
measure from high-, middle- and lower-middle-income countries. Only 3
out of every 100 migrants in high-income countries were born in a low-
income country.
19
Note:
This figure does not include 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International
Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015. The national income
classification follows the World Bank income classification. The detailed classification can be found at: <http://data.
worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups>, accessed 13 July 2016.
middle
middle
middle
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FIGURE 1.10
Five out of 10 international migrants move within their region of origin
International migrants by region of origin and destination, 2015 (in millions)
Asia
60
How to read a chord diagram
90
70
80
100
50
110
40
30
20
120
13
0
14
0
The purple arrow with no gap indicates the
Asian migrants who have left their country
of origin, nearly 100 million people,
indicated by the width at the base of the
arrow as well as numbers (in millions)
About 60 million of those people moved to
another country within Asia, shown here
by the purple arrow with the gap
Asia
70
80
0
15
10
50
60
90
100
110
16
0
30
40
12
0
13
0
14
0
0
20
0
17
15
20
Asia also
hosts
some 10
million
migrants
from
outside
the
region
0
50
10
16
0
0
50
0
170
40
40
Asia
to
Asia
0
10
10
Africa
30
Asi
at
20
0
0
10
30
0
Lat
in
A
meri
ca
and
th
aribbean
eC
10
20
0
40
30
Lat
in
A
meri
ca
and
the
Caribbean
244 million international migrants worldwide
Note:
This figure does not include 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
0
11
120
130
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
A
m
er
ica
Eu
rop
e
50
Another 16 million moved
to Northern America
11
0
120
130
0
30
40
0
10
m
er
ica
Eu
rop
e
40
0
10
ica
er
50
20
0
10
Africa
30
20
o
30
20
30
No
rt
h
er
n
10
40
50
nia
Ocea
ia
t
As
Am
60
70
oE
40
50
80
p
uro
n
er
rth
No
90
e
A
Roughly 20 million
Asian migrants
moved to Europe
ania
Oce
60
70
80
n
er
rth
No
90
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1 | The Global Perspective
27
FIGURE 1.11
Nine out of 10 refugees across the world find asylum within their region of origin
Number of refugees by region of origin and destination, 2015 (in millions)
Asia
13
14
15
16
12
11
17
18
10
9
19
20
When refugees and other international migrants move,
they tend to find new homes within their regions of origin.
Globally, more than half (53 per cent) of all international
migrants settle in a different country within their region
of origin
(Figure 1.10).
As discussed in more detail in the
regional sections of this report, this intra-regional migration
is often facilitated by regional agreements on free movement
and shaped by linguistic and historical ties between regional
neighbours.
22
21
8
Forced journeys
The concentration of refugees within their regions of origin
is even more pronounced than among other international
migrants. Worldwide, 90 per cent of all refugees find
asylum within their own region; just 1 in 10 of all the
world’s refugees find asylum outside their region of origin
(Figure 1.11). This regional clustering is reflected in the high
concentration of refugees hosted in countries neighbouring
the major origin countries for refugees.
While planned and voluntary journeys can offer new
opportunities to the children and families who undertake
them, forced migration often intensifies the vulnerability of
children who are already in precarious situations. Violence
and conflict are the hallmarks of too many childhoods and
are a common denominator in nearly all the countries of
origin for large numbers of child refugees. In 2015, just two
countries – the Syrian Arab Republic and Afghanistan –
accounted for nearly half of all child refugees under UNHCR’s
mandate; three-quarters of child refugees come from only 10
countries (Figure 1.12).
23
6
7
24
5
25
4
26
3
27
2
28
1
21.3 million refugees worldwide
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016 and United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East,
Annual Operational Report 2015
for the Reporting Period, 1 January – 31 December 2015,
UNRWA, 2016.
3
Afr
ica
n
now
Unk
teless
Sta
eania
La
rn
e
th
a
or
eric
N
m
A
0
Oc
tin
an
Am
Ca
d
rib
th
eric
be
e
a
2
9
an
Eu
rop
e
0
10
0
1
0
5
0.
0
0
0
0
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
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BOX 1.1 SAME BORDERS, DIFFERENT FUTURES:
INTERNAL MIGRATION
While international migration receives
substantial attention in the research and
policy dialogue, it is only a small portion
of overall population movements. A
much higher percentage of the world’s
population movements takes place
within borders rather than across them.
According to the most recent global
estimates, by 2005, upwards of 760
million people had migrated within their
own countries since birth, nearly four
times as many people who had migrated
internationally.
20
Comparable, comprehensive global
estimates on internal migration are
extremely limited, making it difficult to
assess the scale, trends and impacts
of internal migration on children at a
global level. This major gap in global
migration data leaves researchers and
policymakers to rely on piecemeal
studies and data sets. Looking at the
available information from the world’s
two most populous countries (China
and India), however, the scale and policy
implications of internal migration for
children are clear.
In China, there were an estimated 245
million internal migrants in 2013. This
followed an explosive growth in internal
migration since the turn of the century
– in 1982, there were only 6.6 million
internal migrants in the country.
21,22
This
surge in migration, combined with the
design of China’s household registration
system (hukou), has complicated the
migration of children together with their
parents. In part because hukou can
make it difficult to enrol children in urban
schools or take advantage of the public
health care system after migrating, many
internal migrants leave their children
behind when they move.
23
In 2010, almost 70 million children in
China stayed behind when their parents
migrated. Another 36 million children
moved with their parents. Combined,
these totals exceeds 100 million children,
meaning that two out of every five
children in China were directly affected
by migration. Because of the rural-to-
urban nature of most internal migration
in China, nearly 90 per cent of children
who were left in the care of others when
their parents migrated were in rural
areas, meaning that 4 in 10 children in
rural areas were living without one or
both parents because of migration.
24,25,26
An estimated 326 million people –
more than a quarter of the national
population – had moved within India by
2007–2008.
27
That same year, 15 million
children in India were estimated to be
living as internal migrants within the
country.
28,29
This number is more than
half the number of international child
migrants in the world during that period,
underscoring just how vital continued
analysis of and dialogue about internal
migration is for the well-being of children.
The map at right, laying out major countries of origin for the
world’s child refugees, is also a vivid illustration of the world’s
major conflicts. While recent progress in places like Colombia
offers glimmers of hope for some displaced children and families,
protracted and deepening crises in other parts of the world
continue to hold back progress for the world’s children. Children
will continue to shoulder these unsustainable burdens unless
concerted action is taken to address both the proximate and
underlying causes of these conflicts.
Climate change, economic crises, rising inequality and natural
disasters are also pushing people to make homes in new
countries, often against their will. Children and families who
move for these reasons are not offered a distinct legal status,
meaning that they are indistinguishable from other migrants
within the global data. While there is a growing international
recognition that these vulnerable migrants are in need of
stronger legal protections, the lack of data about them continues
to hamper efforts to effectively address their rights and needs.
As the issues that drive families from their homes worsen, this
data gap will become more glaring.
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29
FIGURE 1.12
In 2015, just two countries accounted for nearly half of all child refugees under UNHCR’s mandate
A. Number of refugees by age and country of origin, 2015
The bubble size indicates the
number of refugees
(in millions)
5 million
3 million
1 million
Age 18 and over
Under age 18
Total number of refugees
(without age categories)
B. Largest refugee populations by country of origin and age, 2015 (in millions)
Percentage of children
Country of origin
Syrian Arab Republic
Afghanistan
Somalia
South Sudan
Sudan
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Central African Republic
Myanmar
Eritrea
Colombia
Ukraine
Viet Nam
Pakistan
Burundi
Rwanda
Iraq
China
Children (Under age 18)
Adults (Age 18 and over)
Total number of refugees
(without age categories)
C. Distribution of refugees by major countries of origin, 2015 (percentage)
Total
Central African Republic
3%
Somalia
7%
Syrian Arab Republic
30%
Democratic Republic of the Congo
3%
Viet Nam
2%
Colombia
2%
Note:
Refugees under UNHCR’s mandate. An additional 5.2 million Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA are not included or plotted. Age categories shown for countries with information on age for at least 50 per cent of the population,
with the exception of the Syrian Arab Republic, with information on age for 45 per cent of the population. A total of 117
,000 refugees from Western Sahara are included in the total number of refugees but not plotted here.
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, 2016. Unpublished data table, cited with permission.
This map does not reflect a position by UNICEF on the legal status of any country or territory or the delimitation of any frontiers. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by
the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined. The final status of the Abyei area has not yet been determined.
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Where the world’s refugees live
The 10 largest hosts of the global refugee
population are all in Asia and Africa, with
Turkey hosting by far the largest total
number of refugees (Figure 1.13). In 2015,
one in six of all refugees under UNHCR’s
mandate lived in Turkey. Although complete
age-disaggregated data are not available
for refugees in Turkey, its substantial share
of total refugees makes Turkey likely the
largest single host of child refugees in the
world.
By an overwhelming margin, Lebanon
and Jordan host the largest number of
refugees relative to their populations and
the highest density of refugees relative
to their territories (Figure 1.13).
30
Today,
nearly one in five people in Lebanon is
a refugee under UNHCR’s mandate. By
comparison, the comparable ratio for
the United Kingdom is roughly 1 in 530;
for the United States, it is approximately
1 in 1,200. When the nearly 500,000
Palestinian refugees registered in Lebanon
and the more than 2 million Palestinian
refugees in Jordan are added to this total,
the contributions of these countries to
global refugee responsibility-sharing are
even more pronounced.
31
When considering refugee-hosting
countries by income level, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Ethiopia and Pakistan
host the highest concentration of refugees
relative to their resources.
32
By this same
measure, the 20 countries hosting the
largest number of refugees relative to their
resources are all in Africa and Asia.
FIGURE 1.13
The 10 countries hosting the largest numbers of refugees are all in Asia or Africa
A. Number of refugees by age and country of residence, 2015 (in millions)
The bubble size indicates
the number of refugees*
(in millions)
5 million
3 million
1 million
Age 18 and over
Under age 18
Total number of refugees
(without age categories)
Note:
Refugees under UNHCR mandate. Additional 5.2 million Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA in Jordan, Lebanon, State of Palestine and Syria are not included. Age categories shown for countries
with information on age for at least 50% of the population.
Source:
United Nations High Commission for Refugees, 2016. Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2015 and United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population
Prospects: The 2015 Revision, United Nations, New York, 2015.
This map does not reflect a position by UNICEF on the legal status of any country or territory or the delimitation of any frontiers. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by
the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined. The final status of the Abyei area has not yet been determined.
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1 | The Global Perspective
31
B. Top five countries of origin for refugees by country of residence, 2015 (in millions)
C. Number of refugees by age and country of residence and as a percentage of total
population, 2015
Percentage of children
Country of
residence
Turkey
Pakistan
Lebanon
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
Ethiopia
Jordan
Kenya
Uganda
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Chad
Cameroon
Germany
Russian Federation
Sudan
China
Iraq
United States
France
Yemen
South Sudan
Syrian Arab
4.9
Republic
2.5
Turkey
Number of refugees
(in millions)
2.5
Percentage of total population
in country of residence
1.6
3.2%
0.8%
18.3%
1.2%
0.7%
8.7%
1.2%
1.2%
0.5%
2.6%
1.5%
0.4%
0.2%
0.8%
0.0%
0.8%
0.1%
0.4%
1.0%
2.1%
0.8%
0.1%
0.2%
0.4%
0.0%
50%
53%
58%
50%
57%
57%
64%
57%
59%
21%
53%
40%
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.1
1.0
1.6
Pakistan
1.1
1.0
Afghanistan
2.7
0.6
0.5
0.5
Somalia
1.1
South Sudan
0.8
Sudan
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.1
Lebanon
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
Jordan
Ethiopia
Kenya
Chad
Yemen
South Sudan
Uganda
Sudan
Other
26%
61%
Afghanistan
59%
48%
57%
Children (Under age 18)
Adults (Age 18 and over)
Total number of refugees
(without age categories)
Bangladesh
Egypt
United Republic
of Tanzania
India
D. Refugees per 1,000 population in countries hosting over 10,000 refugees, 2015
Iran
Iraq
(Islamic
8
Republic of)
12
Venezuela
(Bolivarian
Republic of)
6
Africa
The Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Note:
Refugees under UNHCR’s mandate. An additional 5.2 million Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA in Jordan, Lebanon, State of Palestine and the Syrian Arab Republic are not included. Age
categories shown for countries with information on age, for at least 50 per cent of the population. The number of refugees does not include applicants for asylum whose refugee status has yet to be determined.
At the end of 2015, there were 3.2 million asylum applications pending worldwide.
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016; and United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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Palestinian refugees
A total of 5.2 million Palestinian refugees are registered with the
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees
in the Near East (UNRWA).
33
Individuals whose “normal place of
residence was Palestine during the period 1 June 1946 to 15 May
1948 and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result
of the 1948 conflict” may qualify as a Palestine refugee, along with
their descendants.
Today, refugee status has extended into a fifth generation for
many Palestinian refugees, making them part of one of the world’s
most protracted refugee situations. For a variety of reasons,
many calculations of the total number of global refugees do not
include Palestinian refugees, although they are legally entitled to
international protection like all other refugees.
The 5.2 million Palestinians registered as refugees with UNRWA
live in five locations throughout the Middle East – 2.2 million in
Jordan, 500,000 in Lebanon, 450,000 in the Syrian Arab Republic,
790,000 in the West Bank and 1.3 million in the Gaza Strip.
34
Children and youth are a large part of this population, with 38 per
cent of all Palestinian refugees aged between 15 and 24. At the
beginning of 2015, almost 30 per cent of the Palestinian refugees
(including other registered persons) lived in 58 camps administered
by UNRWA; the rest live in communities within host countries.
35
While many families are now integrated within host communities,
too many Palestinian refugees continue to bear the burdens
of both immediate hardship as well as multi-generational
displacement. Palestinian refugees in the Syrian Arab Republic
have been particularly hard hit. Of the 560,000 Palestinian refugees
registered there before the crisis, 110,000 have left the country,
finding refuge in Lebanon (42,000), Jordan (18,000) and outside
the region (50,000). Of those who remain, 60 per cent have been
internally displaced within the country.
36
Multiple displacements
and ongoing conflict continue to render Palestinian refugees –
especially children – intensely vulnerable.
Children make up a majority of the world’s total refugee population,
but their proportion as part of the overall refugee population varies
substantially depending on the country where they live. In Germany,
children are just one in five refugees, while they represent three in
five refugees living in both South Sudan and the Democratic Republic
of the Congo.
37
The large differences in the percentage of children in
the refugee population in any given destination country are not easily
explained by a single factor. They are likely influenced by a number of
variables including the distance and difficulty of the journey between
countries of origin and destination, the basic age structure of refugee
origin countries, migration and asylum policies and practices in
destination countries, and the social and financial capital of families
making the journeys.
Just as children’s journeys are shaped by migration and asylum
policy and practices, so too are their futures. The opportunities that
refugee and migrant children have in these destination countries vary
considerably based on both national policy and practice about topics
including family reunification, services such as health and education,
and social inclusion. While good policy is a necessary condition, it is
not a sufficient one – the administrative capacity and the political will to
implement policy are essential to provide children with the protections
and opportunities they deserve. Access and inclusion can provide
lasting benefits for children and communities, while exclusionary
policies and practices can squander the potential of an entire
generation. The decisions made in national capitals and regional bodies
today will dictate which future today’s 10 million child refugees face.
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BOX 1.2 IN DANGER WITHIN BORDERS: INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS
Even when children do not cross their national borders in search
of safety, they can face tremendous danger while seeking security
within their own country. Notably, nearly all people who eventually
become refugees begin their journeys with internal displacement.
38
By the end of 2015, some 41 million people were displaced
by violence and conflict within their own countries – nearly 9
million of them displaced that year alone (Figure 1.14). Disasters
including earthquakes, tsunamis and flooding uprooted another
19 million people within their own borders.
39
Like many aspects
of data related to migration and displacement, most information
about internal displacements is not broken down by age,
making it difficult to provide a reliable estimate of the number of
children included within these larger totals.
40
Assuming that the proportion of children among persons internally
displaced by violence is the same as the proportion of children
in the national population, an estimated 17 million children were
displaced within their own countries by violence and conflict
at the end of 2015.
41
If children are over-represented in internal
displacement numbers in the same way that they are in refugee
numbers, that total would be even higher. Including children
internally displaced by disasters would send the number higher still.
This report does not focus extensively on children affected
by internal displacement, but they are highlighted here
because many of the challenges that children face when they
are forced to leave their homes are the same, regardless of
whether they cross borders. Like refugees, many internally
displaced children face violence, exploitation, disrupted social
services and education, and separation from their families. The
longer displacements linger, the more lasting their negative
consequences can be.
Most of the policy prescriptions for these challenges are
also the same as those for child refugees – protection of
children’s rights, support for family reunification, continued
access to schooling and other services, and equal treatment
and consideration under the law. Accurate information
about, and protection for, internally displaced persons are
essential to all of these policy responses. The lack of specific
protections and monitoring for internally displaced persons
in most contexts leaves many of the worst effects of internal
displacement under-reported and under-addressed. Whether
children are uprooted within their borders or beyond them,
governments have a responsibility to fulfil both their needs
and their rights.
The Challenges of Estimating
Internal Displacement for Children
Limited age-disaggregated data are available
regarding the ages of internally displaced
persons. In the few countries where this
information is available, there is not a clear
trend to support reliable global estimates.
Consider the examples of Haiti and Nigeria:
42
in Haiti, roughly one-third of the people still
internally displaced from the 2010 earthquake
are children. This is notably lower than
the percentage of children in the overall
population. In Nigeria, by contrast, data
indicate that more than half of internally
displaced persons are children. This number
falls squarely between the percentage of
children in the general population and the
percentage of children in the Nigerian refugee
population abroad.
43
Each case supports a
different set of assumptions for compiling
a global estimate, making it challenging to
produce a reliable global total for internally
displaced children.
FIGURE 1.14
Conflict displaces even more people within their own borders than beyond them
Number of conflict-related internally displaced persons, 2015
The bubble size indicates
the number of
internally displaced
persons
(in millions)
7 million
3 million
1 million
Note:
Based on the Internal Displacement
Monitoring Centre's annual monitoring of
internal displacement, Colombia remains
among the five countries with the highest
number of people displaced by conflict.
While internal displacement is a major issue
within Colombia, the available data reflect
all people who were estimated to have
been displaced over the course of more
than five decades of conflict, even if they
are deceased or no longer believed to be
displaced, meaning the estimates are likely
to be significantly overstated. These data
should be interpreted with caution.
Source:
Internal Displacement Monitoring
Centre, Global Internal Displacement
Database, 2015
This map does not reflect a position by UNICEF on
the legal status of any country or territory or the
delimitation of any frontiers. The dotted line rep-
resents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu
and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan.
The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet
been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary
between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet
been determined. The final status of the Abyei area
has not yet been determined.
Countries with people internally
displaced by conflict and violence
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WHY: Factors that influence migration and displacement
Every year, in every part of the world, children and families make the
decision – sometimes freely and sometimes under duress – to move.
These decisions are influenced by a wide range of factors about both
their present conditions as well as their future aspirations. Difficult
conditions at home – conflict, poverty, violence, natural disasters,
unemployment, discrimination and more – often weigh heavily in the
decision to move. Brighter prospects in other countries – security, family
reunification, education, higher standards of living and jobs – also shape
decisions about where and when families migrate.
Children and families rarely make the decision to move for just one
reason: many factors are usually involved and the importance of any
given factor may change over time. Nakisha’s story (at right) provides a
clear illustration of this. Her decision to move is about both the things
she wants to leave as well as those she hopes to find. She is keenly
aware of the danger of the journey and the difficulties she will face if she
takes it with an uncertain legal status. Despite this, Nakisha still feels
that her future is in a new country.
At a global level, the interplay of positive and negative factors is just as
complex. While it is clear that major issues including conflict, economic
instability and environmental disasters continue to influence large-scale
movements of people, they are far from the only factors. Other issues
– including community traditions, aspirations and the desire for new
opportunities – continue to shape large movements as well. Tackling the
negative forces that drive people to leave their homes is essential for
addressing a wide range of human rights, economic, environmental and
political problems. They should be addressed for those reasons, rather
than as a strategy for migration control.
STORY 1.1 NO PLACE FOR A CHILD
At the age of 15, Nakisha Martinez – a member of Honduras’ minority
Afro-Caribbean community – is accustomed to acting as a parent to
her two younger siblings. Her single mother is often out of the house,
working in neighbouring countries or making her way to the United
States – a journey she has attempted at least four times.
The situation at home is dire. “Where I live there are gangs.…They’re
the ones who rule here,” says Nakisha. “They look for children from
the community to bring them into their gang. I have a cousin who
converted, he’s in the gang now – he’s only 12 years old. Now they’re
looking for him to kill him.…A friend of his was just killed.”
Nakisha wants to escape it all, study and get a job as a nurse to
support her family, but says she is too scared to make the perilous
journey to the United States again. She tried it once, in 2014, with her
mother, her 3-year-old brother, 8-year-old sister and a cousin. They
were attacked on a couple of occasions and narrowly escaped arrest
several times. They eventually made it across the Rio Grande that
separates Mexico from the United States, only to be sent back by
immigration authorities. “I won’t do this again. I want to go one day but
with the proper papers.…I want to go, because of high school, college
and all that.”
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35
A WIDE RANGE OF FACTORS INFLUENCE CHILDHOOD MIGRATION AND DISPLACEMENT
Community traditions of migration
Kinship networks
Armed conflict
Health care
Personal freedoms
Climate change
Family reunification
Family separation
Improved
standards
of living
Safety and security
Abuse and violence
Family formation
Education opportunities
Lack of
sustainable
livelihoods
Opportunity
for income
Persecution and
discrimination
Lack of opportunity
for education
Environmental
disasters
Unemployment
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WHAT HAPPENS: The promise and potential peril of migration and
displacement for children
The promise
A high-level scan of the evidence about migration makes a powerful case for its potential:
migrants who move from countries with a low Human Development Index (HDI) value to
a country with a higher HDI value experience, on average, a 15-fold increase in income, a
doubling in education enrolment rates and a 16-fold reduction in child mortality.
44
“MIGRATION IS AN EXPRESSION OF THE HUMAN
ASPIRATION FOR DIGNITY, SAFETY AND A BETTER FUTURE.
IT IS PART OF THE SOCIAL FABRIC, PART OF OUR VERY
MAKE-UP AS A HUMAN FAMILY.
”
Ban Ki-moon, United Nations Secretary-General,
in remarks at the High-Level Dialogue on International
Migration and Development, October 2013
Countries, too, benefit from migration. Remittance flows to migrant-sending countries
proved very resilient during the financial and economic crisis and remained stable at a
time when foreign aid remained flat and foreign direct investment declined sharply.
45
Remittances can also provide households with the capital needed to invest in new
businesses, raising incomes across the economy.
46
When migrants return home, they bring
new skills, assets and perspectives to their homelands.
In countries that receive migrants, the benefits are even more pronounced. An analysis of
migration impacts in high-income countries found that migrants contributed more in taxes
and social payments than they received; filled both high- and low-skilled gaps in the labour
market; and contributed to economic growth and innovation in hosting countries.
47
Recognizing the importance of migration and its potential for individuals and nations
alike, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) include a commitment to facilitating
“orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through
implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies.
48
”
Whether individual children or families benefit from the potential of migration, however, is a
much more difficult question to answer. The one clear conclusion of research on migration
and children is that context matters in determining individual-level impacts of migration.
Family conditions and the circumstances of migration are critical in determining whether
the outcomes of relocation are positive or negative for children: the type of migration;
the underlying reasons for migration; and the situation of children in countries of origin,
transit and destination all determine outcomes. The empirical research on child migrants,
especially children who migrate independently of their parents, is limited and, because of
the importance of context, is very difficult to interpret outside its original setting.
Where data on children and migration exist, different studies frequently point in different
directions – an inconsistency often attributable to distinctions between contexts.
49
The
holistic impacts of parents migrating without their children are similarly murky. Evidence
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37
from many countries links remittances from parents abroad with
poverty reduction and improved access to essentials such as education,
health and housing. Other evidence – often even from the same
contexts – links parental absence with increased behavioural problems
and other detrimental psycho-social impacts on the children who remain
behind.
50
The potential peril
The “orderly, safe, regular and responsible” migration envisioned in
the SDGs can offer children and families the futures they seek. Those
conditions of migration are, however, still aspirational for too many.
Children continue to face grave dangers as they move and resettle
in new homes. Even when migration is planned and voluntary, these
dangers are present, but they are profoundly exacerbated by both
forced displacement and irregular migration. Uncertain legal status,
language barriers, limited social networks and active xenophobia can
all compound the initial dangers of the journey itself. The risks are most
acute for children travelling without their families. These risks are not an
inevitable part of migration – but they persist in the absence of needed
reforms.
The following section examines some of the most severe
consequences that children and families may face as they seek security
and stability outside their home countries. Comprehensive data about
the number or proportion of migrant and refugee children affected
by these issues are not available, but the best available evidence is
presented for each topic.
Violence, exploitation, abuse and trafficking
Children, particularly those who travel on their own or become
separated from their families, are at risk of many forms of violence and
exploitation throughout their journeys. For some, those dangers persist
even after they have reached their destinations.
Violence may come in the form of state action (particularly during
migration enforcement or detention), the general public (in the form of
xenophobic attacks), employers (in various forms of child labour), other
children (including bullying and abuse in schools) or within families (in
the form of domestic violence, which can be worsened by prolonged
and extreme stress related to displacement).
While violence is most often described in physical terms, its impacts
extend far beyond the physical dangers, including long-standing
psychological and social effects on children’s well-being. Even
when children do not directly experience violence, the process of
displacement and resettlement itself takes a lasting toll on the mental
health of children and their caregivers.
51
Reliable global data about the extent of violence against refugee and
other migrant children are not available, but individual assessments and
studies make it clear that the problem is pervasive.
52
Many forms of
violence against children are under-reported among all child survivors,
but fear of detention, deportation or other state action against children
within uncertain legal status may keep refugee and migrant children
in particular from seeking help and are likely exacerbating problems of
under-reporting.
One of the most widely discussed forms of violence against children
is trafficking. According to the most recent available data, as of 2012,
one in three detected victims of trafficking is a child.
53
Girls and boys
are both affected, although nearly twice the number of girls have been
detected as trafficking victims.
54
These numbers reflect a rise in the
percentage of children among trafficking victims in recent years. While
data are not yet available for 2012 onwards, the recent swell of irregular
and forced migration has likely increased the number of both smuggling
and child trafficking victims as well.
This report, like most global reporting on trafficking, uses percentages
of detected victims in various categories, rather than presenting
raw numbers on the estimated number of trafficking victims. This is
primarily because trafficking is unevenly detected and under-reported.
Even the ratios presented here may be skewed by the visibility of
commercial sexual exploitation, especially prostitution, compared to
other trafficking issues that affect children, such as domestic labour.
Work continues in refining data estimation in this area so that every
child can be counted.
Trafficking is a concern in every region of the world: victims with 152
different citizenships were identified in 124 countries between 2010
and 2012.
55
Globally, the vast majority of detected trafficking is for
either sexual exploitation (just over half) or forced labour (40 per cent),
although there is notably more trafficking for sexual exploitation in
Europe and Central Asia and more forced labour trafficking in East Asia,
South Asia and the Pacific.
56
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STORY 1.2 NO SAFE HARBOUR
Lovette – age 16 – left her home in Nigeria to earn money in Europe.
Her trip was arranged by a fixer in Lagos who told her she would pay
the travel costs through unspecified ‘work’ in Libya and then Italy. Upon
arriving in Libya, she was arrested along with a group of other migrants
and refugees for not having proper identification and spent several
months in prison. Lovette shared a cell with a number of women and
girls, enduring gruesome conditions. Guards would beat them when they
complained, and they only received three meals per week. “There was
nothing to do, just sleep and think about many things,” says Lovette.
Osarugue, also 16 years old and from the same part of Nigeria as Lovette,
describes a similar work-for-travel scheme, which she agreed with a
Nigerian fixer in order to reach Italy. Once she made it to Tripoli in Libya,
Osarugue was shuttled for weeks between different houses or sites –
again for unspecified reasons – until she was eventually put on a boat
bound for the Italian island of Lampedusa. She and many others were
crammed into the boat’s dark hold without water for hours. “I thought,
‘this is how my life ends’,” Osarugue says. Fortunately, they were
rescued by the Italian coastguard after more than 12 hours at sea.
Italian social workers have reported that many of the girls who arrive
from countries in Western Africa are not asked to pay upfront costs to
smugglers for their travel into Libya and across the Mediterranean. Girls
are typically told they will repay the money later through domestic work,
but often end up forced into prostitution in Libya, Europe or both. This
practice has resulted in shocking cases of sexual exploitation and abuse
that have been documented by Italian medical doctors providing care at
reception centres for refugees and migrants.
When asked in interviews about their experiences in reaching Italy,
refugee and migrant girls are understandably reluctant to provide
substantive information, as the physical and emotional trauma of their
ordeal remains so fresh.
Dr. Pietro Bartolo, the Medical Director for Lampedusa, reports that he
and his team have treated many refugee and migrant girls who have
arrived pregnant after being raped in Libya or in need of medical care
from sexual abuse. “It is horrific what these women and girls have been
through,” he says.
Smuggling is an even more pervasive issue for children travelling both
with and without their families. Distinct from trafficking, smuggling
begins as a commercial transaction between a smuggler and migrant,
in which a smuggler agrees to arrange illegal passage for a migrant
into another country in exchange for financial or material benefits from
the migrants. While that relationship may change over the course of a
journey, sometimes resulting in violence or turning into trafficking, it
is different in nature than trafficking, which always implies the threat
of force or coercion.
57
Children travelling on their own are particularly
vulnerable to the most dangerous aspects of smuggling – including
dangerous routes of passage, abandonment by smugglers, and
inhumane treatment – making it an issue of ongoing concern for the
well-being of child refugees and migrants.
While adults face many
of these same dangers,
children are uniquely
vulnerable to two other
forms of exploitation – child
labour and child marriage.
Sometimes a choice of
desperate families, these
conditions can also be
the result of intentional
exploitative behaviour.
Child labour, in particular,
has substantial financial
benefits for employers,
while both do long-lasting
harm to children (see box).
Family separation
In 2015, nearly 100,000
unaccompanied or
separated children filed
claims for asylum in 78
countries.
59
This startling
total – primarily composed
of Afghan, Eritrean, Syrian
and Somali children –
represented nearly a
three-fold increase over
Compounding Danger:
Risky Coping Mechanisms
In addition to the direct dangers that children
face during or because of migration and
displacement, they are also at increased risk
of dangerous coping mechanisms such as child
marriage and child labour. Families in crisis may
turn to these measures because they feel they
are the only option for safeguarding a child’s
future or supporting a family’s immediate needs.
Confronted with the crushing economic burdens
brought on by protracted displacement or limited
work opportunities, some refugee and migrant
parents – and often children themselves – are
pushed into decisions they would never have
chosen freely.
For the children involved, these coping
mechanisms have dangerous short- and long-term
implications. In the immediate term, child labour
and marriage both put children at increased
risk of physical and emotional abuse. Both
practices also reduce the likelihood that a child
will complete schooling, a reality that can have
cascading negative repercussions throughout a
child’s life, including earlier childbearing, worse
health outcomes and lower income.
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39
the previous year and the highest number of applications since UNHCR
began compiling these data in 2006.
60
While the total number of applications
for asylum are increasing for many vulnerable groups, applications from
unaccompanied and separated children are an increasing share. These
children’s applications made up just over 2 per cent of all applications in 2013;
by 2015 they had nearly doubled to 5 per cent.
61
Whether children choose to travel on their own or are separated from their
families over the course of their journeys, their vulnerability is heightened
as long as they remain alone. They are not only exposed to the same types
of dangers as children who travel with their families, but unaccompanied
children also shoulder all the other burdens of financial support, navigating
legal systems and establishing reliable social networks to protect
themselves.
Once children reach their destinations, they may encounter a different array
of obstacles, including migration detention, extended family reunification
processes (when they are available at all), discriminatory treatment while in
state care, limited social services, education and career opportunities and
uncertain legal status. Compounding these challenges, older children who
choose to migrate may be pressured to begin sending remittances home as
quickly as possible, even as many must repay substantial debts related to
their journeys.
Migration Detention
Worldwide, more than 100 countries are estimated to detain children for
migration-related reasons.
62
The exact number of children who face detention
solely because of their migration status is not known, but detention’s lasting
consequences for children are clearly documented. Children subjected to
immigration detention experience both physical and psychological trauma,
shaping their immediate well-being as well as their lifelong prospects.
63
Court rulings in multiple countries have made it clear that migration-
related detention is not appropriate for children, including as a deterrence
mechanism.
64
In 2012, the Committee on the Rights of the Child emphatically
condemned the practice, arguing that “Children should not be criminalized
or subject to punitive measures because of their or their parents’ migration
status. The detention of a child because of their or their parent’s migration
status constitutes a child rights violation and always contravenes the principle
of the best interests of the child.
65
The Secretary-General has recently
”
echoed this sentiment, calling on governments “to consider alternatives to
detention for purposes of immigration control and to adopt a commitment
never to detain children for this purpose.
66
”
Data, Displacement and Disability
In crisis and non-crisis situations alike, estimates
about the number of children living with disabilities
are essentially speculative; they are dated, widely
varying and based on sources with inconsistent
quality. In the context of migration and displacement,
the data gaps are even more glaring.
There is no worldwide estimate of the number of
child migrants or refugees with disabilities, but a
recent study of refugees in Jordan and Lebanon
found that nearly one-quarter of refugees there
were living with some form of impairment.
58
While
this study was not specific to children, the large
and rising number of child refugees makes the lack
of information about childhood displacement and
disabilities a growing cause for concern.
In the midst of emergencies and throughout already-
dangerous journeys, threats to the safety and
well-being of children with disabilities are further
compounded. Urgent action is needed to gather
information about the well-being of these children
and – more importantly – to translate data into action
for the inclusion and protection of child migrants and
refugees who are living with disabilities.
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Disrupted education
Educational opportunity is a major driving factor for many children and families
who choose to migrate, but refugee and migrant children frequently face multiple
barriers to beginning and continuing their education, often because of restrictive
migration policies. Worldwide, only half of child refugees are enrolled in primary
school and less than one-quarter are enrolled in secondary school. Overall, a
refugee child is five times more likely to be out of school than a non-refugee
child.
67;68
These numbers represent just a portion of the children whose education
is disrupted by displacement – internally displaced children far outnumber those
officially registered as refugees and are not accounted for in these totals. Both
protracted crises and the increasing frequency of natural disasters will only
intensify the importance of this issue in coming years.
69
A wide variety of factors influence children’s ability to access education in the
midst of or following migration and displacement. In situations of ongoing
conflict or natural disaster, the basic functioning of education systems may
be compromised or may make schools unsafe. As children move between
locations, they may not have the legal right to attend school (especially if they
have irregular status) or may be prevented from learning because of language
or social barriers. When they settle in new homes, legal and language barriers,
fear of immigration enforcement, inability to transfer their previous school work,
and xenophobia are all common factors that keep children out of classrooms.
All these issues are further complicated by the immense economic pressures
that often confront newly resettled families, forcing too many children into work
rather than classrooms.
Although education is under threat in many of these contexts, it remains an
extremely high priority for both children and their families. When children were
asked in two recent surveys about their priorities after an emergency, education
was their top concern. In those and additional studies, adults consistently
ranked education among their top three priorities, alongside basic necessities
such as food, water, shelter and health care. Other studies have shown that
this prioritization is borne out in daily family decision-making. Across a variety of
contexts, when families are given unrestricted cash transfers in the wake of an
emergency, education is consistently a top spending category for parents.
70
There are comparatively more data available about education in these contexts,
but other essential services are also routinely interrupted as children and their
families move. All aspects of health care, nutrition, water and sanitation, and
social protection are routinely disrupted or halted altogether as children and
families move or spend extended periods in displacement. Each of these can
have devastating effects on individual families as well as the larger communities
in which they live.
Social exclusion and discrimination
Whether their new homes are temporary or permanent, the future
success of migrating and displaced children relies heavily on whether
they are welcomed in those new homes. Research indicates that
children are most likely to directly encounter discrimination in school
settings, often in the form of insults, unfair treatment, exclusion
and threats.
71
Children who face these forms of discrimination and
exclusion experience a range of direct repercussions such as distrust,
hopelessness and problematic behaviours, as well as negative longer-
term attitudes about schooling and their own potential.
72
Outside the classroom, migrant and refugee children and families can
be subject to a wide array of discriminatory practices and behaviours
that hinder their ability to settle into a new home. In many contexts,
legal barriers continue to prevent migrant and refugee children from
receiving services on an equal basis with other children. Even when
legal barriers are removed, misinformation, prejudice and xenophobia
continue to stand between children and the services they are
entitled to receive. These problems can be intensified by formal and
informal separation of refugee and other migrant families from host
communities, making it more difficult to acquire relevant language
and cultural skills or employment to overcome intense poverty.
In the worst cases, xenophobia may escalate to direct attacks.
According to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in
Europe, asylum reception centres throughout Europe have been
repeatedly subjected to direct attack. In Germany alone, the
Government tracked 850 attacks against refugee shelters in 2015.
73
Statelessness, lack of legal identity and legal status
Even after the immediate dangers of travel have passed, children
can face a lifetime of discrimination and disenfranchisement if they
are unable to obtain or prove their identity and citizenship. This can
happen any number of ways: citizenship papers lost in the midst of
travel; parents unable to pass their citizenship on because of national
citizenship laws; or births not being registered during the migration
process. Regardless of the cause, the consequences are damning
for children. Without a legal identity or the right to one, children can
be denied essential services including health care, social protection
and education. They may be restricted in their future movements and
unable or unwilling to seek protection when they need it.
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41
In the case of statelessness, these problems
can be passed from generation to generation –
parents without legal identities are frequently
unable to obtain them for their children. At least
70,000 new stateless children are born every
year in the 20 countries hosting the world’s
largest stateless populations, compounding the
urgency of the issue.
74
While this intensifying
problem is not exclusively linked to migration
and displacement, children and families who
move between countries are more susceptible
to it and more profoundly affected by it.
Without strong action to curb statelessness and
promote the right to birth registration and legal
identity, children will continue to inherit this
harmful legacy.
Making Every Child Count by
Counting Every Child
While not a direct threat to any
specific child, all migrant and
refugee children are affected when
children are not accurately counted
in operational or official statistics.
These data sources – often used to
plan future services for children and
shape policy responses – need to be
regularly updated and disaggregated
by key dimensions including age, sex,
country of origin and migration status.
Their collection must be sensitive to
the specific needs and vulnerabilities
of children, particularly those most
likely to be missed by traditional
collection methods.
BOX 1.3 WHEN PARENTS MIGRATE
AND CHILDREN STAY HOME
Children do not need to migrate themselves in order to
be profoundly affected by migration. Children who stay
home when their parents migrate as well as children
born to migrant parents in a new country face distinct
challenges.
One consequence of restrictive migration and family
reunification policies is the rise in the number of families
where one or both parents have migrated, leaving children in
the care of extended family members or friends.
When parents leave home to find work elsewhere, the
impacts on children can be both positive and negative. In
many cases, increased remittances from a parent working
outside the country can offer additional finances for school
fees, housing and other household necessities. Those
benefits, however, may not always be secure. Changes to
family life and family structure may also be detrimental to
children. Substitute care or lack of care can cause problems
for some children’s emotional well-being and psychological
development.
78
Many children in these situations also face
social stigmatization as a result of their parents’ absence.
To date, the overall evidence about the impacts of parents
migrating without their children is remarkably mixed.
79
Recent
improvements in data collection and disaggregation are
now making it possible to dig deeper into these impacts,
and future research will be able to more accurately assess
the short- and long-term impacts of migration on children
who are left in the care of others when their parents
migrate. To address the impact of migration on child welfare,
governments must adapt their human development and
social policies and capacities for responding to the realities of
migration and the vulnerabilities of these families.
Children and families in irregular migration
situations confront many of these same
obstacles, both during their journeys and
once they reach their destinations.
75
While not
technically stateless, lack of legal status can impose insurmountable obstacles for
accessing identity documentation as well as the range of services for which that
documentation may be necessary. Fear of migration enforcement may also make
children and families more susceptible to labour and other abuses because of their
limited options for legal recourse.
Disappearance and death
In the worst cases, migrants never reach their new homes. The International
Organisation for Migration’s Missing Migrants Project recorded more than 15,000
dead and missing migrants from 2014 through July 2016.
76
While ages are not
recorded for the vast majority of these individuals, one-third of the deaths in the
Aegean Sea crossing in 2015 were estimated to be children.
77
Since 2014, roughly
two-thirds of all recorded migrant deaths have occurred in the Mediterranean. The
Mediterranean route has captured the most global attention, although migrants have
lost their lives moving through every region of the world and other routes are even
more lethal on a proportional basis.
These numbers represent an absolute minimum number of fatalities; the true toll is
much higher. Although the dangers are well known to many migrants, limited options
for safe and legal migration and increasingly strict enforcement along many borders
continue to drive desperate men, women and children along treacherous routes.
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BOX 1.4 CHILDREN OF IMMIGRANT PARENTS
Whether they are migrants themselves or not, the future prospects of the
children of migrants vary substantially depending on the backgrounds of their
parents and the conditions in the countries where they settle. Some children
face challenges at the most fundamental level: their right to an identity and
nationality. Children born to immigrant parents can face severe obstacles in
obtaining birth certificates in many transit and destination countries, which can,
in turn, affect their right to a nationality. Children of undocumented parents
face some of the greatest challenges in obtaining identity documents and legal
protections, often for fear of triggering migration enforcement actions.
80
Even with a legal identity, children of migrant parents may struggle to
access appropriate and inclusive services. Many countries of destination
lack intercultural policies to facilitate social integration.
81
In some countries,
restrictive immigration policies prevent children of immigrant families from
accessing social services, including social protection and free education. Other
children are excluded from school by barriers such as fees, language and lack
of documentation. When schools, hospitals and other public services become
places of immigration enforcement, undocumented children and children of
undocumented parents face even greater obstacles to accessing these services.
Early childhood education is especially important for children of immigrant
parents: studies in Germany found that young children attending care facilities
benefit in cognitive, social, emotional, physical and linguistic development, and
that preschool contributes to the educational accomplishments of children in
immigrant families.
82
Access and quality, however, remain crucial: research on
Turkish immigrant children in Germany indicates that Turkish children enter
preschools later than their native-born peers and have less favourable learning
conditions than those peers once they are in school.
83
A review of evidence
in the United States showed that young children in migrant households were
less likely to be in centre-based childcare, giving them less exposure to early
childhood development programmes likely to support their school readiness.
84
Legal and practical access to these services is essential for every child because
it can have profound impacts on migrant children’s long-term success.
While these challenges are very real for children of immigrant parents, there
is evidence that these obstacles may fade with time if the right policies are
enacted. According to 2014 data from the Child Trends Databank, 28 per cent
of first-generation immigrant children in the United States lived in poverty,
compared with 25 per cent of second-generation children and 19 per cent of
non-immigrant children.
85
STORY 1.3 FUTURE UNKNOWN
Ali and his younger brother Ahmed arrived
in an overcrowded raft of refugees and
migrants landing on Lesvos, Greece, in
October 2015. The pair – 17 and 16 – were
making their way to Germany. Their family
in Lebanon had sent them on their own,
hoping to protect the boys from threats at
home.
Palestinian living in Lebanon, and now I’m
probably going to become a refugee in
Germany. As a refugee, there is always a
sense of feeling inferior to others. You don’t
always get opportunities in life according
to ability. I mean, why should I go to school
if I can’t become a doctor? My father is
a professor, but he hasn’t taught in years
because he’s a refugee. Here in Germany,
that’s different. Here they treat you as a
human.”
The boys were eventually settled into a
group home in the town of Peine, near
Hannover, Germany, where they have
At just 17, Ali is now playing the role of
become wards of the German state until
father figure to his younger brother Ahmed,
they turn 18. By the spring of 2016, Ali and
pushing him to seize the opportunities
Ahmed were attending intensive German-
language courses in a new school, learning available in Germany.
to express themselves in a new language
“Of course I would love to be a teenager
and a new country.
and just enjoy life here in Germany, but by
doing that I would be jeopardizing not only
In class, Afghans, Syrians, Iraqis and
my brother’s future, but my own too. I know
children from other countries interact
that every day I would be out partying or
with one another for the first time using
smoking, I would also be compromising
a common language. The boys’ teacher,
that.” A burgeoning hairstylist while he
Ms. Ute Zeh, speaks fondly of seeing her
was still in Lebanon, Ali has started an
students begin to come into their own.
apprenticeship at a local salon near the
“Sometimes they’re loud, sometimes they’re
group home, while Ahmed started regular
troubled, sometimes they’re crazy – like
classes at the local secondary school after
when they see a German girl,” she says,
excelling in his German language courses.
smiling. “But they’re boys, you know. In
school though, they’re so enthusiastic, that
on Sundays, when I’m at home, I can’t wait “Things have been lining up in a weird way,”
says Ali. “I feel really blessed that I’ve met
for Monday to come and teach. I love it so
good people along the way. Before this, I
much.”
had only seen Germany on TV, so being
here, living here, learning the language, it
Back at their group home, Ali and Ahmed
seems…almost unreal.”
reflect on their experience as refugees and
how it might be shaping them.
In May 2016, their asylum claim was denied.
The brothers have appealed the decision.
“My identity hasn’t changed – I’ve always
been a refugee,” says Ali. “First as a
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43
BOX 1.5 FOCUS ON ADOLESCENTS AND YOUTH
In 2015, 37 million international migrants were between the ages of 10 and 24.
86
Youth migration is an increasingly important phenomenon, as young people migrate in
search of survival, security, improved standards of living, education and opportunity. In
the coming decades, both adolescent and youth migration could grow dramatically as
a result of global trends including urbanization and climate change.
Adolescent and youth migration is influenced by many of the same factors that
motivate younger children and families: poverty and inequity, discrimination, conflict
and persecution, humanitarian crises and natural disasters. Young people also migrate
to increase their opportunities: to find work, increase income and education, improve
their standards of living, or to get married and reunite with family. Youth migration
for education is on the rise, with 4.1 million students studying abroad in tertiary
institutions in 2013, up from 2 million in 2000.
87
For young migrants in search of a
better life, unemployment is both a driver and a potential risk faced when leaving their
country of origin. While youth unemployment has stabilized in recent years, it remains
at around 13 per cent, above its levels before the 2008 financial crisis. More than 73
million youth were still unemployed in 2014.
88
Youth migration has the potential to benefit both countries of origin and destination.
The migration of young people born in low- and middle-income countries – which are
expected to be the birthplace of the majority of the world’s next billion people – could
fill looming labour needs in higher-income countries that have ageing populations.
89
Remittances from diaspora youth can be sources of family support, technological
transfer and investments at home.
Too often, the potential of youth migration is not fully realized because of limited
safe and legal pathways for young people who want to migrate. While adolescent
and youth migration continues in the absence of safe alternatives, it does so
with increasing risks. Undocumented adolescents and youth and those with an
irregular status are most exposed to dangers during their journeys and the denial
of basic rights when they reach their new homes. Young women often face triple
discrimination based on their gender, age and migration status.
Adolescent and youth migrants are at risk of becoming invisible demographics. While
basic data show that these components of migration are significant, comprehensive
and comparable data disaggregated by age are still needed. Legislative and policy
reforms, informed by timely and accurate data, are required to allow these young
people – and their countries of origin, transit and destination – to see the benefits of
their endurance and aspirations.
The Ramos siblings from Guatemala are among millions of children worldwide
whose lives are impacted by migration when their parents seek work abroad.
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A Better Path: Responding to the dangers of migration and displacement for children and families
The dangers that children and families face along their journeys and once they find new homes are not inevitable. They can be mitigated, and there is
ample evidence of successful efforts to do so from around the world. Effective examples include:
All children are entitled to the same protections, regardless of their migration status. In the United Kingdom, local authorities assume
responsibility for, assess and address the needs of unaccompanied children as they would any other child without parental care. Many
other states lag behind on this issue, subjecting migrant children to differential treatment on the basis of their migration status.
90
Children – particularly those travelling without their families or separated from them – have specific vulnerabilities and needs
that require specialized services. In Zambia, government authorities have a process for identifying vulnerable child migrants and
referring them to services.
91
Providing birth registration for all children – regardless of the conditions or place of their birth – is an essential step towards preventing
statelessness. Both UNICEF and UNHCR promote birth registration of refugee and displaced children in camp and non-camp settings,
and UNICEF partners with governments in more than 80 countries to strengthen national systems for registering every birth.
92
The Convention on the Rights of the Child guarantees children a right to be heard in decisions affecting their lives. In Spain, the
Constitutional Court has affirmed this right for unaccompanied children facing deportation, including the right to information
about their options and the potential consequences they face.
93, 94
Children who face migration enforcement should be assisted by agencies and workers that understand the specific needs and
rights of children. Mexico has trained a group of child protection offices in its National Migration Institute, strengthening child-
sensitive migration procedures in the country. Unaccompanied and separated children in South Africa are assigned social workers
to support their care.
95
Determining whether a particular action is in the best interest of a child – a core tenet of the Convention on
the Rights of the Child – requires assessing the needs of each child, taking the child’s perspective into account. France, Belgium,
and Argentina have all established such best-interest determination procedures for children.
96
Children are particularly vulnerable to both physical and psychological violence while in detention, making it a threat to their
well-being. A growing number of countries, including both Panama and Mexico, bar the detention of child migrants.
97
The
Council of Europe Strategy for the Rights of the Child (2016–2021) outlines a commitment to “make every effort to end the
placement of children in immigration detention facilities.
98
Yemen has adopted a community-driven approach, with small-group
”
alternative care homes for child refugees and asylum-seekers.
99
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45
Data gaps about childhood migration and displacement must be addressed
Continual access to health, education and other
social services is vital to both the immediate
and long-term well-being of refugee and
migrant children. Migrant children in Argentina
are explicitly guaranteed access to services
on the same basis as other children.
100
Cities
across the world – including Seoul, Nairobi and
Geneva – ensure that service providers are not
obliged to report on the immigration status
of their clients, making it easier for migrants
with any legal status to seek and receive the
services they need.
101
While this report brings together the best available data about children, migration and
displacement, vital information is still missing. To date, comprehensive global data are
either unavailable or incomplete for issues including:
> Where the world’s child migrants originate;
> The number of children who move – voluntarily or by force – within their own
countries;
> The number of children left in the care of others when their parents migrate;
> The number of children moving between countries within a given time period;
> The number of child migrants in crisis who are not classified as asylum-seekers or
refugees; and
When children return to their countries of origin,
they often need specific support to address
their needs, including reintegration into their
families, their schooling and their communities.
In Ethiopia, children who return to the country
voluntarily are provided with family tracing,
reunification and reintegration support.
102
> Where the world’s child refugees begin their journeys and where they find refuge.
Although some information is available, these data are incomplete for many countries
with large numbers of refugees.
In addition, there is only piecemeal evidence about the journeys and longer-term well-
being of child migrants and refugees. To address the challenges children face before,
during and after they move, more comprehensive and comparable evidence is needed
about:
> The specific routes that children and families take from their home countries;
> Access to justice for children in the context of migration, including the length and
conditions of migration detention, and whether children are afforded due-process
protections or the right to be heard;
> The extent and conditions of child labour and other forms of violence and exploitation
connected to forced and irregular migration. Although the consequences are well
studied, comparable and complete global data are missing; and
> Access of child migrants and refugees to essential services such as health, education
and social protection, especially in low- and middle-income countries.
Without new commitments to close these data and evidence gaps, efforts to identify and
reach some of the world’s most vulnerable children will continue to be hampered.
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Key Legal Protections Related to Children, Migration and Displacement
The Convention on the Rights of the Child
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) incorporates
the full range of human rights that must be protected, respected
and fulfilled for every child. The CRC covers all children, but is a
particularly important instrument for children in contexts of migration
and displacement. It is the most widely ratified human rights treaty
in history. Four articles in the Convention are particularly relevant
to children involved or affected by migration and displacement: the
principle of non-discrimination (Article 2); best interests of the child
(Article 3); right to life and survival and development (Article 6); and
the right to child participation (Article 12). Parties to the Convention are
obliged to respect and ensure all CRC rights for every child within their
jurisdiction, without regard to a child’s migration or other status.
Other Key Protections
•
The 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol provide
protection to refugees, including protections against
discrimination, non-penalization for seeking refuge and
non-refoulement. Article 31 of the Convention declares that
States “shall not impose penalties, on account of their illegal
entry or presence, on refugees who, coming directly from
a territory where their life or freedom was threatened in the
sense of article 1, enter or are present in their territory without
authorization, provided they present themselves without delay
to the authorities and show good cause for their illegal entry
or presence. Article 33 prohibits States Parties from returning
”
any refugee to “territories where his life or freedom would
be threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality,
membership of a particular social group or political opinion.
”
Two of the Protocols supplementing the United Nations
Convention against Transnational Organized Crime relate to
child migration: the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish
Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children; and
the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea
and Air.
The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights
of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families covers
the rights of the children of migrant workers in both regular and
irregular situations during the entire migration process.
Other elements of international human rights law and domestic
laws are critical for the protection of internally displaced
persons, especially in the context of armed conflicts. While not
legally binding, the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement
also establish clear standards for the protection and treatment
of internally displaced persons.*
•
•
•
Together with regional and national frameworks, these global
instruments create a comprehensive set of protections for children.
*Note:
This summary and those that follow in the regional discussions do not cover the full range of applicable protections for children or their families, but are intended only to highlight some of the major instruments and legal developments related to children,
migration and displacement around the world.
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47
FIGURE 1.15
A robust legal framework to protect migrant and refugee children exists, but ratification of some elements is lagging
Number of countries that have ratified key human rights instruments, by region, July 2016
Convention on
the Rights
of the Child
(1989)
Convention relating
to the Status
of Refugees (1951)
and Protocol (1967)
Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish
Trafficking in Persons,
Especially Women
and Children (2000)
Protocol against
the Smuggling
of Migrants by Land,
Sea and Air (2000)
International Convention
on the Protection
of the Rights of
All Migrant Workers
and Members of
Their Families (1990)
Number of countries
Source:
United Nations Treaty Collection; see <http://treaties.un.org> (status as of 13 July 2016).
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6-year-old Maksim, who has been displaced
from the city of Bryanka, in Ukraine, sits in a
room at an accommodation centre for people
displaced by conflict.
© UNICEF/UNI172570/Krepkih
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50
Uprooted
THE REGIONAL
PERSPECTIVE
A young girl in Markazi
refugee camp, Djibouti.
© UNICEF/UNI191321/Matas
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The Regional Perspective
51
The Regional Perspective
The story of global migration is largely a story of intra-regional migration. More than half of
all international migration is made up of movements within regions, and the three largest
migration movements in the world are all intra-regional.
Refugee movements are even more concentrated within regions than general migration.
Africa and Asia together account for the overwhelming majority of the world’s refugees;
they also host the overwhelming majority of the world’s refugees. Today, 9 out of 10 Asian
refugees are hosted in Asia and a similar proportion of African refugees are hosted by other
African countries.
This chapter analyses the highly regional nature of child migration and displacement in more
detail, identifying the dynamics that shape migration and displacement in each of the world’s
five major regions and reviewing some of the most crucial implications for children.
Of the world's child migrants about
1 in 5
1 in 5
2 in 5
1 in 6
lives
lives
in
in the
Africa
Americas
live
in
Asia
lives
in
Europe
About 1 in 50 of the world's child migrants lives in Oceania.
This map does not reflect a position
by UNICEF on the legal status of any
country or territory or the delimitation of
any frontiers. The dotted line represents
approximately the Line of Control in
Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by
India and Pakistan. The final status of
Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been
agreed upon by the parties. The final
boundary between the Sudan and South
Sudan has not yet been determined. The
final status of the Abyei area has not yet
been determined.
Note:
The names and composition of the regions and sub-regions on the map follow those of “Standard country or area codes for statistical use” available at http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49.htm (as of 1 July 2016).
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Eastern Africa
Burundi
Comoros
Djibouti
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mauritius
Mayotte
Mozambique
Réunion
Rwanda
Seychelles
Somalia
South Sudan
Uganda
United Republic
of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Middle Africa
Angola
Cameroon
Central African
Republic
Chad
Congo
Democratic
Republic
of the Congo
Equatorial
Guinea
Gabon
Sao Tome
and Principe
2
Africa
Northern Africa
Western Africa
Eastern Africa
Middle Africa
African migrants is a child
Africa is home to
of the world’s
child migrants
Northern Africa
Algeria
Egypt
Libya
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Western Sahara
Southern Africa
Botswana
Lesotho
Namibia
South Africa
Swaziland
In Africa
refugees are children
Western Africa
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cabo Verde
Cote d'Ivoire
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Liberia
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Saint Helena
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
Southern Africa
All maps in this
section do not
reflect a position by
UNICEF on the legal
status of any country
or territory or the
delimitation of any
frontiers. The final
boundary between
the Sudan and South
Sudan has not yet
been determined.
The final status of the
Abyei area has not yet
been determined.
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2| Africa
53
Migration in Africa
FIGURE 2.1
FIGURE 2.2
African migrants move within the continent and beyond it in
almost equal numbers
International migrants from Africa by region of destination, 2015 (in millions)
Africa has the smallest number of immigrants of any region
International migrants to Africa by region of origin outside of Africa, 2015 (in millions)
Europe
9.2
Europe
1.0
Asia
4.1
Northern America
2.3
Northern America
0.1
Latin America and
the Caribbean
0.1
Oceania
0.5
Asia
1.2
16.2
Within
Africa
Latin America and
the Caribbean
0.0
2.3
Total
Oceania
0.0
16.4
Note:
Globally, there are 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 1.9 million of these are living in Africa. Migrants of unknown origin are not included in these figures.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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54
Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
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FIGURE 2.3
Migration in Western and Eastern Africa usually stays within the
same sub-region
International migrants by region of origin and destination in Africa, 2015 (in millions)
10
Africa’s modern migration story is equally divided between movements
within the continent and those beyond it (Figures 2.1 and 2.2). More
than 16 million Africans are living outside the country of their birth but
still within the continent. In reality, the migration is even more closely
concentrated than that: as seen in Figure 2.3, in both Eastern Africa and
Western Africa, migration is primarily contained within the sub-region.
In Western Africa, much of this movement has been facilitated by the
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) free movement
protocol.
An additional 16 million Africans have migrated from the continent since
birth. The bulk of these migrants have gone to Europe (57 per cent) and
Asia (26 per cent). By a clear margin, more migrants from Northern
Africa leave the continent than from any other African sub-region. This
emigration is led by Egypt, where emigrants primarily move to Gulf
States, and Morocco, whose emigrants largely go to Europe (Figure 2.4).
The countries with the highest percentage of emigration by population
are Cabo Verde, Sao Tome and Principe, Somalia, Lesotho and
Comoros.
103
The prominence of Small Island and Developing States (SIDS)
on this list is in line with the experience of other regions, reflecting the
ongoing sustainability challenges that many SIDS face.
104
e
rop
Eu
4
No
r
Am
thern
eric
a
Latin
1
&
Ca
Am
2
rib
eri
be
ca
0
an
0
8
6
0
2
4
Nor
the
rn
Af
ric
6
a
8
2
10
12
0
Ocea
nia
0
0
2
n
Africa
Wester
6
4
Asia
Of all the world’s regions, Africa is home to the smallest number of
immigrants from other regions. Fewer than 3 million non-Africans are
estimated to be living on the continent.
These different patterns of movement have important implications for
the well-being of children. A high concentration of movements within the
same geographic area (as in Western Africa) is often enabled by regional
agreements, meaning that protective measures for children are most
likely to be successful if aligned with the structures of those regional
agreements. A high level of movements out of the region – as in the case
of Northern Africa – requires very different arrangements for safeguarding
children, including agreements and coordination with authorities outside
the region.
The demography of Africa’s migrants is complex. Overall, Africa has one
of the world’s lowest rates of child migration, with just 1 in 90 African
children living outside their country of birth. This is similar to rates in Asia,
but notably lower than in Europe and Oceania (with rates that are three
and five times higher, respectively). The low rates of child migration are in
sync with Africa’s overall low rate of migration.
2
3
4
5
8
0
1
10
3
4
a
ric
Af
rn
the
Sou
12
2
1
14
0
0
14
Note:
Globally, there are 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 1.9
million of these are living in Africa. Migrants of unknown origin are not included in this figure. See page 26 for
a detailed explanation on how to interpret the chord diagram.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in
International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
2
4
6
Eas
tern
Afric
a
a
ric
Af
le
dd
Mi
1
2
3
4
5
0
8
10
12
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
2| Africa
55
While comparatively few Africans migrate, the people who do move are
younger than migrants in the rest of the world. Africa has the largest
share of children among its migrant population – nearly one in three
immigrants in Africa is a child, more than twice the global average.
Numbers from Middle and Western Africa are particularly notable: Burkina
Faso, Cameroon and Chad are three of only four nations in the world
with a majority of children in its immigrant population.
105
With most of the
world’s population growth in this century expected to occur in Africa, the
already youthful face of migration in Africa is likely to remain.
Many of the current drivers of movement within African countries and
beyond them – a rising population, the need for livelihoods, a changing
climate and intensifying conflicts – show few signs of abating. Combined
with the continent’s expected population growth, migration will become
an increasingly pressing issue for Africa. The best way to capture the
opportunities of Africa’s young and mobile population, while protecting
children from its potential dangers, is by preparing now.
FIGURE 2.5
Key migration routes within Africa are shaped by conflict and
linguistic ties
Thirty largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in
Africa living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
The size of the arrows
indicates the number of
international migrants
1,500,000
1,000,000
750,000
500,000
300,000
200,000
Spain
Italy
United
States
FIGURE 2.4
South Africa and Côte d’Ivoire host
the most immigrants; the largest
numbers of emigrants come from
Egypt and Morocco
A. Top 10 countries with largest numbers
of immigrants or emigrants in Africa, 2015
The largest numbers of child
migrants live in Ethiopia and
Kenya
B. Top 10 countries hosting the
largest numbers of international
migrants under 18 years of age in
Africa, 2015 (in thousands)
Ethiopia
Kenya
South Africa
Burkina Faso
Côte d'Ivoire
Nigeria
South Sudan
Chad
Algeria
Kuwait
Mali
Côte
d'Ivoire
Central
African
Republic
Somalia
Egypt
South Africa
Morocco
Côte d'Ivoire
Somalia
Sudan
Algeria
Burkina Faso
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Nigeria
474
467
429
387
379
371
322
292
277
230
Democratic
Republic
of the Congo
Migrant population (in millions)
Immigrants
Emigrants
Uganda
Egypt
Detailed information on the African
sub-regional pathways appears on the
following page.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants
by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015; and UNICEF analysis based on United Nations, Department of Economic
and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant
Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
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Migration pathways within Africa
Many migration pathways within Africa reflect both the continent’s regional
and linguistic groupings as well as its history of protracted humanitarian
crises (Figure 2.5).
West Africa’s most-trafficked corridors, enabled by the Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS) protocol on free movement,
largely follow Anglophone and Francophone groupings.
Southern Africa’s primary routes are into South Africa, a primary destination
for migrant labour. South Africa is also a common destination for education
migration, with studies showing that nearly one-half of mobile students
within the Southern African Development Community (SADC) are studying
there. This is distinct from education mobility elsewhere in the continent,
which is generally directed towards Europe and Northern America.
106
In Eastern and Central Africa, protracted instability and conflict in Somalia,
South Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo shape the major
movement routes.
The primary pathways of movement out of the continent reflect three
prevailing realities: Egypt’s high emigration rate to the Middle East,
movements from the Horn of Africa into the Arabian Peninsula and Northern
Africa’s position as both an origin and transit point for routes into Europe.
(See more detail on inter-regional movement through the Mediterranean in
Figure 5.6 on page 93.)
Notably, the available data include only countries of origin and final
destination for migrants. The actual routes that migrants traverse are
much more circuitous.
107
There is evidence of increasing use of irregular
routes within Africa – particularly to Northern Africa and sometimes
onward to Europe – with Western African cities serving as intermediary
points during extended journeys further north.
108
Libya, in particular, has a
major movement of migrants (see Issue in Focus later in this section) and
its political turmoil has made conditions for migrant children there more
precarious. For children born as their parents are migrating, or stranded
in countries they did not intend to stay in, access to even the most
basic services is severely restricted.
109
As these journeys or relocations
stretch from months to years, both the immediate well-being and future
opportunities of children are at risk. The particular dangers of these routes
require dedicated attention for all countries of origin, transit and destination.
Displacement and
Forced Migration in Africa
Africa is both the origin and the host of roughly one-third of all refugees
under UNHCR’s mandate. Approximately 5.4 million refugees come
from African countries, and children are disproportionately represented
among them. Some 53 per cent of all African refugees are children –
nearly 3 million children forced from their own countries and confronting
the world’s harshest realities.
Long-standing conflicts and instability are driving forces behind the
largest refugee movements in Africa. The largest number of African
child refugees comes from Somalia, followed by South Sudan, Sudan,
the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic
(See Figure 1.12). Conflicts in each of these countries of origin have
become protracted threats to the well-being of children, whether those
children stay within national borders or flee beyond them.
African countries take on much of the responsibility for hosting Africa’s
refugees (Figure 2.8). Some 86 per cent of African refugees find asylum
in other African countries.
110
Five of the largest refugee populations in the
world are hosted in Africa, led by Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda (See Figure
1.13). The protracted nature of crises in sending countries means that
some of these host countries have shouldered responsibilities for more
than two decades (Figure 2.6). Multiple generations of displaced children
have been born in some of the longest-standing camps.
The countries that take on hosting responsibilities do so with some
of the most limited resources of all destination countries. Of the ten
countries with the highest number of refugees relative to national
resources, seven are African, led by the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Ethiopia and Uganda.
111
In some destination countries, the
economic and social pressures of refugee hosting threaten to uproot
refugees once more. In May 2016, Kenyan authorities announced plans
to close all its refugee camps, including Dadaab, the world’s largest.
By August, the timeline for any closure remained uncertain, but If the
Government follows through on this plan, more than 600,000 people
could be displaced yet again.
112
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57
FIGURE 2.6
Protracted conflicts are responsible for Africa’s largest refugee populations
Refugees from Africa, by country of origin, 2015
Central African Republic
A violent change of government in the Central
African Republic in 2013 has been accompanied
by insecurity throughout the country. Today,
roughly half a million refugees have fled the
country, of whom 58 per cent were children.
Another 450,000 people had been displaced
within the country by the end of 2015.
119
A
high child mortality rate, food insecurity and
the prevalence of domestic violence have all
compounded the challenges that children in the
country face.
Sudan
600,000
Central African
Republic
500,000
Sudan
Decades of armed conflict and violence in Darfur, the Kordofan states,
Blue Nile and Abyei regions had driven 600,000 Sudanese out of the
country by the end of 2015, including an estimated 400,000 child
refugees. Within the country, 2.1 million children under the age of 5
suffer from malnutrition.
115
Children and families have been forced out
of Sudan in search of safety, food security, education, healthcare and
shelter. Employment concerns also propel children in the older age
FIGURE 0.0
group to seek better opportunities in foreign countries.
South Sudan
800,000
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Two wars and more recent outbreaks of violence
had forced more than 500,000 Congolese,
including 300,000 children, outside the country
as refugees by the end of 2015. Some 1.5 million
Congolese were internally displaced at the end
of 2015; in the first half of 2016, this number rose
by another 300,000.
116
Some 2 million children in
the country are acutely malnourished, and lack
of access to basic goods and services, including
education, healthcare, food and shelters for the
internally displaced, have worsened the effects of
violence and insecurity. Children also face direct
threats of recruitment into fighting forces; at least
3,240 children have been confirmed as active in
armed groups.
117
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo
500,000
Somalia
1,100,000
South Sudan
South Sudan is just five years old, but its territory has been racked by
violence for much longer. By the end of 2015, 800,000 South Sudanese
were refugees and another 1.7 million were internally displaced; through
the first seven months of 2016, new outbreaks of violence had increased
the number of refugees by at least 130,000.
113
Conflict and displacement
are exacerbating the deadly effects of malaria, hunger, poverty and water-
borne diseases that continue to take children’s lives. Children are more
disproportionately affected by displacement in South Sudan than nearly
anywhere else in the world – at the end of 2015, a staggering 65 per cent
of all refugees from the country were children.
114
Age 18 and over
Under age 18
Somalia
More than two decades of internal conflict in Somalia have forced
1.1 million Somalis out of the country, half of them children. Adding
to the toll, another 1.2 million people are internally displaced within
the country. Severe acute malnutrition has intensified food security
concerns in the country while outbreaks of polio, measles and cholera
are an additional threat to children’s lives. El Niño, exacerbating
floods in the southern central regions and droughts in Somaliland, has
intensified both international and internal displacement.
118
Note:
Map shows the countries of origin within Africa with the largest numbers of refugees at the end of 2015.
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
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BOX 2.1 INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT IN AFRICA
Internal displacement in Africa compounds the devastating human toll
of the continent’s protracted crises. Four countries in Africa – Nigeria,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic and South
Sudan – were among the top 10 globally for new, violence-induced
internal displacements in 2015.
120
In those four countries alone, 1.7
million people were newly displaced in 2015 by conflict and violence,
accounting for nearly one-fifth of such displacements in the world. In
total, more than 12 million people have been internally displaced by
conflict and violence within Africa – more than twice the number of
African refugees (Figure 2.7).
Each year, disasters add to this toll. The numbers of people affected
by disasters varies considerably from year to year, but Africa remains
highly susceptible to disaster-related internal displacements. In 2013,
flooding across the region displaced more than 1 million people, often in
places already struggling to cope with violence-related displacement.
121
Disaster-related displacements in Africa were lower in 2014, but the
underlying vulnerabilities to hazards persist – evidenced by a rising
number of displacements again in 2015.
122
Continent-wide numbers for children affected by internal displacement
are not available, but data from the Government of Nigeria and the
International Organization for Migration make clear the toll that internal
displacement is taking on children. As of mid-2016, more than 2 million
Nigerians were internally displaced, the vast majority due to conflict that
is spreading across the Lake Chad Basin. Of that number, 55 per cent
are children, meaning that an estimated 1.1 million children in Nigeria
have been forced from their homes; an additional 390,000 children are
displaced in neighbouring Cameroon, Niger and Chad.
123
More than 80
per cent of displaced Nigerians are living in host communities, with the
balance in camps for internally displaced persons. While community
settlements can offer greater freedom of movement and employment
opportunities, services in host communities must be augmented to
provide for all children and families.
These internal displacements are closely tied to the larger discussion
of international migration and displacement in Africa. Children and
families displaced internally endure many of the same threats as
refugees, including violence, disrupted health services, education and
livelihoods, and deteriorating housing and health conditions. Upticks
FIGURE 2.7
There are more than 12 million internally displaced persons in Africa
Conflict-related internally displaced persons in Africa by country, 2015 (in millions)
Sudan
3.2
2.1
1.7
1.5
1.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
Nigeria
South Sudan
Democratic
Republic
of the Congo
Somalia
Libya
Central
African
Republic
Ethiopia
Kenya
Côte d'Ivoire
Note:
Figure shows 10 countries with largest populations of internally displaced persons in Africa.
Source:
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Global Internal Displacement Database, 2015.
in violence, crop failures or cessation of services can all send large
numbers of already displaced people across borders with very limited
notice, straining the capacity of response mechanisms. Most important,
multiple displacements compound the dangers that children and
families face. After risky journeys, people who have been displaced
multiple times are more likely to end up in informal and more dangerous
settlements. Frequent movements also make these families harder
to count, compounding the difficulties of providing the protection and
services they need.
124
Unless the underlying drivers of internal displacement are directly
addressed, they will continue to compound both the consequences
of, and number of people affected by, internal and international
displacement.
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
2| Africa
59
FIGURE 2.8
In 2015, African countries hosted 4.8 million refugees, nearly one-
third of all refugees under UNHCR’s mandate
Fifteen largest populations of refugees from a single country of origin in Africa living
in a single country of destination, 2015
Chad
Sudan
Eritrea
Yemen
Nigeria
Central
African
Republic
South
Sudan
Ethiopia
Cameroon
Somalia
Uganda
Kenya
Rwanda
Burundi
United
Republic
of Tanzania
The size of the arrows
indicates the
number of refugees
500,000
300,000
100,000
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo
Zenabou, 7, at a site for displaced
civilians in Diffa, Niger. Her family
came from Baga, Nigeria and has
been at the site for eight months.
© UNICEF/UN029285/Phelps
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR,
Geneva, 2016.
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60
Uprooted
ISSUE IN FOCUS
Migration detention in Northern Africa
A 2015 report from the North Africa Mixed Migration Task Force
estimates that, in Libya alone, somewhere between 5,000
and 10,000 migrants and refugees were held in detention
facilities in 2014. The percentage of children in that population
remains unknown, but nearly four dozen interviews with
former detainees attest to the virtual absence of basic services
and due process for people facing migration detention in the
country. According to interviewees in the country, women
were at particular risk for sexual violence and abuse by
guards, and sub-Saharan African migrants faced greater risk of
detention than migrants from other regions.
125
As with many of the worst dangers that children face when
they migrate, documenting the extent and details of migration
detention is exceptionally difficult. Individual testimonies
must often tell the stories when numbers cannot. Together, the
individual experiences of children detained because of their
migration status offer a devastating view of the larger picture
of child detention.
12-year-old Sagga, from Eritrea, sits with
other adolescent boys and men in a crowded
cell at the Zawiya detention centre near Tripoli,
Libya. Sagga, together with two friends, left
his homeland in the hope of finding work in
Europe to support his family and have a better
life. Their journey to Libya took 10 months.
© UNICEF/UNI187377/Romenzi
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61
The promise and perils of migration and displacement for children in Africa
As in other regions, when children and families in Africa choose to migrate,
they move with the hope that new homes will offer new and better
opportunities. For some families, those aspirations materialize. For others,
especially families that have been forcibly displaced, movement and
resettlement come with additional dangers for their well-being.
Evidence about the long-term impacts of migration on children in Africa
is extremely limited and the effects are mixed, largely dependent on
family circumstances and the reasons behind a family’s or child’s decision
to move. The immediate and long-term well-being of refugee and other
migrant children also hinges on the migration legislation, policies and
practices in place in their countries of origin, transit and destination.
Whether migration provides a net benefit to the education of child migrants
(or children of migrants), for example, can vary substantially based on
which parent was a migrant, whether the migration was temporary or
permanent, a child’s age at the time of migration and whether a child
moved with family or alone.
126
Further study on health outcomes –
particularly psychological and behavioural impacts – for child migrants and
children affected by migration in Africa is required.
Evidence from other regions suggests that, as with education, the
effects of parental migration without children are likely to be mixed. While
remittances may provide much-needed income to pay for school fees and
other household expenses, whether children benefit from that income
depends largely on the care arrangements they have.
127
While the impacts made by voluntary migration on health and education
require further research, the devastating impacts of conflict and forced
displacement for children in Africa are readily apparent. In addition to the
direct threat of violence as a result of conflict, children forcibly displaced
by conflict face a wide array of health dangers including inadequate access
to water and sanitation, outbreaks of disease, limited access to nutritious
food, interrupted vaccine schedules and long-term psychological trauma. In
education, too, the impacts are clear: 24 million children in conflict zones
worldwide are out of school.
128
Three long-standing conflicts in Africa are
exacting an even higher toll on education for children: well over one-third
of primary and lower-secondary school aged children in South Sudan, Niger
and Sudan are all out of school.
129
All children in these contexts depend on
and deserve concerted action to put an end to these conflicts.
In Africa – as in other regions – children can face a wide range of dangers
when they move across borders. These risks are particularly acute for children
moving on their own, in the midst of crises and on irregular journeys. In
Western and Northern Africa, there is evidence of an uptick in smuggling and
trafficking networks, with their accompanying threats to children, including
violence, abuse and exploitation.
130
In Northern Africa, children travelling
without legal status are frequently subjected to extended and harsh periods of
immigration detention (see Issue in Focus on page 60).
Across the continent, children and families who move without legal status
are also subject to deportation and return. As the global economic crisis
wreaked havoc on many economies in 2008, children and families sought
economic security across borders. That year, more than 280,000 people
were deported from South Africa, a key destination for many seeking
stability.
131
While the absolute number has declined notably since the height
of the crisis, the trend continues elsewhere.
Deteriorating conditions in the Horn of Africa have also led to increases in
children travelling alone to the Middle East in search of opportunity. Like
unaccompanied children in other regions, these children face both perilous
journeys as well as the possibility of return to dangerous conditions in their
home countries.
132
Across the continent, much work remains to help children realize the
benefits of voluntary migration and find greater stability and opportunity
when they are forcibly displaced. Tackling the underlying drivers of
forced migration, maintaining safe and legal pathways for movement,
and adopting inclusive policies and services for all children are essential
elements of this agenda.
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62
Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
2| Africa
Legal frameworks
to protect the rights of child migrants and refugees in Africa
Regional Legal Frameworks
In every region, children’s rights are protected by a robust framework
of international human rights instruments, though ratification of some
elements is uneven. Of these instruments, the Convention on the
Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Their Families has
been ratified by the fewest countries across Africa (Figure 2.9).
In addition to these global instruments, the rights of children in Africa
are covered under various regional and sub-regional frameworks,
notably:
>
The 1981 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and
the 1990 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child,
which lay out a broad range of human rights. Other regional and
sub-regional texts provide protection for the rights of children,
such as the African Youth Charter (2006), ratified by 38 African
countries to protect the human rights of youth.
The Organization of African Unity Convention Governing
the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (1969)
outlines States’ humanitarian responsibilities towards
refugees. The Cairo Declaration in 2000 confirmed the African
Union’s commitment to a human rights approach to migrants,
refugees, displaced persons, the Convention on the Rights of
the Child and child rights.
The 2009 Kampala Convention (The African Union Convention
for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced
Persons in Africa) commits national governments to the
provision of legal protection for the rights of internally
displaced persons. It was the first independent legally binding
regional instrument to impose on States the obligation to
protect and assist those who have been internally displaced.
The Protocol on the Protection and Assistance to Internally
Displaced Persons of the International Conference on the
Great Lakes Region (2006) established a legal framework for
the incorporation of guiding principles into domestic law.
FIGURE 2.9
Number of countries in Africa that have ratified key human rights instruments, July 2016
Convention on
the Rights
of the Child
(1989)
Convention relating
to the Status
of Refugees (1951)
and Protocol (1967)
Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish
Trafficking in Persons,
Especially Women
and Children (2000)
Protocol against
the Smuggling
of Migrants by Land,
Sea and Air (2000)
>
>
International Convention
on the Protection
of the Rights of
All Migrant Workers
and Members of
Their Families (1990)
Number of countries
Ratified
Not ratified
In October 2015 in South Sudan, Nyayjaw, 8,
kisses her baby sister Nyagua, whom she is
meeting for the first time after being reunited
with her family. For two years, the family was
separated by conflict.
© UNICEF/UN014006/Rich
Source:
United Nations Treaty Collection; see <http://treaties.un.org> (status as of 13 July 2016).
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63
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Caribbean
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
Aruba
Bahamas
Barbados
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba
British Virgin Islands
Cayman Islands
Cuba
Curaçao
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Haiti
Jamaica
Martinique
Montserrat
Puerto Rico
Saint-Barthélemy
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Martin
(French part)
Saint Vincent
and the Grenadines
Sint Maarten
(Dutch part)
Trinidad and Tobago
Turks and Caicos
Islands
United States
Virgin Islands
Central America
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
South America
Argentina
Bolivia (Plurinational
State of)
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Falkland Islands
(Malvinas)
French Guiana
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
(Bolivarian Republic of)
Northern America
Bermuda
Canada
Greenland
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
United States
3
The
Americas
Northern America
Caribbean
migrants in the Americas is a child
child migrants in the Americas live
in just three countries: the United States,
Mexico, and Canada
Central America
The Americas are home to
South America
6.3 million
child migrants, 1/5 of the global total
All maps in this
section do not
reflect a position by
UNICEF on the legal
status of any country
or territory or the
delimitation of any
frontiers.
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3| The Americas
65
Migration in the Americas
FIGURE 3.1
FIGURE 3.2
Four out of five migrants with origins in the Americas move
within the region
International migrants from the Americas by region of destination, 2015 (in millions)
More than 27 million migrants have moved into the Americas from
outside the region
International migrants to the Americas by region of origin outside the Americas, 2015 (in millions)
Europe
8.8
Europe
5.7
27.3
Total
Asia
15.9
Asia
0.9
Within the
Americas
Africa
2.3
33.1
7.1
Africa
0.1
Oceania
0.3
Oceania
0.4
FIGURE 3.3
The United States and Canada receive
the most immigrants; the largest num-
bers of emigrants are from Mexico
and Colombia
Top 10 countries with largest numbers of immigrants
and emigrants in the Americas, 2015
United States
Mexico
Canada
Colombia
Argentina
Puerto Rico
Brazil
El Salvador
Cuba
Peru
The largest numbers of child
migrants live in the United
States and Mexico
B. Top 10 countries hosting the largest
numbers of international migrants under
18 years of age in the Americas, 2015
(in millions)
United States
Mexico
Canada
Venezuela
(Bolivarian Republic of)
Argentina
Ecuador
Chile
Brazil
Migrant population (in millions)
Immigrants
Emigrants
Dominican Republic
Costa Rica
Note:
For figures 3.1 and 3.2: Globally, there are 9.8 million international immigrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 3.4 million of these are living in the Americas. Migrants of unknown origin are not included in these figures.
Source for all figures:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015; and UNICEF analysis
based on United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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66
Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
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FIGURE 3.4
Most migration within the Americas ends in Northern America
International migrants by region of origin and destination in the Americas, 2015 (in millions)
Oceania
ia
As
8
10
12
14
16
0
0
2
4
6
Migration in the Americas is more highly concentrated within the region
than in any other part of the world (Figures 3.1 and 3.4). Four out of
five migrants from the Americas move within the region. In total, 33
million people have moved within the continent, making intra-American
migration the third largest population movement in the world (following
intra-Asian and intra-European movements). Much of the movement
within the region ends in Northern America, including a clear majority
of Caribbean migration and nearly all Central American migration. South
American movements are the exception to this pattern; migrants in
South America move in roughly equal proportion within the sub-region,
to Europe and to Northern America.
Just over 7 million migrants have left the Americas for other regions.
Europe is by far the most common destination for migrants from
the Americas; it is home to 80 per cent of migrants who leave the
Americas. By a clear margin, a greater proportion of South American
migrants leave the Americas than migrants from any other sub-region.
Overall, the United States and Canada host the two largest migrant
populations in the region, respectively. When measured relative to
population, that ordering is reversed, with Canada hosting the largest
proportion of migrants in its overall population. By total number, the
largest number of emigrants are from Mexico and the United States. By
proportion of the population, however, the largest emigrant-origin countries
are primarily Caribbean islands, led by Puerto Rico and Jamaica.
133
The Americas are also a major destination region for migrants, hosting
more than 27 million migrants from other regions (Figure 3.2). More
than half of migrants coming into the Americas are from Asia and
roughly one-third are from Europe. The overwhelming majority of
migrants coming to the Americas settle in Northern America.
The age of the migrant population in the Americas looks very different
across sub-regions. Overall, 1 in 10 migrants living in the Americas is
a child, but that average masks two distinct patterns. Children make
up a relatively small proportion of migrants living in Northern America,
South America and the Caribbean (8, 15 and 15 per cent, respectively).
In marked contrast, children make up 43 per cent of all migrants living in
Central America. While the total number of migrants in Central America
is much smaller than in Northern America, its immigrant population is
rising faster.
134
When combined with the very high proportion of children
in the overall migrant population in Central America, this trend will have
increasingly large implications for child well-being in the region.
8
10
12
6
14
4
2
16
18
20
0
a
eric
Am
28
ern
26
rth
No
24
Af
ric
a
22
12
14
0
1
2
30
10
36
38
40
4
2
4
32
34
4
Europe
14
16
0
2
4
6
8
46
12
48
10
50
Car
ibbe
an
rica
me
al
A
r
Cent
Note:
Globally, there are 9.8 million international immigrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 3.4
million of these are living in the Americas. Migrants of unknown origin are not included in this figure. See
page 26 for a detailed explanation on how to interpret the chord diagram.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in
International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
0
2
4
6
8
10
16
18
12
14
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
2
4
ica
er
Am
utn
So
8
52
6
54
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67
Overall, international migrant children in the Americas are a
relatively small proportion of all children. Just 2 per cent of
children in the region live outside the country of their birth.
Again, this average masks different sub-regional realities: 1 in
100 children is a migrant in Latin America and the Caribbean,
while the ratio is five times that in Northern America.
In total, the Americas are home to 6.3 million child migrants,
21 per cent of the global total. As in all other regions, boys
and girls are equally represented in that total. Four out of five
child migrants in the Americas live in just three countries –
the United States, Mexico and Canada (Figure 3.3). These
countries host 59, 12 and 10 per cent of the region’s child
migrants, respectively.
In addition to hosting the largest number of child migrants
within and from the region, the United States hosts the largest
number of child migrants of any country in the world – some
3.7 million children. As with overall migration in the region, the
large number of child migrants in the United States means
that the migration legislation and policy decisions made there
have repercussions throughout the world.
Much of the migration in the Americas is driven by
both positive and negative factors that are common to
many regions. These include aspirational goals of family
reunification, better work, education and livelihood
opportunities – as well as negative motivating factors
including poverty, violence, inequality and discrimination
in their countries of origin. There is, however, a distinctly
dangerous trend for children in recent migration patterns
within the region – a high number of vulnerable children
moving on their own, often fleeing violence in their homes
and communities. This issue is discussed in more detail
below, but is also highlighted here because of its relevance
as part of the overall pattern of migration in the region.
FIGURE 3.5
The most travelled migration corridors in the Americas all head toward
the United States
Thirty largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in the
Americas living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
Canada
United
States
United
Kingdom
Mexico
Cuba
Haiti
Honduras Jamaica
Guatemala
Nicaragua
El Salvador
Costa Rica
Puerto Rico
Dominican
Republic
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela
(Bolivarian
Republic of)
Colombia
Spain
Guyana
The size of the arrows
indicates the number of
international migrants
15,000,000
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
750,000
500,000
200,000
Ecuador
Peru
Brazil
Bolivia
(Plurinational
State of)
Chile
Paraguay
Argentina
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends
in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
The very specific nature of migration within the Americas is reflected
in its major migration corridors. The three most travelled migrant
corridors in the region – originating in Mexico, Puerto Rico and El
Salvador, respectively – all head to the United States. This high
concentration of movement toward just one country means that the
migration policies and procedures adopted there have wide-ranging
impacts on movement throughout the region.
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3| The Americas
Displacement and Forced Migration in the Americas
Refugees
By the end of 2015, there were more than 453,000 refugees from the
Americas. Three-quarters of all those refugees came from Colombia,
135
a result of five decades of internal conflict that began in the mid-
1960s. Promisingly, the Colombian Government signed a peace accord
with the country’s largest insurgent group in August 2016, marking
tremendous progress towards a permanent resolution of the conflict
and igniting hope that many of those displaced by the conflict may be
able to return home. The second largest origin country for refugees in
the Americas is Haiti, with nearly 35,000 refugees. Children made up
half (approximately 170,000) of Colombian refugees, and much smaller
proportions of refugees from the other origin countries in the region.
As in other regions, most refugees in the Americas have found new
homes within the same region. Three-quarters of refugees from the
Americas have received asylum in Latin America and the Caribbean
(primarily in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and in Ecuador); an
additional 100,000 refugees from the Americas have settled in Northern
America (primarily in the United States and Canada).
137
As of the end of 2015, nearly 747
,000 refugees from all regions lived
in the Americas: approximately 273,000 of those refugees had settled
in the United States and another 136,000 in Canada (Figure 3.6). An
additional 286,000 people are awaiting decisions on their asylum
applications in the United States, meaning that the proportion of those
applications that are eventually granted could significantly alter the
number of refugees in the country. Overall, the Americas currently host
just under 5 per cent of all refugees under UNHCR’s mandate.
Internally Displaced People
More than 7 million people are considered internally displaced by conflict
.3
in the Americas. As with refugees within the region, the clear majority of
internally displaced persons within the Americas are from Colombia (6.3
million, 86 per cent of conflict-induced internal displacements in the region).
These numbers, however, must be interpreted very cautiously. While internal
displacement remains a major issue within Colombia, the available data reflect
all people who were estimated to have been displaced over the course of
more than five decades of conflict, even if they are deceased or no longer
believed to be displaced. This means that the estimates are likely to be
significantly overstated.
138
Other countries in the region with large numbers of conflict-related internal
displacements include El Salvador (289,000), Guatemala (251,000), Mexico
(287
,000) and Honduras (174,000). The violence in these four countries is
significant, not only for internal displacement, but also because these four
countries are the origin of the most unaccompanied and separated children
apprehended by immigration authorities at the southern border of the United
States.
The Americas are also susceptible to natural hazard–induced internal
displacements from a wide range of disasters including earthquakes, tsunamis
and hurricanes. The number of individuals whose lives are disrupted by such
causes varies substantially year to year, but 1.5 million people in Latin America
and the Caribbean were internally displaced by natural hazards in 2015 alone.
139
Although internal disaster displacement can be shorter term than internal
conflict displacement, it is not always necessarily the case. In Haiti, more than
62,000 people internally displaced there by a major earthquake in 2010 are still
living in internal displacement camps, exposed to health risks, violence and
extreme deprivation.
140
Deportation and the risk of statelessness in the Dominican Republic
A 2013 Constitutional Court ruling in the Dominican Republic reversed the country’s long-
standing recognition of Dominican citizenship for children born in the country to immigrant
parents. The ruling poses serious threats to the well-being of primarily Haitian-origin
families living in the country. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees, the Court’s action had profound impacts on the children of Haitian immigrants,
denying them birth certificates and identity documents.
136
Since the ruling, requirements
for the regularization of immigration status have been implemented and deportations have
been initiated for people whose status has not been regularized. Other legislative changes,
promoted by the Government since the ruling, have reduced the number of potentially
affected people.
A five-year-old boy and his foster mother, Jules, stand
outside their home on Haiti’s north-eastern border with the
Dominican Republic. Jules, who used to cross daily into the
Dominican Republic to buy and sell goods, found the boy
naked and alone, possibly abandoned or lost while being
smuggled across the border. Jules took him to the Haitian
Police and waited for his parents to find him. No one came,
so she was permitted to take him home to live with her.
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69
FIGURE 3.6
In 2015, there were approximately 750,000 refugees and roughly
350,000 asylum-seekers throughout the Americas
Refugees and asylum-seekers in the Americas, by country of destination, 2015
Canada
200,000
United States
600,000
Asylum seekers
Refugees
Venezuela
(Bolivarian Republic of)
200,000
Ecuador
100,000
Note:
Numbers are rounded to 100,000.
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
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ISSUE IN FOCUS:
Unaccompanied and separated children on the move in the Americas
Between October 2008 and July 2009, just over 3,300 unaccompanied
and separated children from Honduras, Guatemala and El Salvador were
apprehended by immigration authorities at the southern border of the United
States. Between October 2013 and June 2014, that number had skyrocketed
to nearly 52,000.
141
While this number fell the following year, with a rise in
immigration enforcement measures, current trends indicate that the number of
children attempting to cross into the United States alone is rising again.
This rise in the number of children fleeing desperate circumstances in their
home countries is a threat to the well-being of children in the Americas. There
is little disagreement among experts about why these children are moving.
According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office, migration experts
agree that “a combination of crime and violence, economic concerns, poor
educational systems, and the desire for family reunification” are behind the
large numbers of children seeking new futures further north.
142
Children face
particularly high risks of gang-related recruitment, violence and extortion in
many countries.
There is ample evidence to support this consensus, based on both the
conditions in the sending countries and the testimonies of children themselves.
According to testimony given in 2014 by the President of Honduras before the
U.S. Congress, more than three-quarters of unaccompanied child migrants
from Honduras came from the country’s most violent cities – a simple but
damning statement about the conditions children are leaving.
143
The pull of
family reunification is also clear – among children crossing the border of
the United States on their own, significant portions from all major sending
countries had at least one parent living in the United States (in 2013, 22 per
cent of children from Mexico, 49 per cent from El Salvador, 27 per cent from
Guatemala and 47 per cent from Honduras).
144
Overall, 58 per cent of the 404
children interviewed about their journeys indicated that they had been forcibly
displaced from their homes because they had suffered or were under threat
of harm.
145
Nearly half of the children interviewed had been subjected to some
sort of violence outside the home while one in five children had been abused
by a caregiver or someone else in the home.
146
STORY 3.1
A DREAM DENIED
At the age of 16, Alexis and a cousin packed their meager belongings
and headed north, hoping to escape the bitter poverty in which they
were raised. Like tens of thousands of other children from Central
America, they hoped to make it to the United States. For Alexis, the
journey ended in Mexico, when he fell off a freight train and lost his
right leg – not an uncommon injury on the notorious route.
Now, he is back home – a wood and corrugated iron shack built on
a slope that turns into mud every time it rains. His mother and his
teenage siblings work odd jobs when they can find them, harvesting
chilies, taking care of other people’s children or helping out in food
stalls. Getting to the United States, was about more than just “an
American dream, says Alexis. “It’s about getting out of the country,
”
which has so much poverty. I wanted to get there and work and help
my brothers and my mother.
”
Alexis is convinced his own siblings will eventually try to head north
just as he did. “For the same reason I left here, my brothers and
sisters could do the same one day, because of poverty, because you
sometimes spend days without eating. There’s not enough money
to go to college, only to primary school, then it’s over. He fears for
”
the future: “That things continue the way they are. That my siblings
continue to live this way, with this poverty. It would be horrible.
”
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71
For too many children, the threats they face do not end when they leave their
home countries. As they make their way north – often paying their way through
dangerous routes by using exploitative smuggling networks – children are
subject to further violence, abuse and exploitation. Evidence indicates an
increase in both girls travelling alone as well as both boys and girls travelling
alone at younger ages,
147
intensifying their vulnerability both along the route and
upon arrival.
When children do make it to the border and are apprehended by immigration
authorities, they are not assured protection. Despite the dangerous conditions
many of these children are escaping and their legitimate protection concerns,
few are granted refugee status. When unaccompanied children are apprehended
in the United States, their legal recourse depends on their country of origin.
Unaccompanied children from Mexico or Canada can be almost immediately
deported unless they are able to establish a claim for protection within 48
hours. Children from non-contiguous countries are legally entitled to see
an immigration judge to petition for humanitarian relief from removal.
148
In practice, severe deficiencies have been identified – including by the U.S.
Government Accountability Office – in the way vulnerable children’s rights are
addressed at the border.
149
Those deficiencies have included extended periods of
detention while awaiting immigration proceedings and limited access to legal
representation for unaccompanied children.
150
Just one-third of unaccompanied
children have had legal representation during legal proceedings, significantly
lowering their chances of successfully navigating the system.
151
Whether a
shortcoming of policy or of practice, it is vulnerable children who pay the price.
STORY 3.2
THE ANGUISH OF NOT KNOWING
“He was an intelligent boy. He was always first in school…he loved to
draw.” Francisco Salguero speaks of his youngest son, Erick, in the past
tense, but says he is convinced the boy is alive. He holds back his tears
as he recalls how he allowed Erick to travel from El Salvador to the United
States, with the help of a coyote – a human smuggler – eight years ago. The
boy was supposed to join his mother who lived in the United States.
“I let him go because I wanted a future for him, but it turned out not to be a
future, but a nightmare.” A few weeks after leaving El Salvador, Erick called
his father to let him know he made it safely to Mexico City. That was the last
time Salguero spoke to him. He was later told the boy had “stayed behind”
in the harsh desert leading to the US border. “One feels bad thinking ‘where
could he be? What might have happened?”
In 2009, one year after Erick had disappeared, Salguero travelled with other
parents from Central America looking for children who had disappeared on
the way to the United States, but found no clues about the fate of his son.
Every year, parents of missing migrants form a bus caravan across Mexico
to look for their loved ones. Human rights groups say thousands of migrants
disappear every year in Mexico, victims of the desert, of violent crime,
or of human trafficking. Occasionally a relative who had simply failed to
communicate with his family is tracked down. Salguero is convinced that will
be the case for his son. “I trust that our Lord has him in good hands. I believe
he is alive and that God will give us an answer.”
Three siblings from Honduras travel north,
expecting to cross the border to the United
States to reunite with their family.
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The promise and perils of migration for children in the Americas
Children and families in the Americas – just as in other regions – face both
opportunity and, for too many, danger when they decide to move. Those
dangers are especially pronounced for families that have been forcibly
displaced or are travelling with uncertain legal status. The issues outlined
below highlight small pieces of a much larger body of evidence about
the ways in which children and families in the Americas are affected by
migration. Many of those impacts are influenced by the specific situations
of families – although all are shaped by the migration policies, legislation and
practices in place in the countries where children begin, continue and end
their journeys.
Negative impacts of migration enforcement
The border between Mexico and the United States is a crucial hub of
migration activity within the region and the policies and enforcement
procedures in place there have cascading impacts on children throughout the
region. A notable rise in the number of families as well as unaccompanied
children attempting to cross into the United States in recent years has driven
up the total number of children impacted by these policies, whether they are
stranded by smugglers in a border area, detained on arrival or returned to
their countries of origin.
Between fiscal years 2009 and 2013, more than 20,000 children were
returned from the United States to their countries of origin.
152
Other children
and families returned by their own choice. The impacts of those returns
varies, depending in part the conditions under which migrants return,
their age and time spent in the host country, experience having lived in a
‘home’ country, familiarity with return-country language and return-country
services for returning migrants.
153,154
The experience of forcible return among
Mexicans in the United States – either children who are deported or those
who remain in the country following the deportation of a parent – has been
found to place a range of burdens on a child including: both short- and long-
term economic instability, emotional distress from separation and possible
disassociation with immigrant heritage.
155
Research on children whose parents have been arrested or detained during
migration enforcement shows negative impacts to children’s emotional well-
being and behaviours, with more than two-thirds of children experiencing
changed eating or sleeping patterns. Near-majorities of children reported
increased fear and anxiety as a result of enforcement actions against their
parents. The long-term impacts on children depended on several factors
including the length of time of a parent’s detention.
156
Children in Mexican immigrant households have described fear about
the stability of their families as well as confusion about immigration and
the impact of their legal status on their lives.
157
Deportations are found to
permanently affect these children even if they continue to live with both
parents.
158
However, despite some reported problems of educational
documentation for children residing in Mexico who previously attended
school in the United States, other research has found that these students
are able to successfully transition to schooling in Mexico.
159
At a practical
level, children whose parents are detained or deported must often fend for
themselves, fighting legal and practical battles no child should ever face.
Different outcomes from different beginnings
As a region, the Americas are both a major origin of migrant children as
well as a major host of migrants from other parts of the world. In the
United States and Canada, two major recipients of migrants from outside
the region, there is considerable evidence showing different outcomes
for migrants and migrant children from different backgrounds and regions.
In Canada, for example, there is research showing that first-generation
migrants from many parts of Asia and Africa attend post-secondary
education at higher rates than native-born Canadians, often in spite of key
factors that traditionally limit access to higher education. First-generation
migrants from Latin America and the Caribbean, however, attend at lower
rates.
160
Similar results came from a 2005 study in the United States, where
children of Mexican, Laotian and Cambodian immigrants had the most
significant disadvantages in education while those from China and other
Asian backgrounds had better results.
161
Notably, the research showed that
even though some groups of second-generation students have yet to catch
up, much of the gap that remains can be attributed to the socio-economic
status of their parents. Irregular legal status, barriers to services and
discrimination can all weigh in against children’s chances of catching up.
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73
Remittance benefits from parental migration
Evidence from the Americas paints a more uniformly positive picture of
the benefits of migration than the evidence from some other regions. In
some cases in Latin America, remittances have been shown to benefit
children who remain at home while their parents migrate, raising their
standard of living and increasing access to social services.
162
In Ecuador,
research found a positive effect of remittances on short-term and
middle-term nutritional status of children.
163
A study in the Dominican
Republic showed that remittances result in an increase in girls’ school
attendance, with secondary school–age children and younger siblings
gaining the most from the receipt of remittances.
164
As in other regions,
it is likely that some of these remittance benefits are offset by the
negative effects of parents being absent from the home while working
abroad. Changes in guardianship arrangements have been shown
elsewhere to influence both negative behavioural patterns as well as
schooling and subsequent bonding with parents.
FIGURE 3.7
Legal frameworks
to protect the rights of child refugees and migrants in the Americas
In every region, children’s rights are protected by a robust framework of international
human rights instruments, although ratification of some elements is uneven. The United
States – the host of the largest number of migrant children in the region and globally –
remains the only country in the world that has not ratified the Convention on the Rights
of the Child (CRC). Across the Americas, the International Convention on the Protection
of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Their Families has been ratified by the fewest
countries (Figure 3.7).
Regional Legal Frameworks
In addition to the CRC and other key global instruments, regional legal frameworks within
the Americas include:
>
The Americas Declaration on the Rights and Duty of Man, which was adopted in
1948 and covers civil and political rights, includes three labour and social rights: the
right to health, education and work. Similarly, the American Convention on Human
Rights (1978) focuses on civil and political rights.
Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ‘Protocol of San Salvador’ (1988) provides for
economic, social and cultural rights. Article 15 covers the rights to formation and
protection of families (children’s health) and Article 16 specifically covers the rights
of children (the rights to protection, family unity and education).
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights Advisory Opinion (2014): Rights and
Guarantees of Children in the Context of Migration and/or In Need of International
Protection, reiterates that child rights ‘should prevail over any consideration of her
or his nationality or migratory status’. The Advisory Opinion also refers specifically
to unaccompanied or separated children, noting that ‘States may not resort to
the deprivation of liberty of children who are with their parents, or those who are
unaccompanied or separated from their parents, as a precautionary measure in
immigration proceedings’. The Court’s Advisory Option on Juridical Condition and
Rights of the Undocumented Migrants (2003) on the Legal Status and Rights of
Undocumented Migrants declared that ‘States cannot discriminate or tolerate
discriminatory situations to the detriment of migrants’.
The Cartagena Declaration (1984), adopted by the Colloquium on the International
Protection of Refugees in Central America, Mexico and Panama, goes beyond
the scope of the 1951 Refugee Convention and 1967 Protocol relating to the
Status of Refugees, by including ‘persons who have fled their country because
their lives, safety or freedom have been threatened by generalized violence,
foreign aggression, internal conflicts, massive violation of human rights or other
circumstances which have seriously disturbed public order’.
Number of countries in the Americas that have ratified key human rights
instruments, July 2016
Convention on
the Rights
of the Child
(1989)
Convention relating
to the Status
of Refugees (1951)
and Protocol (1967)
Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish
Trafficking in Persons,
Especially Women
and Children (2000)
Protocol against
the Smuggling
of Migrants by Land,
Sea and Air (2000)
Latin America
and the
Caribbean
Northern
America
Ratified
Not ratified
>
>
>
International Convention
on the Protection
of the Rights of
All Migrant Workers
and Members of
Their Families (1990)
Number of countries
Source:
United Nations Treaty Collection; see <http://treaties.un.org> (status as of 13 July 2016).
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Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan’
Eastern Asia
China
China, Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region
China, Macao Special
Administrative Region
Democratic People’s Republic
of Korea
Japan
Mongolia
Republic of Korea
South-Eastern Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
Indonesia
Lao People’s
Democratic Republic
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
Southern Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Western Asia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Cyprus
Georgia
Iraq
Israel
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
State of Palestine
Syrian Arab Republic
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
4
Asia
Central Asia
Asia is home to
Eastern Asia
Western
Asia
Southern
Asia
South-Eastern
Asia
out of
refugees from Asia
find refuge within Asia
All maps included in
this section are stylized
and not to scale. They
do not reflect a position
by UNICEF on the legal
status of any country or
area or the delimitation
of any frontiers. The
dotted line represents
approximately the Line
of Control agreed upon
by India and Pakistan.
The final status of Jam-
mu and Kashmir has
not yet been agreed
upon by the parties.
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
4| Asia
75
Migration in Asia
FIGURE 4.1
FIGURE 4.2
Nearly 60 per cent of all Asian migrants move within the region
International migrants from Asia by region of destination, 2015 (in millions)
More than 90 per cent of migration into Asia comes from either Europe
or Africa
International migrants into Asia by region of origin, 2015 (in millions)
Europe
6.9
Europe
20.2
Northern America
15.5
Latin America
and the Caribbean
0.3
Oceania
3.0
Africa
4.1
Africa
1.2
Northern America
0.5
Latin America
and the Caribbean
0.4
12.1
Total
Oceania
0.1
40.3
FIGURE 4.3
Within Asia
59.4
Saudi Arabia and the United Arab
Emirates receive the most immigrants;
the largest numbers of emigrants
come from India and China
A. Top 10 countries with largest numbers of
immigrants and emigrants in Asia, 2015
India
Saudi Arabia
China
United Arab
Emirates
Bangladesh
Pakistan
Philippines
Syrian Arab
Republic
Afghanistan
Kazakhstan
Migrant population (in millions)
Immigrants
Emigrants
The largest numbers of
child migrants live in Saudi
Arabia and Jordan
B. Top 10 countries hosting the
largest numbers of international
migrants under 18 years of age in
Asia, 2015 (in millions)
Saudi Arabia
Jordan
United Arab
Emirates
Lebanon
Pakistan
Turkey
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
Thailand
Kuwait
Kazakhstan
Note:
For figures 4.1 and 4.2: Globally, there are 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 3.6 million of these are living in Asia. Migrants of unknown origin are not included in these figures.
Source for all figures:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015; and UNICEF analysis based on United Nations,
Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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76
Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
4| Asia
FIGURE 4.4
Asia is the birthplace of 43 per cent of all the world’s migrants – some
104 million people as of 2015. As in other regions, the majority of Asian
migrants move within the region (Figure 4.1). More than 59 million Asians
are living outside the country of their birth, but still within the continent.
Despite Asia’s wide geographic spread, there is a considerable amount
of movement between sub-regions, with the largest single movement of
people within the continent moving from Southern Asia to Western Asia.
The substantial population, wide variety of contexts and geographic
expanse of Asia make it particularly difficult to find generalizable
patterns in the region’s migration. While Asia does have intensive rates
of intra-regional migration, these same factors may still contribute to
under-researched cultural barriers to integration even in the context of
movements within the region.
In line with their large total populations, India and China are the Asian
countries with the largest absolute numbers of migrants living abroad
(Figure 4.3). Proportional to their population, the State of Palestine,
Armenia and the Syrian Arab Republic have the largest percentage of
their populations living outside their current borders.
54
56
0
52
85
64
44
Half of all Asian migrants who move within the region live in
Western Asia
International migrants by region of origin and destination in Asia, 2015 (in millions)
Africa
6
24
2
22
20
01234
5
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1
41
61
82
02
2
18
e
16
op
ur
2
14
E
1
24
8
6
10
W
es
te
rn
26
28
30
As
ia
32
34
Lat
i
&
C
n
Am
ari
eri
14
bb
ca
16
ea
0
n
4
36
2
38
0
40
4
42
More than 40 million Asian migrants have found new homes outside the
continent. Half of these migrants move to Europe, making up the world’s
second largest movement of people between major regions. An additional
15.5 million Asians have moved to Northern America.
165
There is a strong
sub-regional pattern in these movements – migrants from Eastern, South-
Eastern and Southern Asia are much more likely to move to Northern
America, while migrants leaving Central and Western Asia are more likely to
find new homes in Europe (Figure 4.4).
Just over 12 million migrants have moved from other regions into Asia. Nine
of ten migrants coming into the region are from either Europe or Africa (with
6.9 and 4.1 million migrants, respectively) (Figure 4.2).
Because of Asia’s large overall population, its child migration numbers point
in two seemingly contradictory directions: it is home to the largest total
number of child migrants in the world, but its children migrate at one of the
lowest rates of all major regions. There are a total of 12 million child migrants
living in Asia, 16 per cent of all migrants in the region. While these 12 million
children make up 39 per cent of the world’s child migrants, this proportion is
notably below Asia’s 56 per cent share of the global child population.
The gap between these shares is driven by the relatively low rates of
migration for Asian children: just 1 in 110 of the continent’s children live
0
2
4
6
8
10
1
2
Northe
Ameri
rn
ca
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Central
Asia
20
6
18
14
1
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Note:
Globally, there are 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 3.6 million of these are living in Asia.
Migrants of unknown origin are not included in this figure. See page 26 for a detailed explanation on how to interpret the chord diagram.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants
by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
32
34
36
50
44
46
48
0
42
38
4
0
2
4
6
8
10
1
2
So
uth
-Ea
ste
rn
A
sia
14
ut
So
rn
he
20
22
24
26
28
30
1
61
82
0
22
24
26
28
Oceania
0123
0
2
4
ia
As
tern
Eas
6
8
10
12
14
16
ia
As
18
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
4| Asia
77
outside the country where they were born. This is approximately the
same rate of child migration as in Africa, and well below the rates in
Oceania, Northern America and Europe. Regardless of the proportion of
children migrating in Asia or beyond it, the total number of children who
are moving makes child migration an issue that the region cannot ignore.
The primary destinations for migrant children in Asia are indicative of
two large trends influencing overall movement in the continent: labour
migration and conflict-related displacement. Saudi Arabia hosts the
largest number of child migrants in all of Asia and the second-highest
number of child migrants in the world, after the United States. Two other
Gulf States, the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait, are also among the
top hosts of child migrants in Asia. The large numbers of child migrants
in these countries is in line with their very high levels of labour migration,
although more data are needed to understand how these children are
connected to the sub-region’s labour migration.
166
Other Asian countries hosting large numbers of child migrants – including
Jordan, Lebanon, Pakistan and Turkey – are all hosts to large numbers
of child refugees, pushed out of their homes by conflict and violence
in places including the Syrian Arab Republic and Afghanistan. The high
numbers of overall child migrants (which includes child refugees) in these
host countries is a reflection of the continuing toll of conflict rather than a
trend of voluntary child movement.
While labour migration and forced displacement have complicated
implications for child well-being, there is one final trend in Asian
migration with much clearer, better impacts for young people:
education migration. Asian students now account for more than half
of all students studying abroad worldwide, with the largest numbers
of students coming from China, India and the Republic of Korea.
Students are also coming into Asia for tertiary education. The share of
mobile students studying within the Arab States more than doubled
between 1999 and 2013, rising from 12 to 30 per cent.
167
In Asia, as in other regions, moving to a new country can offer great
opportunity or tremendous peril for children. Whether Asian children are
able to benefit from the great potential of their own education migration
or their parents’ labour migration – or if they feel only the harsh effects of
forced migration – depends on the decisions of today’s leaders. Decisive
action to tackle the root causes of conflict, strong and enforceable
protections for labour migrants and their families, and enhanced
cooperation for education migration are just three of the elements
needed to make sure that migration benefits children and young people.
FIGURE 4.5
Key migration routes within Asia are shaped by labour migration,
historical ties, and conflict
Thirty largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in
Asia living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
Russian Federation
Germany
Kazakhstan
Uzbekistan
Turkey
Lebanon
State of
Palestine
Syrian Iran (Islamic Republic of)
Afghanistan
Arab
Republic
Jordan
Pakistan
Kuwait
Saudi Arabia
United
Arab
Emirates
India
China
United
China, Hong Kong States
Special Administrative
Region
Republic
of Korea
Lao People's
Democratic
Republic
Bangladesh
Myanmar
Thailand
Viet Nam
Philippines
Malaysia
Singapore
The size of the arrows indicates
the number of international migrants
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
500,000
Indonesia
The Asian migration corridors that have been used most commonly over the last several years reflect many of the same
trends shaping child migration, including conflict and labour migration. The busiest migration pathway – between India
and the United Arab Emirates – is one of several that reflect the tremendous amount of labour migration within Asia.
Other corridors, including the one linking Afghanistan and Iran, are testimony to the large volume of conflict-induced
migration between Asian countries. Other prominent corridors are reminders of the complicated historical and cultural
ties that continue to link many Asian neighbours.
While they are not yet reflected in the long-term data, newer, crisis-related corridors between Asia and other regions
have gained increased attention. The Middle East features prominently as both a destination (for forced migration from
the Horn of Africa in particular) and a point of origin (from the Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq into Europe) for some of
these newer pathways. (See the Africa and Europe regional overviews for more detail on these routes.)
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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78
Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
4| Asia
Displacement and Forced Migration in Asia
Asia is both the origin of and host to more than half of the world’s
refugees. The three largest groups of refugees in the world – Palestinian,
Syrian and Afghan – are all from Asia. In total, there are 14.8 million
refugees from the region – 9.6 million under UNHCR’s mandate and an
additional 5.2 million Palestinian refugees under the mandate of UNRWA.
A small number of Asian countries shoulder a tremendous portion of the
global responsibility for hosting refugees. Five of the six countries hosting
the largest number of refugees in the world are in Asia – led by Turkey,
Pakistan and Lebanon. Lebanon and Jordan also host the world’s highest
percentage of refugees relative to their own populations.
168
Nearly one in
every five people in Lebanon is now a refugee under UNHCR’s mandate.
As in Africa, many of the countries hosting large numbers of refugees
have been doing so for decades, making their contributions to global
responsibility sharing even more pronounced. In total, nearly 90 per cent of
Asia’s refugees find asylum in other parts of Asia (Figure 4.8).
Protracted conflicts and long-standing political crises are responsible for
the situations faced by most of Asia’s refugees (Figure 4.6). From decades
of both chronic and acute violence endangering Palestinians to the past
five years of open conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic, children continue to
suffer devastating effects from Asia’s crises. Children make up 48 per cent
of all refugees
169
from Asia, including half of all Syrian and Afghan refugees,
and somewhat lower proportions from Myanmar and Iraq (40 and 34 per
cent, respectively).
170
Children make up 58 per cent of all refugees from
Pakistan, the highest proportion in the region.
171
Turkey is the largest host of refugees under UNHCR’s mandate in Asia and
in the world, but age-disaggregated data about refugees hosted there are
not available, making it difficult to reliably calculate the exact number of
child refugees living in Turkey or Asia more generally. Likewise, information
about the precise number and percentage of children among registered
Palestinian refugees is not publicly available, further complicating efforts to
arrive at a regional total. Filling these and other data gaps are crucial steps
to effective monitoring of the well-being of children throughout the region.
STORY 4.1
SEARCHING FOR SAFER SHORES
hoped to make it to Malaysia, where
they wanted to seek help from
fellow Rohingyas who had reached
there earlier. In the end, they spent
several months at sea.
“We wanted to go to school, our
parents said we must have a good
future but we couldn’t go to school
[at home]. Can we go to school
here?” asks the youngest sister,
Seemal.
“We are happy to be in Indonesia,
people [here] are good to us and
they don’t try to hurt us,” Mira
says, adding that she wishes they
could find a way to let their parents
know that they are safe. Just
mentioning her mother and father
is overwhelming the 15-year old.
Covering her face with her scarf she
starts to cry, she says “I don’t want
to return to Myanmar but I hope I’ll
see my parents again.”
“My name is Mira*, I am 15 years
old. These are my sisters Alma* who
is 14, and Seemal*. She is 13,” the
oldest girl explains.
The sisters come from a small
village in Myanmar, where their
parents still live. They have made
their way to Indonesia through one
of the world’s most dangerous sea
voyages. “Our parents sent us away
to save us, because the military
threatened us, they wanted to rape
us,” Alma says, adding that she and
her sisters had to abandon school
for fear about their safety.
The girls are among the 112
unaccompanied Rohingya children
who landed on the shores of Aceh in
2015, after their boats were pushed
out of Malaysian and Thai waters.
“We thought the journey would be
easy,” Mira says. They had initially
*Not their real names
A young girl holds a railing outside her family’s
partially destroyed home in Gaza City.
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79
BOX 4.1 INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT IN ASIA
Conflicts in many Asian countries, high susceptibility to natural hazards and a
large population all contribute to the huge toll of internal displacement within
Asia. 19.2 million people have been internally displaced by violence across Asia,
a staggering 47 per cent of the global total for similar internal displacements
(Figure 4.7). Together, the Syrian Arab Republic, Iraq and Yemen account for
nearly one-third of the world’s total of conflict-induced internal displacements.
Other parts of the region are highly vulnerable to internal displacement caused
by natural disasters. While the number of people internally displaced by natural
disasters varies significantly by year, the general trend of disproportionate impact
in Asia does not. In 2015, East Asia and the Pacific and Southern Asia had 85
per cent of all disaster-related internal displacements. Given the global average
of more than 25 million disaster-related internal displacements per year,
172
Asian
children will continue to confront internal displacement and its attendant dangers
each year unless dramatic action is taken to curb climate change, improve urban
planning and address disaster risk reduction.
STORY 4.2 WAITING FOR ‘BEFORE’
“I miss home. I miss school. I miss
everything there”, 14-year-old Elias
Jameel sums up the challenge of
living in a makeshift settlement at
the outskirts of Sana’a, the Yemeni
capital, after being displaced
because of intensive fighting in his
home in Taiz, about 230 kilometres
away.
Elias was in grade four when the
fighting reached his hometown
last year. “We were really
scared,” he said. “Everything
closed down, we could not get
food or even water”. During a
short lull in the fighting, Elias’s
parents decided to leave Taiz and
headed toward Sana’a. Though
they had nowhere to stay in the
city, they just boarded a car and
came.
They have since made a new
home in a temporary settlement
on the outskirts of the city. He
says they keep piling wood and
stones on top of the tent so that it
is not blown away by heavy winds.
“Home was much better than this
place,” he says, “because there
we have our own things but here
we have nothing.”
Elias’s single wish is for peace
to come so that he and his family
can return home. “I want peace
so that I can go to school again. I
want the good food and the good
water just like before”.
Elias, in August 2016.
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
4| Asia
FIGURE 4.6
Protracted conflicts are responsible for Asia’s largest refugee populations
Refugees from Asia, by country or territory of origin, 2015
Afghanistan
More than a decade of armed conflict in Afghanistan had forced 2.7
million Afghans to leave their country by the end of 2015; one in every
two of those Afghan refugees was a child. Frequent natural hazards
such as flooding, avalanches and earthquake exacerbate the likelihood
of internal displacement for Afghan children and add to the dangers
they face. Afghanistan’s long-standing insecurity and low human
development indicators are additional factors weighing on many
families’ decisions to leave the country. Afghan refugees are living
FIGURE 0.0
primarily in Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Syrian Arab
Republic
4.9 million
Afghanistan
2.7 million
Myanmar
0.5 million
Syrian Arab Republic
Five years of relentless conflict in the Syrian Arab
Republic had forced more than 4.9 million Syrians
beyond the country’s borders by the end of 2015 –
about half of them children. Another one-third of the
population is internally displaced. Syrian children inside
and outside of the country have been subjected to a
wide range of abuses, including recruitment into armed
groups, exploitation and abuse, child marriage and
the worst forms of child labour. Half of Syrian refugee
children living in neighbouring countries are estimated
to be out of school, and children continue to suffer
several physical and mental health impacts of war and
displacement.
173
Over the past five years, the crisis in
the Syrian Arab Republic has created more refugees
than any other conflict in the world. Syrian refugees
have settled primarily in Turkey, Jordan and Lebanon.
Pakistan
There were close to 300,000 refugees originating in
Pakistan in 2015. Children accounted for 58 per cent of
all Pakistani-origin refugees, the highest proportion in
the region. Insecurity and conflicts in various parts of
the country have contributed to this total, although the
country also continues to host a substantial number of
refugees – some 1.6 million – from other countries.
Pakistan
0.3 million
Myanmar
Ongoing and unresolved conflict in Kachin and Northern Shan States
as well as inter-communal violence in Rakhine State are largely
responsible for Myanmar’s refugees as well as its internally displaced
population. Environmental catastrophes such as flooding and cyclones
compound the challenges of this violence. Stateless Rohingya
refugees leaving the country are among the world’s most vulnerable
migrants, in part because they lack a legal identity and have few safe
options for passage.
Viet Nam
0.3 million
Age 18 and over
Under age 18
Total number of refugees
(without age categories)
Viet Nam
Viet Nam’s refugee population – totalling approximately 300,000,
dates back to the country’s conflict and a change of government in the
1970s. Nearly all of these Vietnamese-origin refugees have settled in
China, where, according to UNHCR, they receive protection from the
Government of China and are well-integrated.
174
Note:
Map shows the countries and territories of origin in Asia with the largest numbers of refugees at the end of 2015. Age categories shown for countries with information on age, for at least 50 per cent of the population, with the exception of the
Syrian Arab Republic, with information on age, for 45 per cent of the population.
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
Palestinian Refugees
A total of 5.2 million Palestinian refugees are registered with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). Individuals whose “normal place of residence was Palestine
during the period 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948 and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict” may qualify as a Palestine refugee, along with their descendants. Today, refugee status has
extended into a fifth generation for many Palestinian refugees, making them part of one of the world’s most protracted refugee situations. For a variety of reasons, many calculations of the total number of global refugees
do not include Palestinian refugees, although they are legally entitled to international protection like all other refugees. The 5.2 million Palestinians registered as refugees with UNRWA live in five locations throughout the
Middle East – 2.2 million in Jordan, 500,000 in Lebanon, 450,000 in the Syrian Arab Republic, 790,000 in the West Bank and 1.3 million in the Gaza Strip.
175
Children and youth are a large part of this population: nearly two-
fifths of all Palestinian refugees are between the ages of 15 and 24.
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81
ISSUE IN FOCUS
Fighting for their futures – education for displaced children in Asia
A total of 8.4 million Syrian children – four out of every
five – have been affected by the conflict, either in danger
inside the country or forced outside it as a refugee.
176
The dangers they confront have been described in heart-
breaking detail – loss of schooling, child labour, child
marriage, recruitment by fighting forces, injury and
violence. With movement and potential separation from
family, their vulnerabilities multiply.
While this generation of children in the region faces
incredible challenges, they also possess immense
potential to build a new and different future for their
countries. Recognizing this potential, a broad coalition
of organizations and governments have come together
under the banner of the No Lost Generation Initiative,
working together to address the rights and needs of these
children. Helping children realize their right to education is
an essential part of that commitment.
In early 2016, increasing numbers of child refugees
drove the total number of out-of-school Syrian children
in the region to its highest levels ever.
177
More than half
of Syrian refugee children living outside the country
were out of school in March 2016. Refugee children
face many challenges in accessing and succeeding at
school, including the denial in access to school because
of legal barriers, lack of documentation, discrimination
and language barriers. Most pressing for many families,
however, is the need for income. According to a 2015
report in Jordan, nearly half of all households rely in part
or entirely on income brought in by a child.
178
Without
further progress in getting children back to learning, their
futures – and that of their region – will continue to suffer.
In the Syrian Arab Republic, children,
women and men go about their
daily lives in the Tishreen camp for
displaced persons in Aleppo.
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FIGURE 4.7
FIGURE 4.8
More than 19 million people have been internally displaced
by conflict in Asia
Conflict-related internally displaced persons in Asia by country, 2015 (in millions)
Nearly 90 per cent of Asia’s refugees find asylum in other
parts of Asia
Fifteen largest populations of refugees from a single country of origin in Asia living
in a single country of destination, 2015
Syrian Arab
Republic
6.6
3.3
2.5
1.5
1.2
1.0
0.6
Germany
Iraq
Yemen
Turkey
Syrian Arab
Republic
Lebanon
Jordan
Egypt
Iraq
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Myanmar
Viet Nam
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
China
Afghanistan
United
States
Pakistan
Afghanistan
India
Turkey
Thailand
Myanmar
Malaysia
India
0.6
0.6
0.4
The size of the arrows
indicates the number of refugees
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
Azerbaijan
Bangladesh
500,000
250,000
100,000
Note:
Figure shows 10 countries with largest populations of internally displaced persons in Asia.
Source:
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Global Internal Displacement Database, 2015
Note:
Refugees under UNHCR’s mandate. Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA are not displayed. Nearly
all refugees from Viet Nam have settled in China, where, according to UNHCR, they receive protection from the
Government of China and are well-integrated.
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR,
Geneva, 2016.
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83
The promise and perils of migration and displacement for children in Asia
Asia is the origin of more international child migrants than any other region
in the world. These children move for a wide range of reasons and with
varying results. For millions, migration offers abundant opportunities. For
too many, however, both journeys and destinations put children in danger.
Evidence from Asia is more abundant than in other regions, and the
wide variety of contexts within the region makes it very difficult to
make conclusive statements about the dangers or opportunities that
migration can offer children and families. As in other regions, however, one
overarching conclusion is clear: the prospects of migration for children are
shaped by family circumstances and the reasons behind a family or child’s
decision to move. As in all contexts, the migration legislation, policies and
practices in place in countries of origin, destination and transit also play a
disproportionate role in shaping the way that migration and displacement
ultimately affect children and their families.
Perilous journeys
Children leaving Asia by sea face some of the most dangerous journeys in
the world. In 2015, one-third of the deaths in the Aegean Sea crossing –
used primarily by Syrian, Afghan and Iraqi refugees to seek safety in Europe
– were estimated to be children.
179
Although a smaller number of people attempt the journey, the Bay of
Bengal and Andaman Sea journey is estimated to be three times as deadly
as the Mediterranean routes into Europe.
180
An estimated 58,000 people
attempted a difficult and risky passage in 2014, generally from Myanmar
and Bangladesh to various countries in Southeast Asia.
181
The journey is
estimated to have claimed the lives of 2,000 Rohingya and Bangladeshis
between 2012 and 2015.
182
The proportion of women and girls making
the journey is increasing, and they now account for 15 per cent of all
passengers.
183
In addition to the dangers of the journey itself, children and
others attempting the voyage face high risks of exploitation by smugglers,
sexual and gender-based violence and lethal disease.
184
Exploitation of child labour
In addition to the many vulnerabilities faced by labour migrants, the age
and inexperience of young labour migrants puts them at heightened risk of
exploitation and many of the worst forms of child labour.
185
According to the
International Labour Organization (ILO), recent national surveys from seven
South Asian countries estimate that there are almost 17 million in child
labour and 42 million children out of school.
186
As child migrant labourers are
severely disadvantaged by their status, they often end up in the informal
sector
187
or working as domestic servants, where it is particularly difficult to
monitor and protect their well-being. An ILO summary of evidence related
to child labour makes it clear that working migrant children are the worst
affected among these: “amongst child labourers it is migrant children who
receive less pay, work longer hours, attend school less frequently, and face
higher death rates at work in comparison to local children.
188
”
Uneven health outcomes
Depending on the context, migration can have mixed impacts on child
health. A 2005 UNICEF study with evidence from the Philippines, Indonesia
and Thailand found that parental migration appears to improve the material
conditions of children who remain behind, which likely translate into
changes in children’s health and schooling.
189
In contrast, other research has
shown that migrant children and families often face difficulties in accessing
healthcare for a variety of reasons, including their legal status, fear of
deportation, unfamiliarity with navigating the health systems and language
barriers..
190
Migrant workers, including child migrants exploited for labour,
face some of the most direct health repercussions, including the physical
dangers of work, poor adherence to occupational health and safety standards
among employers and lack of health insurance.
191
There is evidence that, over
time, health outcomes for migrant children normalize to the same levels as
those of other children in their host countries – for better or for worse. Asian
adolescents born to migrant parents in the United States were more than
twice as likely to become obese than their first-generation counterparts born
outside the country.
192
Mixed impacts of parental migration
As a region, Asia is deeply affected by the labour migration of parents,
particularly when children do not move with their parents. In Nepal, for
example, more than 500,000 overseas work permits were issued in
2013–2014 and more than one-quarter of the country’s gross domestic
product comes in the form of remittances.
193,194
The region also has one
of the best bodies of evidence about the impacts of parental labour
migration on children. The conclusions of that research – consistent with
other regions – is mixed. A wide range of studies conducted in 2006
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84
Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
4| Asia
found positive economic and educational impacts of parental remittances
on improving schooling and health and reducing child labour. Girls, in
particular, seem to benefit.
195
Other, generally older studies are less clear
about the implications of parental migration on education, particularly for
older children. When both parents migrate, children have been reported to
struggle more with behavioural and caregiver issues.
196
Many of the parents who migrate from or within Asia for work are
subjected to particularly difficult and often exploitative conditions,
especially if they are irregular migrants. If they are injured or die while
away, children and surviving family members can face extreme hardship.
In some countries with large numbers of emigrant labourers, existing
programmes offer valuable lessons for similar contexts. The Philippines
Overseas Workers Welfare Administration is a long-standing example of a
worker-protection agency, providing a wide range of services for Filipino
workers abroad.
197
The more recently established Migrant Workers’ Welfare
Fund in Nepal covers compensation for workers injured abroad, provides
access to education and health services for the children of migrant workers
and protects workers during crises in the countries where they work.
198
If
well-implemented, programmes like these can provide substantial benefits
for both migrant workers and their children.
Opportunities for new futures
Evidence from the United States brings optimism about the potential
for child migrants and the children of migrants to thrive, given the right
conditions. In self-assessments, second-generation Asian Americans
indicate higher standards of living than their parents at the same point in
life. They are much more likely to speak English – key to educational and
economic success – and to have diverse friends and social networks.
199
Surveys of Asian migrant parents indicate that these are many of the
factors that influence their decisions to migrate, citing better economic
opportunity, greater political freedoms and preferable conditions for raising
children when compared to their home countries.
200
While these outcomes
are likely to be highly influenced by the relative wealth of Asian migrants
able to settle across the Pacific – as well as the laws and policies they
encounter – they are important indicators that reinforce the aspirational
nature of much migration for and with children.
Legal frameworks
to protect the rights of child refugees and migrants in Asia
In every region, children’s rights are protected by a robust framework
of international human rights instruments, although ratification of some
elements is uneven. Across Asia, ratification of four of the five major
instruments lags behind most other regions (Figure 4.9).
FIGURE 4.9
Number of countries in Asia that have ratified key human rights instruments, July 2016
Convention on
the Rights
of the Child
(1989)
Convention relating
to the Status
of Refugees (1951)
and Protocol (1967)
Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish
Trafficking in Persons,
Especially Women
and Children (2000)
Protocol against
the Smuggling
of Migrants by Land,
Sea and Air (2000)
International Convention
on the Protection
of the Rights of
All Migrant Workers
and Members of
Their Families (1990)
Number of countries
Ratified
Not ratified
Source:
United Nations Treaty Collection; see <http://treaties.un.org> (status as of 13 July 2016).
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85
Regional Legal Frameworks
>
There are no regional Asia-wide conventions to protect human or child
rights, although there are several sub-regional instruments.
In East Asia
>
The Bangkok Declaration on Irregular Migration (1999) saw
18 East Asian and Asian Pacific countries and the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region adopt a commitment and
framework to address irregular migration (including human
trafficking) and provide irregular migrants with humanitarian
treatment.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Regional
Plan of Action on the Elimination of Violence against Children
provides for the strengthening of protective policies and
measures for stateless, migrant and asylum-seeking children.
The ASEAN Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the
Rights of Migrant Workers was adopted in 2007 based on the
principle that states of origin and destination would strengthen
and promote the rights of migrant workers. A framework
instrument is currently being drafted in order to implement the
declaration.
Six governments have agreed to The Joint Declaration of the
Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking
(COMMIT Declaration) and two subsequent declarations related
to trafficking.
>
The Kathmandu Declaration issued at the 18th SAARC Summit
(2014) called on Heads of State/Governments to reinforce
preventative measures against trafficking and exploitation of
women and children.
The SAARC Kathmandu Declaration (2014) covered an
agreement on labour migration management from South Asia
“to ensure safety, security and wellbeing of their migrant
workers in the destination countries outside the region.
”
In the Middle East
>
The Arab Charter on Human Rights (2004) has been adopted
by the League of Arab States and recognizes most of the
universally accepted civil and political rights, as well as specific
economic, social and cultural rights; the Cairo Declaration on
Human Rights in Islam (1990), a declaration by the Organisation
of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation), provides an overview of human rights from the
Islamic perspective.
The Declaration on the Protection of Refugees and Displaced
Persons in the Arab World (1992) reaffirms the need for
humanitarian action for refugees and displaced persons (with
specific reference to the needs of Palestinians); the Arab
Convention on Regulating the Status of Refugees in the Arab
Countries (1994), adopted by the League of Arab States,
reaffirms the provisions of universally accepted human rights
frameworks relating to refugees.
>
>
>
>
In South Asia
>
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
Convention on Regional Arrangements for the Promotion of
Child Welfare in South Asia reaffirms commitments to the CRC
while laying out specific regional priorities for protecting the
rights of children, including an emphasis on non-discrimination,
prevention of child labour and registration of all births.
The SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking
in Women and Children for Prostitution was adopted in 2002.
In Central Asia
>
The Almaty Declaration (2011) recognizes the protection needs
of refugees within migration flows in Central Asia and the
importance of acceding to and complying with international law,
particularly in establishing fair asylum procedures and ensuring
non-refoulement.
>
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
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A boy living in Harsham Camp for internally
displaced persons in Iraq walks along a muddy
street in the camp.
© UNICEF/UN06343/Anmar
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87
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Eastern Europe
Belarus
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Hungary
Poland
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
Slovakia
Ukraine
Northern Europe
Åland Islands
Channel Islands
Denmark
Estonia
Faeroe Islands
Finland
Guernsey
Iceland
Ireland
Isle of Man
Jersey
Latvia
Lithuania
Norway
Sark
Svalbard and
Jan Mayen
Islands
Sweden
United Kingdom
Southern Europe
Albania
Andorra
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Croatia
Gibraltar
Greece
Holy See
Italy
Malta
Montenegro
Portugal
San Marino
Serbia
Slovenia
Spain
The former
Yugoslav
Republic of
Macedonia
Western Europe
Austria
Belgium
France
Germany
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Monaco
Netherlands
Switzerland
5
Europe
Northern Europe
Eastern Europe
Western Europe
Southern Europe
children seeking asylum in Europe* in
2016 were fleeing conflict in the Syrian
Arab Republic, Afghanistan and Iraq
Europe is home to
of the world’s
child migrants
In 2015, more than
as many children applied for asylum within
Europe compared with the year before
All maps in this
section do not
reflect a position by
UNICEF on the legal
status of any country
or territory or the
delimitation of any
frontiers.
*European Union and free movement zone
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5| Europe
89
Migration in Europe
FIGURE 5.1
FIGURE 5.2
Intra-European migration makes up the second largest
population movement in the world
International migrants from Europe by region of destination, 2015 (in millions)
The largest movement of migrants into Europe comes from Asia
International migrants into Europe by region of origin, 2015 (in millions)
Northern America
7.5
Northern America
1.0
19.7
Latin America and
the Caribbean
Asia
6.9
Asia
20.2
35.4
Total
Latin America and
the Caribbean
1.3
Within Europe
4.6
39.9
Africa
1.0
Oceania
3.0
Africa
9.2
Oceania
0.4
Note:
Globally, there are 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 0.8 million of these are living in Europe. Migrants of unknown origin are not included in these figures.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015; and UNICEF analysis based on
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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90
Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
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FIGURE 5.3
Most migration that begins in Europe stays within Europe
International migrants by region of origin and destination in Europe, 2015 (in millions)
hern
Nort
erica
Am
In 2015, 76.1 million international migrants were living within Europe,
nearly one-third of all the world’s migrants. As in other regions, much of
the migration in Europe is intra-regional, made up of the movements of
Europeans within the region. Just over half of all migrants in Europe are
Europeans living in a different European country from the one in which they
were born. Much of this movement is enabled by and is a consequence of
the European Union (EU) policy of free movement for EU citizens.
Within Europe, Eastern Europe has the largest number of migrants
living in other countries in the same sub-region. (Figure 5.3.) Just over
one-quarter of migrants in Europe come from Asia and the balance
were born in other regions of the world. (Figures 5.1 and 5.2.)
a
eric
Am
ean
b
tin
La
Carib
&
5
34
ia
12
0
an
ce
O
23
1
0
012
3456
78
North
ern
Eur
0
2
4
6
ope
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0
2
Asia
0
2
4
6
8
10
1
21
41
61
8
An additional 19.7 million Europeans have left the continent to make homes
in other parts of the world (Figure 5.1). European migrants who live outside
the region live in roughly equal proportions in Northern America and Asia
(13 and 12 per cent of all European migrants, respectively). Eastern Europe
has the largest number of migrants leaving the continent, primarily to Asia
(Figure 5.3). The countries with the largest emigrant populations are the
Russian Federation, Ukraine and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland (Figure 5.4). The countries that receive the largest numbers
of migrants are Germany, the Russian Federation and the United Kingdom.
Children make up a smaller share of migrants in Europe than in any
other region of the world. With a total population of 5.4 million, children
are just over 7 per cent of migrants living in Europe. This is just below
the share of children among migrants living in Northern America and
roughly half the proportion of children among migrants living in Asia (8
and 16 per cent, respectively). As in other regions, girls and boys are
nearly equally represented among migrant children living in Europe.
While children are only a modest proportion of the total migrants in
Europe, child migrants in the region are still a sizeable proportion of the
world’s child migrants: today, approximately one in six of the world’s
child migrants lives in Europe. The largest number of migrant children in
Europe lives in the United Kingdom, followed by the Russian Federation,
Spain, France and Germany. These five countries host 56 per cent of all
migrant children in Europe.
In Europe, as elsewhere in the world, child migrants are not the only
children affected by migration. When parents move abroad without their
children, both the countries and the children they leave behind feel the
effects, both positive and negative. A recent review of evidence from
Moldovan and Ukrainian parental migration found both substantial numbers
of children affected as well as large remittance flows into the countries. In
4
26
6
24
8
22
ope
Eur
24
26
28
ern
0
22
uth
18
2
So
16
14
10
20
12
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
48
0
2
8
10
4
6
46
42
Eas
tern
Euro
pe
Note:
Globally, there are 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 0.8 million
of these are living in Europe. Migrants of unknown origin are not included in this figure. See page 26 for a detailed
explanation on how to interpret the chord diagram.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International
Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
W
es
te
rn
E
40
uro
pe
44
26
28
30
32
34
36
0
12
14
16
18
20
2
6
8
10
2
24
2
4
26
2
83
03
2
34
36
38
a
Afric
16
18
20
22
24
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
5| Europe
91
Moldova, 2014 estimates identified some 100,000 children left without the
care of one of both parents because of migration and nearly US$2 billion in
remittances; in Ukraine, the numbers were even larger: 200,000 children
and US$9 billion in remittances.
201
The effects of these separations on
children – as in other regions – are mixed. While remittances provide a vital
form of income for a substantial portion of families with migrant parents,
alleviating poverty and allowing children to afford school fees and obtain
health services, other evidence shows that children with absent parents
may have worse educational performance and suffer from care deficits,
although quantifying those impacts is particularly challenging.
202
Whether children are part of migration movements or left in the care
of others when their parents move, they remain a core constituency in
European migration debates. Their rights to health and social services,
education and, later, employment, are all implicated by current migration
debates across the continent. As those discussions continue, meeting
the rights and interests of children is crucially important.
FIGURE 5.4
FIGURE 5.5
Key migration routes within Europe are shaped by historical and
political ties
Thirty largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in
Europe living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
Canada
United
States
Russian
Federation
Australia
Ireland
United
Kingdom
Germany
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Kazakhstan
Switzerland
Italy
Czech Republic
Croatia Romania
France
Bulgaria
Portugal
Spain
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Albania
Greece
Turkey
Uzbekistan
Germany and the Russian
Federation receive the most
immigrants; the Russian Federation
and Ukraine have the largest
number of emigrants
A. Top 10 countries with largest numbers
of immigrants and emigrants in Europe,
2015 (in millions)
The largest numbers of child
migrants live in the United
Kingdom, the Russian Federa-
tion and Spain
B. Top 10 countries hosting the largest num-
bers of international migrants under 18 years
of age in Europe, 2015 (in thousands)
749
612
599
540
521
The size of the arrows indicates the
number of international migrants
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
500,000
Italy
446
285
256
Italy
Poland
Romania
Switzerland
Switzerland
159
148
The migration paths within Europe today are heavily influenced by two major political events: the dissolution of the
Soviet Union and two decades of regional integration in the European Union. The three largest migrant pathways
in the region are among Kazakhstan, Ukraine and the Russian Federation, a legacy of their linkages from the former
Soviet Union. Millions of population changes that were formerly internal Soviet migration have now become part
of the story of international migration. Elsewhere in Europe, the European Union (EU) policy of free movement has
contributed to the substantial intra-European migration described earlier.
Migrant population (in millions)
Immigrants
Emigrants
Source for all figures:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015; and UNICEF analysis based on
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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Displacement and Forced Migration in Europe
By the end of 2015, Europe hosted approximately one in nine of all refugees
under UNHCR’s mandate, a total of 1.8 million people (Figure 5.7); an
additional 1 million asylum-seekers in Europe were also waiting for a decision
on their asylum applications. As those claims are reviewed, the number of
people officially recognized as refugees is expected to rise.
Unlike other parts of the world that host large numbers of refugees, data on
refugees in Europe are primarily under the domain of national authorities,
meaning that data availability and disaggregation vary widely across the
region. This creates challenges for tracking the number and fates of child
refugees in Europe. Among the European countries hosting the largest
numbers of refugees, only Germany and Serbia publicly report complete
information on the number of children in their overall totals of refugees.
By the end of 2015, one out of every five of the over 316,000 refugees in
Germany was a child.
203
For the rest of Europe, comprehensive and comparable data on the
destinations of child refugees are not available – a major gap that can prevent
effective monitoring of the well-being of some of the most vulnerable children
in the region. This gap is partially driven by the different systems for and
different levels of priority given to maintaining child-specific data across the
region.
There is, however, more comprehensive data available about people seeking
asylum.
204
For every 100 asylum-seekers in Europe in 2015, 30 were children.
A total of 389,000 children applied for asylum in 32 European countries
in 2015, more than twice the number of child applicants from 2014.
205
Applications from the first half of 2016 look similar to those from the year
before – about 30 per cent of applications are from children, with over
165,000 applications filed for children by the end of June.
206
Nearly 70 per cent of children seeking asylum in Europe in the first half of
2016 were fleeing conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic, Afghanistan and Iraq
(38, 18 and 14 per cent, respectively). About two-thirds of all children seeking
asylum in Europe sought safety in Germany, while the balance of applications
were submitted in Austria, Hungary, Sweden, France, Greece and Italy and
other countries in Europe.
207
Much of the global attention on displacement and forced migration in Europe
has focussed on Europe’s role as a destination for asylum-seekers from
Africa and Asia. There are also, however, roughly half a million refugees who
come from within Europe, just over 3 per cent of refugees under UNHCR’s
mandate. Some 318,000 refugees – nearly two-thirds of all refugees from
the region – come from Ukraine, driven largely by political upheaval in the
country since late 2013. Adding to this toll, more than 1.6 million Ukrainians
had been internally displaced by early 2016, including more than 215,000
children registered as internally displaced persons.
208
The large-scale internal
displacement in Ukraine has put children at risk of both direct conflict-related
injuries as well as the knock-on effects of conflict, including disruptions to clean
water and appropriate sanitation and disease outbreaks, including polio.
Of the 1.8 million refugees who have already found asylum in Europe at the
end of 2015, most are divided in nearly equal measure among Germany,
the Russian Federation and France (17, 17 and 15 per cent of refugees in
Europe, respectively).
209
In 2015, more than one-third of the refugees living in
Germany were from the Syrian Arab Republic, with smaller proportions from
Iraq and Afghanistan (38, 17 and 10 per cent, respectively). Nearly all of the
315,000 refugees hosted in the Russian Federation by the end of 2015 were
from Ukraine.
By the end of 2015, Germany had become the world’s largest recipient of new
individual applications for asylum – receiving more than twice as many as the
next closest country. Children represented nearly one-third of asylum-seekers
in Germany in 2015 – a notably higher proportion of children than among
Germany’s already-recognized refugees.
210
Shifting passages to and through Europe
In 2015 alone, more than 1 million people reached Europe by sea. The journey
was treacherous for all and lethal for too many – more than 3,700 people died
en route or were reported missing in the Mediterranean Sea. In the first 11
months of 2015, one in every three people who lost their lives in the Eastern
Mediterranean was a child.
211
In both 2015 and the first half of 2016, a clear majority of Europe’s arrivals by
sea came into Greece, with nearly all the rest entering through Italy. There is a
far higher percentage of children entering Europe through Greece than through
Italy. Thirty eight per cent of all the migrants and refugees arriving in Greece in
the first half of 2016 were children; in Italy, just 16 per cent of the new arrivals
were children (Figure 5.6). While the total number of children reaching Italy is
much lower than in Greece, an alarmingly high proportion of children reaching
Italian shores are doing so alone. In the first seven months of 2016, more than
13,700 children – 90 per cent of all migrant and refugee children arriving in Italy
– either were travelling without their families or had been separated from them
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5| Europe
93
in transit.
The difference between these two rates reflects the different origins and
situations of the children undertaking these treacherous voyages. In Greece,
almost 90 per cent of all arrivals in the first seven months of 2016 came from
the Syrian Arab Republic, Afghanistan and Iraq. In Italy, that same proportion
came from sub-Saharan Africa. The different backgrounds of children arriving in
Italy versus Greece will inform both the vulnerabilities of these children as well
as the services needed to address them. Regardless of their background, they
are all entitled to the same protection as children.
Two major shifts in migration policies have changed the pathways by which
migrants and refugees have reached Europe over the past year. The first shift
was the rise in national migration control responses along the Western Balkan
route into Europe. As more and more families sought safety in Europe over the
course of 2015, some European Union Member States implemented national
migration control responses, erecting legal – and in some cases, literal – barriers
to movement for those seeking passage into Europe. Border closures and
migration policy changes along the Western Balkans route beginning in late 2015
have changed the paths that families are forced to tread, often pushing them
into more dangerous and desperate journeys along different routes.
212
The second major change in movements was the result of an agreement
reached between the European Union and Turkey in March 2016. As part of the
agreement, Turkey will take steps to prevent new routes of irregular migration;
individuals arriving in Greece from Turkey who do not file for asylum or whose
asylum claims are rejected will be returned to Turkey. In exchange, European
leaders committed to resettling one Syrian directly from Turkey for every Syrian
who is returned to Turkey from Greece.
213
While overall arrivals by sea into Greece have fallen dramatically compared
to 2015,
214
by June 2016, some 57
,000 refugees and other migrants were
dispersed across Greece following the EU-Turkey agreement,
215
with children
making up nearly 40 per cent of new arrivals in the country in the first half of
the year.
216
Authorities continue to struggle in meeting the needs of children,
and the increasing use of migration detention has caused some humanitarian
organizations to withdraw from working in some so-called hotspots.
217
Border closures and the fear of being turned back have intensified the dangers
that children face in reaching Europe, whether they travel with family or on their
own. While reliable data are not available to track trends in migrant smuggling,
trafficking and other crimes, testimonies collected by UNICEF and other United
Nat ions agencies provide a glimpse into the dangers that children face along
every step of their journey.
218
Urgent action is needed to protect children
whether they are on the move, in administrative limbo or trying to start new
futures when they reach their destinations.
FIGURE 5.6
Children made up one-third of the million refugees and other
migrants arriving in Europe by sea in the first seven months of 2016
Sea arrivals of registered refugees in Europe, January to July 2016
Italy
15,000 sea arrivals of child refugees • 94,000 total
Greece
Spain
60,000 sea arrivals of child refugees • 160,000 total
Syrian Arab Republic
Iran (Islamic
Iraq
Republic of)
FIGURE 0.0
Egypt
Afghanistan
Pakistan
Mali
Senegal
Gambia
Guinea
Côte
d'Ivoire
Nigeria
Sudan
Eritrea
Somalia
The size of the arrows
indicates the number of
international refugees
15,000
10,000
5,000
2,500
Age 18 and over
Under age 18
Registered refugees by major countries of origin, January to July 2016 (percentage)
A. Sea arrivals in Italy
20%
12%
Côte d'Ivoire
7%
7%
7%
7%
5%
5%
5%
3%
20%
B. Sea arrivals in Greece
Syrian Arab
Republic
Somalia
Mali
Senegal
Iraq
Iran (Isamlic
Republic of)
Note:
Figures are provisional and maybe partial and subject to change.
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, <data.unhcr.org/Mediterranean/regional.php>, accessed
1 September 2016
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STORY 5.1 GOING IT ALONE, TOGETHER
“If you try to run they shoot you and you die,”
says Aimamo, “And if you stop working, they
beat you. It was just like the slave trade.”
According to Aimamo, he and his brother
were forced to work from 9AM to 7PM every
day. “Once I was just resting for five minutes,
and a man beat me with a cane. After
working, they lock you inside.”
Aimamo and Ibrahim don’t know exactly
how long they worked on the farm, but
guess it was two or three months before
they were given cash and the details of a
secret location where they were to board
a smuggling vessel bound for Italy. They
boarded a dinghy in the middle of the night
and set off across the Mediterranean. “It
was very uncomfortable but at least we had
open air,” says Aimamo.
The engine cut out sometime the next day,
leaving the boat and its passengers to drift
in the open water until they were eventually
rescued by a European coast guard vessel
and taken to the Italian island of Lampedusa.
The brothers were eventually transferred
to a Government-supported shelter for
unaccompanied minors near Trabia, Sicily.
At the shelter, Aimamo and Ibrahim are
provided with food, medical care, education
and support for their asylum claims. They
are also able to call their mother back home
in Gambia once a week. “She’s happy now
that we are safe, she was worried when we
were in Libya and couldn’t call her,” says
Ibrahim, adding that while their journey has
been difficult, making it together with his
twin brother has made it easier. “Since we
started, we have always been together and
that has helped a lot.”
STORY 5.2 NOT YET DARING TO DREAM
for children with disabilities. Sajad’s
sister, Houda Al-Malek, confirms
that there was no system in place to
empower children with disabilities in
their home community. This clearly took
its toll on Sajad who is still reluctant to
be hopeful about his future – “I have no
dream whatsoever,” he says.
Houda says, “My mother took the risk
and decided to leave Iraq… She told
me she was ready to die in the sea, but
the most important thing was that I take
my brothers to the country I choose…
[we came because] here there is
security, but back in Iraq there is no
security. Iraq is full of bad things.”
“Certainly he will have a better life here
…He is still not that open-minded, but
I believe he has a better chance here,”
his sister says.
The family, although safely at their final
destination, must now go through the
complex process of claiming asylum so
that they can be become legal residents
of Austria and build a new life for
themselves.
In September of last year, twin brothers
Aimamo and Ibrahim Jawnoh left their village
of Kombu Brikam in Gambia after their father
divorced their mother. Left with little means
to support her children, the boys’ mother sent
them on the journey to Europe in order to
work and send money home. She introduced
them to a man who agreed to help them, on
the condition that their journey be paid for
through labour upon arrival in Libya.
Aimamo and Ibrahim travelled from Gambia
to Senegal, then on to Niger where they
stopped in the desert near the city of Agadez.
From there, the brothers were shuttled onto
a flatbed truck along with other refugees and
migrants from West Africa.
They drove northward for days until they
reached the town of Saba, where their
group was arrested for not having proper
documentation. “In Saba, they threw us in
jail,” says Ibrahim. “We were beaten and
kept there for a few days until the driver
came and paid the police to let us all out.”
Aimamo and Ibrahim were eventually driven
to Tripoli, Libya, where they were taken to a
farm and forced to do manual labour around
the property. There they joined about 200
other African men and boys.
Aimamo and Ibrahim, in May 2016.
© UNICEF/UN020005/Gilbertson VII
Sajad Al-Faraji, 15, and his family made
the weeks-long trip from their home
in Basra, Iraq through Turkey, across
the sea to Greece and up through the
Balkans before reaching their final
destination in Austria.
The journey is an incredibly difficult one
for any family, but it was especially hard
for Sajad, who has been paralyzed from
the waist down since he was an infant.
Sajad faced mobility issues during
his entire journey, arriving in Vienna
exhausted and ill with a respiratory
infection. At times, the family had to buy
four tickets to get on a train only to find
there were no seats. Sajad had to sleep
in the aisle, and the family had to put
luggage on top of him.
The family made the decision to leave
Iraq, in part, because they hoped that
Sajad would have more opportunities in
a country like Austria where he could
benefit from better support and services
Sajad, in December 2015
© UNICEF/UN08734/Gilbertson VII
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95
FIGURE 5.7
In 2015, there were 1.8 million refugees and 1 million
asylum-seekers throughout Europe
Refugees and asylum-seekers in Europe, by country of destination, 2015
Sweden
300,000
200,000
United
Kingdom
Norway
100,000
Russian
Federation
Netherlands
Germany
300,000
100,000
700,000
Austria
200,000
France
300,000
Italy
200,000
Switzerland
100,000
Asylum seekers
Refugees
Note:
Numbers are rounded to 100,000.
15-year-old Shaimae from Halab, the Syrian
Arab Republic, prepares to pass through a
transit centre in Serbia.
© UNICEF/UNI197834/Gilbertson VII
The numbers presented here do not include new applications for asylum in 2016, which totalled approximately
560,000 between January and the end of June for countries in the European Union and free movement zone.
Children made up approximately 30 per cent of all applicants. During the first six months of the year, Germany
alone received 390,000 asylum applications. As those claims are reviewed, the number of people officially
recognized as refugees is expected to change.
Source:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
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The promise and perils of migration for children in Europe
Children and families move within and into Europe with
the same aspirations they have all over the world – the
hope of a brighter future. That hope has translated into
reality for many children. Free movement within the
European Union has facilitated access to education,
vocational training and other opportunities. For many
years, Europe has welcomed large numbers of refugee
and migrant children from other regions and provided
them with opportunities to grow, develop and contribute
to European society. There is a strong civil society
movement advocating for equal rights and fair treatment
of refugee and other migrant children in Europe and many
European states have invested and continue to invest in
helping refugee and migrant children integrated.
There has, however, been a recent increase in voices
challenging such policies. Migration and refugee laws
and policies have been revised in some contexts, limiting
rights and access to services for children based on their
migration status. Children seeking asylum and those
in irregular migration situations have been the most
affected, with some European states denying them full
access to even basic services.
219
All children have a right to protection, equal access to
services and a safe environment in which to thrive.
Investing in the systems to realize those rights is a moral
and legal imperative. It is also a sound investment in the
future of Europe. As a region, Europe is ageing and its
child population is contracting. This makes the successful
education and integration of its migrant children crucial
to the region’s future prospects – these children will be a
key element of Europe’s growth in the decades to come.
Investing in children, especially refugee and other migrant
children, is an investment in Europe’s future prosperity.
Despite enhanced efforts to support children from many
countries across the region, child migrants and refugees
continue to confront both new and old challenges as they
travel to and settle in new homes.
UNEVEN ACCESS TO PROTECTION MEASURES AND RESETTLEMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Many governments across Europe have undertaken measures to protect and support refugee and migrant children, including
enhanced search-and-rescue operations at sea, increased investments in personnel and financial resources, and commitments to
relocation and resettlement. However, governments have also often given priority to migration control interests, without focussing
sufficiently on the specific rights and needs of refugee and migrant children. To date, the promised durable solutions have reached
very few children awaiting resettlement. By mid-July 2016, roughly 3,000 people had been relocated from Italy and Greece, out of
the 160,000 agreed in September 2015,220 while fewer than 800 people were resettled from Turkey into the EU during the first 90
days of the EU-Turkey agreement.221 For refugee and migrant children, these delays mean prolonged stays in closed centres and
limited access to basic services.
The majority of refugees and migrants who arrived in Europe in 2015 through mid-2016 are accommodated in different settings:
informal camps, centres, hotels, hostels, private houses and flats.222 Many of them are staying in transit centres and informal
settlements for too long, in overcrowded conditions and with limited privacy and access to crucial services including education
and health. Refugee and migrant children do not always receive timely information about their situation, legal options and related
procedures. Restricted legal options and lack of information about them expose children to risks of abuse, violence and exploitation.
FAMILY SEPARATION
Throughout Europe, procedures for family reunification, including transfer of asylum claims for family reunification, can be extremely
long, exposing children to risks of violence, abuse and exploitation while they are separated from their families.
223
The legal definition of
family does not always correspond to the social and cultural reality of children in their countries of origin, complicating efforts to reunite
families. Some States have further limited entitlements to family reunification, differentiating between refugees and other persons
granted protection. Ineffective guardianship systems for unaccompanied and separated children hinder processes for determining the best
interest of each child, including resettlement, relocation and durable solutions.
224
IMMIGRATION DETENTION AND ENFORCEMENT
In many parts of Europe, there are good practices on alternatives to immigration detention of children. There is also a clear
commitment by the Council of Europe and some countries in the region to work toward ending the detention of children for
migration control purposes. Despite these positive examples, asylum-seeking and migrant children and families routinely
encounter migration and detention realities that do not match up with national commitments. In 2014, 17 European Union Member
States reportedly detained unaccompanied children and 19 detained families with children.
225
Similarly, the Asylum Information
Database indicates that, while asylum-seekers are guaranteed access to legal assistance in all European Union Member States,
actual practice for assistance and representation varies widely.
226
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97
RESTRICTED ACCESS TO SOME HEALTH
SERVICES
When migrant children can make use of health services in the places
they settle, they may well see improved health outcomes. To realize
those benefits, however, children must have the right and the means
to access health services. While most countries within the region
allow undocumented migrant children to access emergency health
services, they have very uneven access to general health services.
According to a recent survey conducted in 33 European countries, “only
eight EU Member States grant all undocumented migrant children
the same level of health care as the children of its own citizens; six
totally restrict their entitlements to emergency care only; and 12 allow
undocumented migrants limited access to specialist services like
maternity care, treatment of HIV and/or infectious diseases.”
227
Even
when children do not cross borders, internal displacement as a result
of conflict can significantly increase their health risks, as seen in recent
evidence from Ukraine.
228
UNEVEN OPPORTUNITIES FOR EDUCATION
The promise of better educational opportunities for children is a key factor in many families’ decision to migrate to
Europe. While many children are able to benefit from improved schools and social stability, the results for other children
are mixed. From the outset, the ability of all migrant children to access education is uneven across the continent.
According to a recent survey, only 10 European Union Member States explicitly recognize the right of undocumented
children to basic education. An additional five states explicitly exclude them from free schooling.
230
Early childhood
development opportunities for young migrant and refugee children as well as education for adolescents are particularly
limited in many countries across Europe. As the number of children arriving in Europe has increased, governments have
not responded with proportional increases for their educational needs.
HOUSEHOLD POVERTY
Children from migrant backgrounds in Europe often live in households that must confront challenges including long-term
unemployment, overcrowded living conditions, anxiety and stress. In Greece, Spain and France, between 45 per cent and
55 per cent of children of migrants live in relative poverty, twice the rate of poverty among children born to non-migrant
parents.
231
This problem, unfortunately, is not a new one linked to recent crises. As countries slowly emerged from the 2008
recession, children in migrant families were left behind. Evidence from across the continent showed that in many countries,
“child poverty increased faster (or fell more slowly) for children in migrant households than for other children.”
232
CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION AND
XENOPHOBIA
Ongoing recession, uneven economic recovery and a divisive political
discourse have intensified the economic and social marginalization
that some migrants face during their journeys and once they reach
their destinations. In a recent survey across the European Union,
approximately one-fifth of young migrants reported belonging to a
group that was discriminated against. This form of discrimination
is encountered not only by newly arrived migrants, but also by
European-born children of migrants. Roughly the same percentage
of young people born to migrant parents reported that their ethnic or
national-origin group was discriminated against.
229
Discrimination and
social exclusion can prevent children and families from accessing the
services to which they are entitled, from attending and engaging in
schools and other community forums, and from overcoming economic
disadvantages they may have had when arriving in their new homes.
UNCERTAIN WORK PROSPECTS AND CONDITIONS
Among 15 to 24 year-olds, young migrants and children of migrants are disproportionately more likely to be out of
employment, education or training than their native-born counterparts.
233
Among those finding work, the type of jobs
found by these young migrants and children of migrants are more often short-term and prospects for a permanent post
or career advancement are limited. It is not only young migrants into Europe who face these challenges. Since the
2007/2008 economic crisis, young people within the European Union are also moving in search of better prospects,
especially from countries such as Greece and Spain, where, at over 50 per cent in 2013, youth unemployment is
significantly higher than elsewhere in Europe.
234
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
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Legal frameworks
to protect the rights of child refugees and migrants in Eruope
Regional Legal Frameworks
>
In every region, children’s rights are protected by a robust framework of
international human rights instruments, although ratification of some elements
is uneven. While ratification of the 1951 Refugee Convention is near-universal
in Europe, the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All
Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families has been ratified by just two
countries in the region (Figure 5.8).
FIGURE 5.8
The European Convention on Human Rights (1953) comprises
an international treaty to protect human rights and freedoms
in Europe, including the right to freedom of movement and to
non-discrimination.
The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
(2000) brings together the fundamental rights protected in
the EU. The Charter recognizes the rights, freedoms and
principles set out hereafter and contains rights and freedoms
under six titles: dignity, freedoms, equality, solidarity,
citizens’ rights and justice. The European Union Agenda for
the Rights of the Child aims to ensure EU compliance with
the provisions of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the
European Union and focusses on several concrete actions in
areas where the EU can bring added value, such as child-
friendly justice.
The European Social Charter (1965) is designed to protect the
fundamental social and economic rights of all individuals, with
a specific emphasis on the protection of vulnerable persons,
including children and young people.
The Common European Asylum System is composed of a
legislative framework via directives, of which several are
relevant to children in regular and forced migration.
The Dublin Regulation is a EU law outlining Member State
processes and responsibilities for examining and acting on
applications for asylum. The regulation and the larger EU asylum
framework are currently under review.
>
Number of countries in Europe that have ratified key human rights instruments, July 2016
Convention on
the Rights
of the Child
(1989)
Convention relating
to the Status
of Refugees (1951)
and Protocol (1967)
Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish
Trafficking in Persons,
Especially Women
and Children (2000)
Protocol against
the Smuggling
of Migrants by Land,
Sea and Air (2000)
>
>
>
International Convention
on the Protection
of the Rights of
All Migrant Workers
and Members of
Their Families (1990)
Vika, who was displaced from the city of Horlivka in
Ukraine, stands in a corridor at an accommodation
centre for people displaced by conflict.
© UNICEF/UNI172571/Krepkih
Number of countries
Ratified
Not ratified
Source:
United Nations Treaty Collection; see http://treaties.un.org (status as of 13 July 2016).
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99
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1662039_0108.png
Australia and
New Zealand
Australia
New Zealand
Norfolk Island
Melanesia
Fiji
New Caledonia
Papua New
Guinea
Solomon
Islands
Vanuatu
Micronesia
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall
Islands
Micronesia
(Federated
States of)
Nauru
Northern
Mariana
Islands
Palau
Polynesia
American
Samoa
Cook Islands
French
Polynesia
Niue
Pitcairn
Samoa
Tokelau
Tonga
Tuvalu
Wallis and
Futuna
Islands
6
Oceania
Micronesia
Polynesia
Melanesia
Oceania is the destination for nearly
7 million
migrants
from outside
the region
There are
migrant children in Oceania
Just over
Australia and New Zealand
refugees live in Oceania
All maps in this
section do not
reflect a position by
UNICEF on the legal
status of any country
or territory or the
delimitation of any
frontiers.
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6| Oceania
101
Migration in Oceania
FIGURE 6.1
FIGURE 6.2
More than half of migration that begins in Oceania also
ends within the region
International migrants from Oceania by region of destination, 2015 (in millions)
Oceania is the destination for nearly 7 million migrants from outside
the region
International migrants into Oceania by region of origin, 2015 (in millions)
Northern America
0.3
Europe
0.4
Latin America and
the Caribbean
0.0
Europe
3.0
Asia
0.1
Asia
3.0
Northern America
0.2
Latin America
and the Caribbean
0.2
Within Oceania
Africa
0.0
0.7
1.1
Africa
0.5
6.9
Total
Note:
Totals may not sum due to rounding. Globally, there are 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 0.1 million of these are living in Oceania. Migrants of unknown origin are not included in these figures.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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102
Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
6| Oceania
FIGURE 6.3
Movements to and from Australia and New Zealand dominate
migration patterns in Oceania
International migrants by region of origin and destination in Oceania, 2015
3
0
1
A total of 1.8 million people from Oceania are living outside the country
in which they were born. Of these, 1.1 million are living within the region
but in a country other than their birthplace. As in every other region, most
movement that begins in Oceania also ends there (Figure 6.1).
Fewer than 800,000 people born in Oceania are living outside the
region, the smallest number for any region, but reflective of Oceania’s
comparatively small population as a region. Half of those Oceania-born
migrants live in Europe, just under 40 per cent live in Northern America
and the balance live primarily in Asia (Figure 6.3).
Oceania is home to 6.9 million migrants from outside the region, more
than nine times as many migrants as leave the region (Figure 6.2).
Three-quarters of all migrants in Oceania come from Europe and Asia
– roughly 3 million from each region. The balance of migrants in the
region come from Africa (approximately 500,000) and the Americas
(approximately 400,000).
Just three countries in the region (Australia, Papua New Guinea
and New Zealand) make up more than 90 per cent of the entire
population of Oceania, meaning that their migration patterns dominate
regional trends based on raw numbers (Figure 6.4). By population
alone, Australia and New Zealand have both the largest numbers of
immigrants and emigrants. A majority of Australian migrants go to four
English-speaking countries – United Kingdom (26%), United States
(15%), New Zealand (12%) and Canada (5%), while four out of five
New Zealanders who have migrated live in Australia. As a proportion
of total population in countries with at least 50,000 inhabitants, Samoa
and Tonga have the highest share of emigrants. By that same measure
Guam and American Samoa are home to the highest proportion of
immigrants relative to their total populations.
Children are a relatively small proportion of the migrant population in
Oceania, making up just 8 per cent of all migrants living in the region.
The roughly 670,000 child migrants living in the region are 2 per cent of
all child migrants in the world. As in all other regions, boys are girls are
equally represented in these numbers, each making up roughly half of
the child migrant population.
The overall population of child migrants increased in Oceania between
1990 and 2015 (from 431,000 to 667
,000), but overall migration rose
faster, meaning that children now make up a smaller proportion of
the migrant population than they did 25 years ago (8 per cent in 2015
2
ia
As
2
1
3
0
ealand
ew
Z
lia
N
stra
Au
4
Africa
3
0
0
.2
0.4
5
2
pe
Euro
6
1
7
Micronesia
Melanesia
Note:
Globally, there are 9.8 million international migrants with origin classified as other or unknown; 0.1 million of
these are living in Oceania. Migrants of unknown origin are not included in this figure. See page 26 for a detailed
explanation on how to interpret the chord diagram.
Source:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International
Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
8
9
0
0.2
0
0
0.2
N
Am
orth
er
ern
ica
La
tin
&
C
Ame
ric
arib
bea
a
Polyn
n
esia
0
0.2
0
.4
0
0
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Uprooted >> Regional Perspective
6| Oceania
103
compared to 9 per cent in 1990). Three-quarters of all child migrants in the
region live in Australia and an additional 17 per cent live in New Zealand.
Despite this relatively low proportion of migrants in the region, child
migrants are a notably high proportion of all children in Oceania. Six in
every 100 children in the region are migrants, compared with just 1 child in
100 globally.
Migration trends for many of the region’s smallest countries are shaped
by a confluence of challenging factors common to many Small Island
Developing States, including limited livelihood opportunities (particularly
for youth) and climate change. These issues are explored in more detail
later in this section.
FIGURE 6.5
Major migration routes within and from Oceania reflect historical
ties and population sizes
Ten largest populations of international migrants from a single country or area of origin in
Oceania living in a single country or area of destination, 2015
The size of the arrows
indicates the number of international migrants
750,000
500,000
250,000
100,000
30,000
FIGURE 6.4
Australia and New Zealand
host the most immigrants
A. Top 5 countries with largest numbers of
immigrants or emigrants in Oceania, 2015
The largest numbers of child
migrants live in Australia and
New Zealand
B. Top 10 countries hosting the largest
numbers of international migrants under
18 years of age in Oceania, 2015 (in
thousands)
United
States
United
Kingdom
Fiji
Samoa
Australia
New Zealand
Australia
New Zealand
Australia
Samoa
Guam
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Northern
Mariana Islands
Migrant population (in millions)
Immigrants
Emigrants
The most travelled migration pathways in Oceania reflect the fact that so much of the region’s population is
contained in just a few countries. Paths into and out of Australia and New Zealand dominate, emphasizing the large
role that they play in shaping the region’s migration patterns.
Source for all figures:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015; and UNICEF analysis based on United
Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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6| Oceania
Displacement and Forced Migration in Oceania
Fewer than 1,400 refugees have origins in Oceania, by far the smallest number for any region in the
world. The region hosts just over 48,000 people living as refugees or in refugee-like situations, less than
1 per cent of the world’s total. An additional 22,000 asylum-seekers are awaiting a determination of their
status as refugees.
The largest refugee movements into Oceania all come from Asia: 9,300 Indonesian refugees live
in Papua New Guinea, 7
,800 Afghans have found refuge in Australia and 5,200 Iranians are living as
refugees in Australia.
While data are not available about the number of children among recognized refugees in Oceania, recent
reports indicate that children seeking refuge in the region face serious danger. Long and treacherous
sea journeys are required to reach Australia – the region’s main destination for asylum-seekers. Since
late 2013, the Australian Government has implemented a policy of interception and pushback at sea for
migrants attempting to reach the country on irregular journeys. Boats that are pushed back are often in
serious disrepair and unequipped for an extended journey, putting all those aboard at serious risk both
during the journey and on whatever other shores they may reach.
235
Under the Regional Resettlement Agreement, migrants who are intercepted have been transferred to
neighbouring countries for processing and, in some cases, detention in Regional Processing Centres in
Papua New Guinea. Shortly before the Agreement was reached, 3,300 children were being held in some
form of either immigration or community detention as a result of their migration status.
236
There are no
longer children in so-called ‘held facilities’ within Australia, which is a positive development, although
concerns about the well-being of children in other forms of care remain.
237
The Regional Settlement Agreement and its implementation have come under harsh and repeated
criticism. The Australian Human Rights Commission has documented a large number of these critiques,
including, most pointedly, one from the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel,
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, who argued that “…by failing to provide adequate
detention conditions; end the practice of detention of children; and put a stop to the escalating violence
and tension at the Regional Processing Centre, [Australia] has violated the right of the asylum seekers,
including children, to be free from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.
238
”
These and other reports about maltreatment, poor mental health and self-harm of children, men and
women in immigration detention make it all the more urgent that children and all others seeking refuge
be afforded all of their rights under international and domestic law – both in principle and in practice.
Pupils sit inside a tent being used as a temporary
school structure in Vanuatu.
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105
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ISSUE IN FOCUS
Children, climate change and migration in Oceania
The intersection between climate change and migration
is one of great interest in many regions, but reliable
estimates of climate-induced migration remain elusive.
The International Organization for Migration reports that,
globally, estimates for the number of migrants moving
due to environmental causes range between 25 million
and 1 billion people by 2050, with 200 million people
being the most commonly cited figure.
239
For reasons of both geography and demography,
countries in the Pacific Islands are now at the centre of
global debates on climate-induced migration. Pacific
Island countries are typically composed of many islands
scattered across vast expanses of ocean. Few countries
can afford to establish social, economic and health
infrastructure and services on every island. Climate
change continues to exacerbate these challenges, with
rising sea levels reducing arable land, drinkable water
and sustainable fish stocks.
Many Pacific Islands are becoming depopulated, with
the elderly, people with disabilities and small children
remaining on the island as people who are able to find
jobs elsewhere move to capital cities and towns, to
foreign countries or to work on ships.
240
Remittances and
gifts sent back to family members by migrant workers
are an important source of income but may be irregular
in timing and amount, and sometimes cease altogether.
In most cases, migrant remittances are insufficient to lift
families out of poverty. When Pacific Islanders migrate
either seasonally, temporarily or permanently, it is far too
far and costly for them to return on a regular basis. These
extended periods of separation for families exacerbate
risks seen in other regions, that children may be
subjected to neglect, physical and emotional abuse and
exploitation. Despite the hazards and risks, many Pacific
Islanders feel increasingly desperate to find a place to
migrate to, as livelihood options are few and climate
change threatens, in some cases, the existence of entire
nations.
Most Pacific Island countries and territories are exposed
to a variety of climatic extremes, including tropical
cyclones (storm surges and heavy seas), droughts, high
wave events and episodes of climate-related disease
vectors. Disasters are often followed by migration as
communities seek external sources to supplement their
reduced livelihoods.
241
Tuvalu is a clear example of a nation existentially
threatened by sea level rise, storm surges, ‘king
tides’ and other extreme climatic conditions. Tuvalu is
increasingly affected by saltwater flooding, accelerated
coastal erosion and worsening agricultural conditions.
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107
People are migrating to Funafuti, the atoll that houses
the capital, and to New Zealand and Fiji, as their
adaptive capacity is exceeded. Uncertainty about the
future is proving a key factor in migration: almost
all migrants interviewed for a 2009 study in New
Zealand cited climate change and rising sea levels as
contributing to their decision to migrate.
242
Every aspect of children’s lives can be impacted by
climate change, including by the threat of physical injury
from storms, the psychological stress of disasters, and
interruptions to essential services including health care,
education and appropriate nutrition.
243
Prior UNICEF
research has shown that children from poor households
or geographically remote areas are most likely to be
cut off from social services, meaning that they will bear
brunt of these impacts of climate change.
244
Evidence from specific Pacific Island nations brings
these dangers into sharp relief. According to a 2007
study, sea levels are rising at a rate of 3.9 millimetres
per year in Kiribati and 5.6 millimetres per year for
Vanuatu.
245
Research focusing on the potential impacts
of climate change in those countries has identified a
broad range of threats to children’s well-being, including
increased exposure to climate extremes, with all the
attendant dangers to health, education, nutrition,
hygiene and protection.
246
As in many other contexts, this research suggests
that sea level rises in Kiribati and Vanuatu will first
affect families who lack the resources to avoid the
worst impacts. The majority of facilities in Kiribati
of importance to children – including their homes,
health facilities, schools and recreational areas – are in
close proximity to the coast, making them particularly
vulnerable. The situation has become so acute that
Kiribati recently made global headlines for becoming the
first nation to purchase land to resettle its population in
the face of climate change.
247
The combined impact of climate change and migration
dynamics is already affecting children and young people
in many Pacific Island nations. Data from a 2008 report
for the Pacific Islands show high emigration among
youth, including between one-fifth and two-fifths of
youth populations from countries including Fiji, Samoa,
Tonga, the Cook Islands and the Marshall Islands.
248
Without dramatic action to curb the impact of climate
change, the future of these nations – and their children –
is in jeopardy.
Emergency supplies for the 350,000 Fijians, including 120,000 children,
affected by Cyclone Winston were flown in from the UNICEF global
supply hub in Copenhagen, Denmark.
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6| Oceania
The Promise and Perils of Migration and Displacement for Children in Oceania
Movement into and within Oceania happens for many of the same reasons
and with many of the same aspirations as in other regions. The issues
outlined below highlight small pieces of a much larger body of evidence about
the ways in which children and families are affected by migration in the region.
These issues – and the migration legislation, policies and practices in place in
each country – have lasting impacts on whether migration ultimately benefits
children and their families.
Treacherous journeys
UNHCR reports have found that, during irregular migration by boat through the
wider Asia-Pacific region, children were underfed, with limited sanitation and at
times were kept in confined spaces below deck.
249
This same reporting has found
instances in which smugglers, under pressure to meet quotas, have abducted
children at departure points commonly used for passage to Oceania. With limited
refugee protections in some countries within the region, asylum-seekers and
other migrants are vulnerable to exploitation and other abuses throughout their
journeys, including exploitation and abuse by police and other officials.
250
Threats from immigration detention and enforcement practices
By the end of March 2016, approximately 300 children were in some form
of immigration detention under the control of the Australian authorities,
consisting of either immigration detention facilities, community detention
or alternative places of detention.
251
These are far fewer than their peak in
summer 2013, but the duration and conditions of detention pose serious
threats to the well-being of children. More than 40 per cent of all people in
Australian immigration detention are held for over a year. Among those in
community detention, more than half are held for over a year, with more
than a third held for at least two years.
252
Migrants, including children,
have limitations on their freedom of movement while in detention and
reported feelings of insecurity and lack of safety in the detention facilities.
253
Interviews with children and young people in detention have revealed
that these negative impacts are worsened by the conditions and length of
detention.
254
Other researchers have found that migrants grapple with a lack
of formal identity documentation, including passports for children born in the
country while in detention in Papua New Guinea.
255
On the island of Nauru
– used by the Australian government for off-shore processing of asylum-
seekers, refugees and other migrants – children and other vulnerable people
are at risk of sexual and physical abuse, especially without an independent
authority on the island to monitor service provider care or to assess the
well-being of the detained.
256
While these processes continue in some parts of the region, elsewhere there
have been important developments with regard to immigration detention.
In April 2016, the Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea declared that the
off-shoring arrangement between Australia and Papua New Guinea to
detain asylum-seekers in the country was unconstitutional and called for an
end to the detention of asylum-seekers.
257
On the day of the decision, the
Government of Papua New Guinea announced plans to close the detention
centre on Manus Island. In August 2016, the Australian Government
confirmed that the processing centre on the island will be closed but that
those detained there will not be allowed to settle in Australia.
258
Uncertain employment outcomes
Young migrants, including children, come largely to Australia and New Zealand
through migration arrangements for work, family or humanitarian relocation,
for seasonal labour or as students, but there is little research into the labour
market experience and outcomes for these young people after they arrive.
259
In New Zealand, research suggests that lower employment rates and lower
wages for Asians and Pacific Islanders compared with native workers are due
to their migration status rather than their ethnicity.
260
The issue of sustainable youth employment is particularly pressing for Pacific
Island nations, as youth – the most mobile portion of the population – are
expected to rise in number. While noting the limited ability of local labour
markets to absorb this youth bulge, the World Bank has identified a potential
mutually beneficial labour market match: other, higher-income countries in
the Pacific Rim have a growing need for labour that will not be matched by
available domestic supplies.
261
If the right policies are put into place, both the
youth and economies of Oceania can benefit.
Impact of migration on children’s mental well-being
Young immigrants may experience anxiety as a consequence of the stress
associated with migration and resettlement. Promisingly, however, these effects
do not necessarily linger. Evidence from a 2003 study in Australia indicates that,
within a generation, the children of a migrant parent often exhibit no mental
health issues associated with migration, and no longer differ in their mental
well-being from the children of Australian-born parents.
262
A different study of 97
refugee youth in Australia showed that, young refugees’ subjective well-being
was heavily shaped by whether they are socially included or excluded upon
arrival. The study confirmed both the negative ramifications of exclusion as well
as the benefits to children of inclusive social and community conditions.
263
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109
Legal frameworks
Regional Legal Frameworks
to protect the rights of child refugees and migrants in Oceania
In every region, children’s rights are protected by a robust framework
of international human rights instruments, though ratification of some
elements is uneven. Oceania lags behind many other regions in ratifications
of key elements, especially the International Convention on the Protection
of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (Figure
6.5).
FIGURE 6.6
There are no comprehensive regional human rights frameworks specific
to Oceania, but some key elements are incorporated into the Pacific Plan
(2005), the overarching plan for regional cooperation and integration.
Additionally, key processes and domestic legislation regarding refugee
and migrant children include:
>
The Bali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons
and Related Transnational Crime, which brings together many
governments within Oceania and beyond for cooperation around
irregular migration, smuggling and trafficking issues. The Bali
Process is co-chaired by Australia and Indonesia.
Ministers from 13 countries (including Australia, New Zealand
and Papua New Guinea) signed the non-binding Jakarta
Declaration on Addressing Irregular Movement, affirming the
commitment of signatory governments to share responsibility
and a protection-sensitive approach to cooperation on irregular
migration.
In March 2016, ministers from around the region endorsed
the Bali Process Declaration on People Smuggling, Trafficking
in Persons and Related Transnational Crime. The Declaration
recognises the growing importance of the issues within
the Asia Pacific region and the necessity of comprehensive
strategies for addressing exploitation and expanding safe, legal
migration pathways.
Number of countries in Oceania that have ratified key human rights instruments, July 2016
>
Convention on
the Rights
of the Child
(1989)
Convention relating
to the Status
of Refugees (1951)
and Protocol (1967)
Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish
Trafficking in Persons,
Especially Women
and Children (2000)
Protocol against
the Smuggling
of Migrants by Land,
Sea and Air (2000)
>
International Convention
on the Protection
of the Rights of
All Migrant Workers
and Members of
Their Families (1990)
Number of countries
Ratified
Not ratified
Source:
United Nations Treaty Collection; see <http://treaties.un.org> (as of 13 July 2016).
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7| The Policy Perspective
THE POLICY
PERSPECTIVE
Children play at dusk in the
Protection of Civilians site
near Bentiu, in Unity State,
South Sudan.
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7| The Policy Perspective
111
AN AGENDA FOR ACTION
On Children, Migration and Displacement
Whether they are running from immediate violence or voluntarily moving with their families, children belong at the centre of every debate on migration and
displacement. When conflicts force families from their homes, it is children who suffer the most and will continue to suffer the longest. When restrictive policies fore-
close legal pathways for migration, it is children who feel the worst impacts of the perilous journeys that follow. The evidence is clear and the time for action is now.
UNICEF calls on all actors to respect the rights and needs of children impacted by migration and
displacement. Putting children first means committing to:
>> Protect child refugees and migrants, particularly unaccompanied children, from exploitation and violence
Introduce measures to strengthen child protection systems, including the training of social and child workers and working with
NGOs and professional groups. Clamp down on trafficking, not only through enhanced law enforcement, but also by providing
better support to migrant children through the systematic appointment of qualified guardians; better access to information
regarding their own situation and the management of their cases; and access to legal assistance. Governments should also
develop clearer guidance for case officers when determining the migration status of children, to prevent the return of children
and families to persecution, dangerous or life-threatening situations, using the best interest of the child principle to guide legal
decision-making in all cases.
>> End the detention of children seeking refugee status or migrating
Introduce practical alternatives to detention wherever children (or their families) are involved, given the negative impact of
detention on a child’s development. Children are particularly vulnerable to physical and psychological violence. Examples of
alternatives to detention include: the surrender of passport and regular reporting requirements; guarantors or bailees who may
be family members or community supporters; foster care and supervised independent living for unaccompanied and separated
children; and compulsory registration with authorities.
>> Keep families together as the best way to protect children and give children legal status
Develop clear policy guidance to keep children from being separated from their parents during border control processing and
any migrant legal processes. States should speed-up procedures and make it easier for children to reunite with their families,
including with their extended families in destination countries. States should pursue all practical measures to reunify children
with their families. Children born to migrant parents need legal identity for their future wellbeing. Governments should provide
birth registration and/or other identity documents to enable children to access services and avoid statelessness.
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7| The Policy Perspective
>> Keep all refugee and migrant children learning and give them access to health and other quality services
An increased collective effort by governments, communities and the private sector is needed to provide education, health,
shelter, nutrition, water and sanitation, and access to legal and psychosocial support to these children. This is not only a
collective responsibility, it is in all societies’ common interests. A child’s migration status should never represent a barrier to
accessing essential services.
>> Press for action on the underlying causes of large-scale movements of refugees and migrants
Address the root causes of conflict, violence and extreme poverty in countries of origin. This should include increasing access
to education and social protection; expanding opportunities for family income and youth employment; and fostering more
accountable and transparent governance. Governments should facilitate community dialogue and engagement towards
peaceful conflict resolution, tolerance and a more inclusive society; and should take measures against gang violence.
>> Promote measures to combat xenophobia, discrimination and marginalization in countries of transit and destination
Coalitions of NGOs, communities, private sector, religious groups and political leaders should take responsibility for influencing public opinion
to prevent the rise of xenophobia and discrimination toward refugees.
Refugee and migrant families walk near the
Gevgelija transit center, on the Macedonian border
with Greece. Child and Family Support Hubs,
known as “Blue Dots, provide a safe space for
”
children and their families, vital services, play,
protection and counselling in a single location.
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7| The Policy Perspective
113
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Appendices
APPENDICES
16-year-old Ararsh, from Afghanistan, at the
Karlshorst emergency housing estate, near Berlin,
Germany in May 2016.
© UNICEF/UN025282/Gilbertson VII
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Appendices
115
APPENDIX I A CALL FOR BETTER DATA
Comparable, reliable, timely,
disaggregated and accessible data
are essential for understanding
and addressing the implications
of migration for children and their
families. Data need to cover a range of
key questions, including who migrants
and displaced persons are, how old
they are, where they come from,
when they move, where they move,
why they move and how they fare.
A first step towards closing the
data gaps about child migrants and
refugees is identifying who and where
those children are. Accounting for
migrant children – especially refugee
children – is fundamental for their
protection. Beginning more than a
decade ago, the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees declared
unequivocally that “the registration
of children should always be a priority
when registering persons of concern
to UNHCR.
264
More consistent efforts
”
to identify the origins and destinations
of child refugees are also needed,
including through the adoption of
consistent and reliable techniques
for determining the ages of children
who arrive without documentation.
Population registers and censuses
are essential tools for closing
some of these gaps, particularly
for non-refugee migrant children.
As the predominant data source
on international migration, every
census should collect information on
the country of birth, the country of
citizenship and the country of previous
residence for respondents.
A second and equally important
step towards closing data gaps is
improving information about the
well-being of children affected
by migration and displacement.
Outcomes related to water and
sanitation, education, gender, child
protection, social inclusion and health
need to be assessed for migrant and
refugee children and considered in
relation to the outcomes to native-
born children. Data disaggregated by
migratory status will be particularly
important for measuring progress
for vulnerable children and families
across the Sustainable Development
Goals. To bolster the overall quality
of information about the well-being
and progress of migrant children,
pertinent administrative data should
be more accessible and household
surveys should be adjusted to include
relevant migration questions. New
technologies and data sources
also have tremendous potential to
improve current knowledge about
migration movements. Data from
social media, mobile phones and other
sources can provide geo-spatial and
temporal information about population
movements in real time, facilitating
timely and relevant responses for
people on the move. Continued
investment in both new and traditional
data sources will be essential to
effectively meet the rights and needs
of children and families in the years to
come.
Data sources and data limitations
Data on international migration and
displacement are incomplete and
policymakers often rely on estimates for
the total number of international migrants
and the number of migrant and displaced
children. No global estimates are available
with the full details of who the world’s
child migrants are – including not just their
age, but also their place of birth, sex and
whether their migration was forced or
voluntary. Eighty-one per cent of the 232
countries and territories included in United
Nations reporting had at least one relatively
recent data point on the country of origin
for their population, and 75 per cent had
at least one data point on the age of their
international migrant population since the
2000 census round.
265
For refugee numbers
– published by UNHCR at the end of 2015
– age-disaggregation was available for 58
per cent or 10.9 million refugees (out of the
16.1 million total refugee population under
UNHCR’s mandate).
266
Age-disaggregated
details were available for less than one-
quarter of internally displaced persons (8.4
million out of the total 37 million internally
.5
displaced persons protected or assisted
by UNHCR). At the country level, 29 per
cent of the countries hosting refugees
under UNHCR’s mandate had no reliable
information (age coverage greater than 50
per cent) on the age of the refugees. The age
coverage was particularly low for countries
in Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean,
Northern America and Oceania.
Apart from the magnitude and recent
trends in population movements and basic
demographic information of international
migrants, even less globally comparable
information is available to monitor how
voluntary and forced migrants fare in their
countries of transit and destination or how
migration affects children left in the care of
others when their parents migrate.
Data on international migrants and
refugees are derived from registers,
censuses, administrative data and surveys.
Population registration systems that record
movements into and out of a country,
internal movements, births and deaths are
essential for reliable data on migration. If
maintained properly, these systems can
be used to produce timely information
about migration flows by origin, age, sex
and location. Most countries, however,
lack such systems: in 2015, annual data
on recent migratory movements were
available for just 23 countries.
267
Even when systems are in place, there
can be considerable delays between
the time a person enters a country and
the time he or she shows up in the
population register. National censuses
are typically conducted at ten-year
intervals, limiting their usefulness as a
source of timely trend data. Additionally,
the questions asked in censuses do not
necessarily prioritize migration or refugee
movements. An analysis of the 150 census
questionnaires from the 2010 census
round revealed that 80 per cent contained
questions on place of birth, but only 17 per
cent included questions on the reasons for
international migration and just 7 per cent
addressed forced displacement.
268
Other
data sources can play a valuable role in
filling data gaps, including administrative
data about first-time arrivals into a country,
residence and work permits, and border
surveys. Household surveys can offer
further detail still, providing more in-depth
information about the impact of migration
and displacement on children.
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Appendices
APPENDIX 2 | ENDNOTES
1| The Global Picture
1
Jiménez, Tomás R., ‘Immigrants in the United States: How well are
they integrating into society?’, Migration Policy Institute, Washing-
ton, DC, May 2011, p. 7; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development,
Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling in,
OECD Publishing, Paris, 2015, pp. 23–24.
Abel, Guy J., ‘Estimates of Global Bilateral Migration Flows by
Gender between 1960 and 2015’, Working paper, Vienna Institute of
Demography, February 2016.
The nature of accounting for international migration and
displacement means that children are likely to be undercounted in
these estimates. Long periods between national data collection
efforts may mean that recently arrived children are not included in
published data, and other recent migration movements are likely to
be missed. Additionally, families with an irregular migration status
are less likely to be represented in official statistics.
These numbers include both refugees under the protection of
the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
(approximately 16 million people) as well as the 5.2 million refugees
registered with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Pal-
estine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). For children, the totals
include approximately 8 million child refugees under protection of
UNHCR and an estimated 2 million children registered with UNRWA.
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2015
Revision,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
During that same period, the total global number of international
refugees (including child and adult refugees under the mandate
of United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) as
well as Palestinian refugees registered with the United Nations
Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
(UNRWA)) increased by almost 40 per cent, from 15.5 million to 21.3
million people. Data on Palestinian refugees are not disaggregated
for children under 18. Unless noted otherwise, total numbers for
child refugees do not include Palestinian children registered with
UNRWA.
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Popula-
tion Division,
World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision,
United
Nations, New York, 2015.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends:
Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016, p. 3.
Zlotnik, Hania, ‘The Global Dimensions of Female Migration’,
Migration Policy Institute, 1 March 2003, <www.migrationpolicy.org/
article/global-dimensions-female-migration>, accessed 8 August
2016; United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division,
International Migration Report 2015: Highlights,
United Nations, New York, 2015; and Le Goff, Maelan, ‘Feminization
10
11
of Migration and Trends in Remittances’, Institute for the Study of
Labor (IZA), January 2016.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends:
Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
Bernard, Aude, Martin Bell and Elin Charles-Edwards, ‘Life-Course
Transitions and the Age Profile of Internal Migration’,
Population and
Development Review,
vol. 40, no. 2, June 2014, pp. 213–239; United
Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division, ‘Migration in a Globalizing World: The role of youth’,
Technical paper, United Nations, New York, 2011.
Median ages of 43, 42 and 44 years, respectively.
These data represent the most reliable global information, but
they are only estimated snapshots in time. The data reflect where
children are when a census is taken or their paperwork is filed, but
the data do not capture the other countries that children may have
passed through, or the places they intend to settle permanently.
Some of the most commonly used routes are highlighted in the
regional chapter of this report, but data limitations – especially for
irregular migration paths – make it difficult to provide a complete
global picture of how many people are moving through a particular
country over time.
It is important to note that these totals reflect many years of accu-
mulated migration activity, not only recent movements and trends.
Abel, Guy J., ‘Estimates of Global Bilateral Migration Flows by
Gender between 1960 and 2015’, Working paper, Vienna Institute of
Demography, February 2016.
As is discussed in more detail in the section that follows, the
proportion of children in the total migrant populations of Lebanon
and Jordan is heavily influenced by the high numbers of refugees
they host and the over-representation of children among refugees.
Mexico is the only country hosting a considerable number of migrant
children where the proportion of children in the overall migrant
population is greater than 50 per cent.
The proportions of child migrants as part of the total migrant
population in Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Canada and
the United States are 20, 13, 8 and 8 per cent, respectively.
UNICEF analysis based on United Nations, Department of Economic
and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International
Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin,
United Nations,
New York, 2015. The national income classification follows the
World Bank income classification. The detailed classification can be
found at: <http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/
country-and-lending-groups>, accessed 13 July 2016.
Ibid.
Bell, Martin, and Elin Charles-Edwards, ‘Cross-national Comparisons
of Internal Migration: An update on global patterns and trends’,
Technical paper, Population Division, United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, New York, January 2013.
21
22
National Bureau of Statistics China,
Statistical Yearbook 2014,
National Bureau of Statistics China, Beijing, 2015.
United Nations Children’s Fund, National Working Committee on
Children and Women, National Bureau of Statistics, Department
of Social, Science, Technology and Cultural Statistics,
Children in
China: An atlas of social indicators,
UNICEF, Beijing, 2014, p. 22.
Mou J., et al., ‘Health of China’s Rural-Urban Migrants and Their
Families: A review of literature from 2000 to 2012’, British
Medical
Bulletin,
vol. 106, no. 1, pp. 19-43, 19 May 2013, doi: 10.1093/bmb/
ldt016.
United Nations Children’s Fund, National Working Committee on
Children and Women, National Bureau of Statistics, Department of
Social, Science, Technology and Cultural Statistics,
Children in Chi-
na: An atlas of social indicators,
UNICEF, Beijing, 2014, pp. 112–113.
Duan, Cheng-rong, et al., ‘The Survival and Development Status of
Floating Children in China: An analysis of the sixth population census
data’,
South China Population,
vol. 28, no. 4, 2013.
Duan, Cheng-rong, et al, ‘The Survival and Development of Left-
behind Children in Rural China: Based on the analysis of the sixth
census data’,
Population Journal,
vol. 35, no. 3, 2013, pp. 37–49.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and
United Nations Children’s Fund,
For a Better Inclusion of Internal
Migrants in India Policy Briefs,
UNESCO and UNICEF, New Delhi,
October 2012.
Ibid., p. 16.
Smita, ‘Distress Seasonal Migration and Its Impact on Children’s
Education’, CREATE Pathways to Access Research Monograph, no.
28, Brighton, 2008, p. 5.
Among countries hosting over 10,000 refugees.
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in
the Near East,
Annual Operational Report 2015 for the Reporting
Period, 1 January - 31 December 2015,
UNRWA, 2016, p. 2. For a
variety of technical reasons, data regarding Palestinian refugees and
migrants are not usually directly comparable to overall global num-
bers and cannot be added together in many parts of this report. This
population, however, remains extremely vulnerable and in need of
continuing international attention. For more details on the situation
of Palestinian refugees and migrants, see the box on page 32.
Based on a comparison of refugees hosted to per capita gross
domestic product (purchasing power parity adjusted), per United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced
displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in
the Near East,
Annual Operational Report 2015 for the Reporting
Period, 1 January – 31 December 2015,
UNRWA, 2016.
This distribution of Palestinian refugees over countries in the Middle
East takes into account the latest displacements due to the Syrian
crisis: see United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine
23
2
3
12
13
24
25
4
26
27
14
15
5
28
29
16
6
30
31
17
18
7
32
8
9
33
19
20
34
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Appendices
117
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
Refugees in the Near East,
Annual Operational Report 2015
for the Reporting Period, 1 January - 31 December 2015,
UNRWA, 2016, p. 5; United Nations Relief and Works Agency
for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, Syria Regional Crisis
Emergency Appeal, UNRWA, 2016.
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refu-
gees in the Near East, ‘UNRWA in Figures 2015 as of January
2015’, UNRWA, 2015.
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refu-
gees in the Near East,
Syria Regional Crisis Emergency Appeal,
UNRWA, 2016.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global
Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
Bilak, Alexandra, et al., Global Overview 2015: People inter-
nally displaced by conflict and violence, Internal Displacement
Monitoring Centre, Geneva, May 2015, p. 80.
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre,
Global Report on
Internal Displacement 2016,
IDMC, Geneva, 2016, p. 8.
According to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva,
2016, data by age were available for only 8.4 million, or 22 per
cent, of all internally displaced persons.
UNICEF analysis based on Internal Displacement Monitoring
Centre, ‘Global Report on Internal Displacement 2016’, IDMC,
Geneva, 2016; and United Nations, Department of Economic
and Social Affairs, Population Division,
World Population
Prospects: The 2015 Revision,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
International Organization for Migration Displacement Tracking
Matrix (DTM), ‘HAITI Response to January 12th 2010 Earth-
quake, Round 26’, IOM, June 2016; International Organization
for Migration Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM), ‘IDP
Registration in Haiti Update and Analysis of the Population
Remaining in IDP Sites’, IOM, 2012; Displacement Tracking
Matrix (DTM), ‘Displacement Tracking Matrix V2.0 Special
Update IOM’, 12 January 2012; International Organization for
Migration Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM), ‘DTM Special
Report January 2012’, IOM, 27 January 2012; Displacement
Tracking Matrix (DTM), ‘Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM)
Round 10 Report‘, IOM, June 2016.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global
Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016;
and United Nations, Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The
2015 Revision, United Nations, New York, 2015.
United Nations Development Programme,
Human Development
Report 2009: Overcoming barriers – Human mobility and
development,
UNDP, New York, 2009.
The World Bank, ‘Migration and Development Brief 18’, The
World Bank, Washington, DC, 2012.
See Rapoport, Hillel, and Frédéric Docquier,
The Economics of
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
Migrants’ Remittances,
Institute for the Study of Labour (IZA),
Bonn, 2005; De Haas, Hein, ‘Remittances, Migration and Social
Development: A Conceptual Review of the Literature’, United
Nations Research Institute for Social Development, Social Pol-
icy and Development Programme, Paper Number 34, 2007; and
Ratha, Dilip, ‘The Impact of Remittances on Economic Growth
and Poverty Reduction’, Migration Policy Institute, September
2013.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,
‘Migration Policy Debates: Is migration good for the economy?’
May 2014.
United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform,
‘Sustainable Development Goals’, <https://sustainabledevelop-
ment.un.org/?menu=1300>, accessed 6 August 2016.
See, for example, Goodburn, Charlotte, ‘Rural-Urban Migration
and Gender Disparities in Child Healthcare in China and
India’,
Development and Change,
vol. 45, no. 4, July 2014, pp.
631–655; and Antai, Diddy, et al., ‘Migration and Child Health
Inequities in Nigeria: A multilevel analysis of contextual- and
individual-level factors’,
Tropical Medicine and International
Health,
vol. 15, no. 12, December 2010, pp. 1464–1474.
Smeekens, Chantal, Margaret S. Stroebe and Georgios
Abakoumkin, ‘The Impact of Migratory Separation from
Parents on the Health of Adolescents in the Philippines’,
Social
Science and Medicine,
vol. 75, issue 12, September 2012, pp.
2250–2257; Asian Development Bank Institute, Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development, and International
Labour Organization,
Building Human Capital through Labour
Migration in Asia,
ADBI, OECD and ILO, 2015; Jordan, Lucy
P., and Elspeth Graham, ‘Resilience and Well-being among
Children of Migrant Parents in South-East Asia’,
Child
Development,
vol. 83, no. 5, September 2012, pp. 1672–1688;
Rosengärtner, Sarah, and Lars Johan Lönnback, ‘Making the
Case for Including Migration into the Post-2015 UN Devel-
opment Agenda’, Background paper, High Level Panel on the
Post-2015 Development Agenda – Expert Policy Dialogue on
Migration, Stockholm, 26 February 2013; and United Nations
Children’s Fund Tajikistan, ‘Impact of Labour Migration on
“Children Left Behind” in Tajikistan’, Dushanbe, November
2011, p. 45 onward.
Fazel, Mina, et al., ‘Mental Health of Displaced and Refugee
Children Resettled in High-income Countries: Risk and protec-
tive factors’,
The Lancet,
vol. 379, no. 9812, 21 January 2012,
pp. 266–282.
See, for example, Sexual and Gender-Based Violence
Sub-Working Group, ‘Sexual and Gender-Based Violence:
Syrian Refugees in Jordan’, SGBV SWG, Jordan, March 2014,
p. 1.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime,
Global Report on
Trafficking in Persons 2014,
UNODC, New York, November
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
2014, p. 5.
Ibid., p. 5.
Ibid., p. 7.
Ibid., p. 5.
In addition to this distinction, trafficking may technically occur
either within a specific country or across borders. Smuggling
involves the crossing of an international border.
HelpAge International and Handicap International,
Hidden Vic-
tims of the Syrian Crisis: Disabled, injured and older refugees,
HelpAge International and Handicap International, London and
Lyon, 2014, p. 18.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global
Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016, p.
8.
Ibid.
Ibid. UNHCR notes further that “not all countries report
information on the numbers of unaccompanied or separated
children seeking asylum, most notably South Africa and the
United States of America; thus it is very likely that the reported
figure is an under-estimate.”
End Immigration Detention of Children, ‘The Issue’, <http://
endchilddetention.org/the-issue>, accessed 2 August 2016.
See, for example, Farmer, Alice, ’The Impact of Immigration
Detention on Children’,
Forced Migration Review,
vol. 44,
September 2013, p. 14.
See, for example,
RILR v. Johnson,
available at <https://www.
aclu.org/legal-document/rilr-v-johnson-order>, and
Flores v.
Lynch,
available at <https://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/
opinions/2016/07/06/15-56434.pdf>.
Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘Report of the 2012
Day of General Discussion of the Rights of All Children in the
Context of International Migration’ DGD, 2012.
United Nations, In Safety and Dignity: Addressing large move-
ments of refugees and migrants – Report of the Secretary-Gen-
eral, A/70/59, United Nations, New York, 21 April 2016, p. 15.
Nicolai, Susan, et al., ‘Education Cannot Wait: Proposing a
Fund for Education in Emergencies’, ODI, London, May 2016, p.
10.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi-
zation, the Global Education Monitoring Report and United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘No More Excuses:
Provide education to all forcibly displaced people’, Policy paper
26, UNESCO, Global Education Monitoring Report, May 2016,
p. 3.
Nicolai, Susan, and Sébastien Hine, ‘Investment for Education
in Emergencies: A review of evidence’, ODI, London, February
2015, pp. 20–23.
Ibid., pp. 9–13.
Brown, Christia Spears,
The Educational, Psychological and So-
cial Impact of Discrimination on the Immigrant Child,
Migration
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118
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Appendices
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Policy Institute, Washington, DC, September 2015, p. 1.
Ibid., p. 1.
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, ‘Seeking
Refuge: Countering intolerance against refugees and migrants’,
Hate Crime Reporting, 2 February 2016, <http://hatecrime.osce.
org/infocus/seeking-refuge-countering-intolerance-against-refu-
gees-and-migrants>, accessed 19 July 2016.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
I Am Here, I
Belong: The urgent need to end childhood statelessness,
UNHCR
Division of International Protection, November 2015, p. 1.
The Global Migration Group describes migrants in irregular mi-
gration situations as “every person who, owing to undocumented
entry or the expiry of his or her visa, lacks legal status in a transit
or host country. The term applies to migrants who infringe a
country’s admission rules and any other person not authorized to
remain in the host country.”
International Organization for Migration, ‘Missing Migrants
Project – Latest Global Figures’, <http://missingmigrants.iom.int/
latest-global-figures>, accessed 3 August 2016.
International Organization for Migration, United Nation Children’s
Fund, ‘IOM and UNICEF Data Brief: Migration of children to
Europe’, 30 November 2015, <www.iom.int/sites/default/files/
press_release/file/IOM-UNICEF-Data-Brief-Refugee-and-Migrant-
Crisis-in-Europe-30.11.15.pdf>, accessed 1 August 2016.
United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Migration and Children’, <https://
www.unicef-irc.org/knowledge-pages/Migration-and-children>,
accessed 24 July 2016.
Antman, Francisca M., ’The Impact of Migration on Family Left
Behind’, Discussion paper, Institute for the Study of Labour,
February 2012, pp. 7–11; Smeekens, Chantal, Margaret S. Stroebe
and Giorgios Abakoumkin, ’The Impact of Migratory Separation
from Parents on the Health of Adolescents in the Philippines’,
Social Science and Medicine,
vol. 75, issue 12, September 2012,
pp. 2250–2257; Jordan, Lucy P., and Elspeth Graham, ‘Resilience
and Well-being among Children of Migrant Parents in South-East
Asia’,
Child Development,
vol. 83, no. 5, September 2012, pp.
1672–1688; and Graham, Elspeth, and Lucy P. Jordan, ‘Migrant
Parents and the Psychological Well-being of Left-behind Children
in Southeast Asia’,
Journal of Marriage and Family,
vol. 73, no. 4,
August 2011, pp. 763–787.
See, for example, a recently settled court case in the United
States regarding the issuance of birth certificates for children born
in the country to parents with irregular migration status: <www.
nytimes.com/2016/07/25/us/lawsuit-texas-immigrants-birth-cer-
tificates.html>.
Abramovich, Victor, Pablo Ceriani Cernadas and Alejandro Mor-
lachetti, ‘The Rights of Children, Youth and Women in the Context
of Migration: Conceptual basis and principles for effective policies
with a human rights and gender-based approach’, UNICEF social
and economic working paper, April 2011.
Kunze, Hans-Rainer, and Kristin Gisbert, ‘Förderung lernmeth-
odischer Kompetenzen in Kindertageseinrichtungen‘, part A
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
in Wassilios E. Fthenakis et al.,
Auf den Anfang kommt es an:
Perspektiven für eine Neuorientierung frühkindlicher Bildung,
Berlin and Bonn, Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung,
2005, pp. 15–117.
Becker, Birgit, ‘Ethnische Bildungsungleichheit in der frühen
Kindheit: Ergebnisse aus dem Projekt ESKOM-V’,
Frühe Bildung,
vol. 1, no. 3, 2012, pp. 150–158.
Karoly, Lynn A., and Gabriella C. Gonzalez, ‘Early Care and Educa-
tion for Children in Immigrant Families’,
The Future of Children,
vol. 21, no. 1, Summer 2011, p. 75.
Child Trends Data Bank, ‘Immigrant Children: Indicators on
children and youth’, October 2014.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Trends
in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United
Nations, New York, 2015.
UNESCO Institute for Statistics, ‘Global Flow of Tertiary-level
Students’, <www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/internation-
al-student-flow-viz.aspx>, accessed 29 July 2016.
International Labour Organization, ‘Global Employment Trends
for Youth 2015: Scaling up investments in decent jobs for youth’,
Geneva, October 2015, p.6.
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Pop-
ulation Division. World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision,
Key Findings and Advance Tables. Working Paper No. ESA/P/
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United Nations General Assembly, Study of the Office of the Unit-
ed Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on Challenges
and Best Practices in the Implementation of the International
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July 2010.
Sampson et al.,
There Are Alternatives: A handbook for preventing
unnecessary immigration detention,
revised, Melbourne, Interna-
tional Detention Coalition, 2015, p. 37.
United Nations Children’s Fund,
Annual Results Report: Child
Protection 2015,
New York, UNICEF, 2016.
Case No.183/2008 of 22 December 2008, as cited in United Na-
tions General Assembly, Study of the Office of the United Nations
High Commissioner for Human Rights on Challenges and Best
Practices in the Implementation of the International Framework
for the Protection of the Rights of the Child in the Context of
Migration, A/HRC/15/29, United Nations, New York, July 2010.
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), art. 3, 9 and 10; CRC
Committee,
General Comment No. 6 – Treatment of Unaccom-
panied and Separated Children outside Their Country of Origin,
Geneva, 2005, para. 82 and 83.
National Department of Social Development,
Guidelines on
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Pretoria, 2009.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and United
Nations Children’s Fund, Safe and Sound: What states can do
to ensure respect for the best interests of unaccompanied and
separated children in Europe, UNHCR and UNICEF, Geneva and
New York, October 2014; United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees, Global Report 2011, UNHCR, Geneva, 2012, p. 340.
97 República de Panamá Órgano Ejecutivo Decreto Ley No. 3 (de 22
de febrero de 2008), Art. 93; México, Reglamento de la Ley Gen-
eral de los Derechos de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes, 2 diciembre
2015, Art. 111.
98 Council of Europe, ‘Protecting Children Affected by the Refugee
Crisis: A shared responsibility – Secretary-General’s proposals for
priority actions’, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 2016.
99 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Options Paper
1: Options for governments on care arrangements and alternatives
to detention for children and families’, UNHCR, Geneva, 2015, p.
13.
100 See, for example, in Argentina, Law 25.871 (2004) and Decrees
No. 836/04 and 578/05.
101 See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human
Rights, ‘International Migrants’ Day: Friday 18 December 2015’,
available at <www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Dis-
playNews.aspx?NewsID=16886&LangID=E>; and International Or-
ganization for Migration,
World Migration Report 2015 Migrants
and Cities: New partnerships to manage mobility,
IOM, Geneva,
2015, pp. 89–90.
102 McEvoy, Claire, Documentation of UNICEF – IOM Collaboration
on the Safe Return and Reunification of Ethiopian Unaccompanied
Migrant Children from Third Countries, January 2016, p. 6.
2| Africa
103 UNICEF analysis based on United Nations, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in
International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and origin;
and United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division,
World Population Prospects: The 2015
Revision,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
104 United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least
Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small
Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS),
Small Island Developing
States: Small Islands Big(ger) Stakes,
UN-OHRLLS, New York,
2011, pp. 2–3.
105 The migrant populations of Chad and Cameroon are composed
primarily of refugees (69 and 88 per cent, respectively), a
population in which children are over-represented, which likely
explains a large part of the over-representation of children in the
overall migrant population. Burkina Faso, in contrast, has very few
refugees among its migrants, making it more difficult to explain
the high proportion of children in the migrant stock. UNICEF
analysis based on United Nations, Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant
Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
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Appendices
119
106 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization,
‘New Patterns in Student Mobility in the Southern Africa De-
velopment Community’, UIS Information Bulletin No.7, UNESCO
Institute for Statistics, February 2012, p. 1.
107 Cherti, Myriam, and Peter Grant, ‘The Myth of Transit: Sub-Sa-
haran migration in Morocco’, IPPR, 2013.
108 United Nations Children's Fund West and Central Africa
Regional Office, ‘Mixed Migration Trends in West and Central
Africa’, August 2016 (forthcoming), p. 8.
109 Cherti, Myriam, and Peter Grant, ‘The Myth of Transit: Sub-Sa-
haran migration in Morocco’, IPPR, 2013, p. 4.
110 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global
Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 20 June
2016.
111 Based on a comparison of refugees hosted to per capita gross
domestic product (purchasing power parity adjusted), per Unit-
ed Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends:
Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 20 June 2016.
112 Government of Kenya, Ministry of Interior and Coordination of
National Government, ‘Government Statement and Update on
the Repatriation of Refugees and Scheduled Closure of Dadaab
Refugee Camp’, 11 May 2016; and Edwards, Adrian, ‘UNHCR
Appeals to Kenya over Decision to End Refugee Hosting’,
News, UNHCR Geneva, 9 May 2016, <www.unhcr.org/en-us/
news/latest/2016/5/5730b5f36/unhcr-appeals-kenya-deci-
sion-end-refugee-hosting.html>, accessed 21 July 2016.
113 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘South Sudan
Situation Regional Emergency Update’, 7 August 2016.
114 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global
Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
Unpublished data table, cited with permission.
115 United Nations Office for the Coordination for Humanitarian
Affairs, ‘Sudan: Humanitarian snapshot’ (as of 30 June 2016).
116 Alexandra, Gabriel, et al.,
Global Report on Internal Displace-
ment,
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, May 2016, p.
27; and United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘DRC Humanitarian
Situation Report’, 30 June 2016.
117 United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Demographic and Health
Survey’, 2013; and United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Monitoring
and Reporting Mechanism (MRM)’, September 2015.
118 Alexandra, Gabriel, et al.,
Global Report on Internal Displace-
ment,
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, May 2016
and United Nation’s Children’s Fund, ‘Somalia Humanitarian
Situation Report’ June 2016.
119 Alexandra, Gabriel, et al.,
Global Report on Internal Displace-
ment,
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, May 2016, p.
102.
120 Alexandra, Gabriel, et al.,
Global Report on Internal Displace-
ment,
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, May 2016, p.
10.
121 Yonetani, Michelle, et al.,
Global Estimates: People displaced
by disasters,
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Septem-
ber 2014, p. 16.
122 Yonetani, Michelle, et al.,
Global Estimates: People displaced
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
by disasters,
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Septem-
ber 2014, p. 15; and Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre,
Global Estimates 2015 – People displaced by disasters, July
2015, p. 30.
International Organization for Migration,
Displacement Tracking
Matrix Round X Report,
June 2016, p. 1.; and United Nations
Children’s Fund, ‘Children on the move, children left behind:
uprooted or trapped by Boko Haram’, August 2016.
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre,
Global Report on In-
ternal Displacement
GRID 2016, IDMC, Geneva, 2016, accessed
18 August 2016.
Naik, Asmita, et al., ‘Detained Youth: The Fate of Young
Migrants, Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Libya Today’, Study
1, North America Mixed Migration Task Force, July 2015, p. 50.
See, for example, Collinson, Mark, ‘Children and Migration in
South Africa: A case study from a rural, north eastern district
(version 2)’, A scientific report for Princeton University, 2008.
Sirin, Selcuk R., and Lauren Rogers-Sirin,
The Educational and
Mental Health Needs of Syrian Refugee Children,
Migration
Policy Institute, Washington, DC, 2015; United Nations
Children’s Fund, Global Migration Group,
Migration and Youth:
Challenges and opportunities,
GMG, New York, 2014; and
Asian Development Bank Institute, Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development, and International Labour
Organization,
Building Human Capital through Labour Migration
in Asia,
ADBI, OECD and ILO, 2015.
United Nations Children’s Fund,
The State of the World’s
Children 2016: A fair chance for every child,
UNICEF, New York,
June 2016, p. 93.
United Nations Children’s Fund,
The State of the World’s
Children 2016: A fair chance for every child,
UNICEF, New York,
June 2016, p. 136.
United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Mixed Migration Trends in
West and Central Africa’, UNICEF West and Central Africa
Regional Office, August 2016 (forthcoming), p. 8.
Karagueuzian, Charlotte and Audrey Verdier-Chouchane, ‘Taking
Africa’s Irregular Migrants into Account: Trends, Challenges and
Policy Options’ Africa Economic Brief, AEB Volume 5, Issue 1,
2014, p.5.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Yemen
Operational Update’ April 2016, p.3.
3| The Americas
133 The United Nations counts migrants who are citizens of
a country born abroad or in its territories as international
migrants. While Puerto Ricans are American citizens, a Puerto
Rican who was born abroad or in Puerto Rico and moved to
the United States is counted as an international migrant. The
same definition applies to citizens of other territories such as
Guadeloupe or the British Virgin Islands.
134 Central American immigrant populations have risen by more
than 80 per cent since 2000 while Northern America and South
America have seen their immigrant populations’ rise approxi-
mately 30 per cent over the same period.
135 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global
Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 20 June
2016, p. 62.
136 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, “Dominican
Republic urged not to deport stateless Dominicans”, Geneva,
19 June 2015; and United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Humanitari-
an Action for Children – Haiti’, <www.unicef.org/appeals/haiti.
html#4>, accessed 7 August 2016.
137 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global
Trends: Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 20 June
2016.
138 For further detail on the challenges of data on internally
displaced persons in Colombia, see Bilak, Alexandra, et al.,
Global Report on Internal Displacement,
Internal Displacement
Monitoring Centre, May 2016, p. 41.
139 Bilak, Alexandra, et al.,
Global Report on Internal Displacement,
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, May 2016, p. 15.
140 Ibid., p. 31.
141 U.S. Customs and Border Protection, ‘United States Border
Patrol Southwest Family Unit Subject and Unaccompanied
Alien Children Apprehensions Fiscal Year 2016’, Press release,
<https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-border-un-
accompanied-children/fy-2016>, accessed 28 July 2016.
142 U.S. Government Accountability Office, ‘Central America:
Information on Migration of Unaccompanied children from EI
Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras’, quoted in Rosenblum,
Marc R.,
Unaccompanied Child Migration to the United States:
The tension between Protection and Prevention,
Transatlantic
Council on Migration, Washington, DC, 2015, p. 13.
143 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA), ‘Central America and Mexico Unaccompanied
Child Migration Situation Report No. 1’, United Nations, 29 July
2014.
144 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Children on
the Run,
Washington, DC, 2014 .
145 Ibid., p. 6.
146 For significantly more detail on the conditions from which
children on the run in these countries are escaping, see United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Children on the Run,
UNHCR, Washington, DC, 2014, p. 6.
147 Krogstad, Jens Manuel, Ana Gonzalez-Barrera and Mark Hugo
Lopez, ‘Children 12 and under Are Fastest Growing Group of
Unaccompanied Minors at U.S. Border’, Pew Research Centre,
22 July 2014, <www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/07/22/
children-12-and-under-are-fastest-growing-group-of-unaccom-
panied-minors-at-u-s-border>, accessed 28 July 2016.
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120
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Appendices
148 Wolgin, Philip E.,
A Short-term Plan to Address the Central American
Refugee Situation,
Centre for American Progress, Washington, DC,
2016, pp. 9-10. According to Wolgin, “unaccompanied children from
non-contiguous countries – countries that do not share a border with
the United States – who are apprehended in the United States are
first placed in formal removal hearings. Within 72 hours, they must be
transferred to the custody of the Office of Refugee Resettlement in
the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or HHS. The ORR
houses children temporarily and works to release them to parents,
relatives, or other sponsors while they wait for their court hearings.
Under the terms of a 1997 court-ordered agreement known as the
Flores settlement, children must be released from custody ‘without
unnecessary delay’ to a parent, family member, guardian, or sponsor.
By contrast, an unaccompanied child from Mexico or Canada –
contiguous countries – must first be screened within 48 hours by the
CBP [Customs and Border Protection] to determine that the child: Is not
a victim of severe trafficking; Would not be at risk of being trafficked
if returned to his or her home country; Does not have a credible fear
of persecution if returned to his or her home country; Has the capacity
to make his or her own decision to withdraw his or her application for
admission into the United States and instead be voluntarily returned
to his or her home country. If the CBP agent or officer is unable to
make even one of these findings, the unaccompanied child is placed in
formal removal proceedings to appear in front of an immigration judge
and is transferred to ORR custody, as with any unaccompanied child
from a non-contiguous country. Children from contiguous countries
who meet all of the CBP criteria, however, can be voluntarily returned
to their home countries without ever appearing in immigration court,
based on the DHS’s discretion.”
149 Ibid., p. 12.
150 Rosenblum, Marc R.,
Unaccompanied Child Migrants to the United
States: The Tension between prevention and protection,
Transatlantic
Council on Migration, Washington, DC, 2015, p. 16.
151 American Bar Association, Commission on Migration, ‘A Humanitarian
Call to Action: Unaccompanied children in removal proceedings’, June
2015, p. 1.
152 Graham, Matt, ‘Child Deportations: How many minors does the U.S.
actually send home?’, based on data from United States Immigration
and Customs Enforcement, 25 July 2014, <http://bipartisanpolicy.org/
blog/us-child-deportations>, accessed 26 July 2016.
153 Dumont, Jean-Christophe, and Gilles Spielvogel for Organisation for
Economic Co-Operation and Development,
International Migration
Outlook: SOPEMI – 2008 Edition,
OECD, Paris, 2008, p. 201; and Rietig,
Victoria, and Rodrigo Dominguez Villegas, Stopping the Revolving
Door: Reception and reintegration services for Central American
deportees, Migration Policy Institute, Washington, DC, 2015.
154 Orozco, Manuel, and Julia Yansura,
Removed, Returned and Resettled:
Challenges of Central American migrants back home,
Inter-American
Dialogue, Washington, DC, 2015, p. 12.
155 Dreby, Joanna, ‘The Burden of Deportation on Children in Mexican
Immigrant Families’,
Journal of Marriage and Family,
vol. 74, no. 4, 13
July 2012, p. 831, doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00989.x.
156 Ajay Chaudry et al., ‘Facing Our Future Children in the Aftermath of
Immigration Enforcement’, The Urban Institute, 2010, p.IX
157 Dreby, Joanna, ‘The Burden of Deportation on Children in Mexican
Immigrant Families’,
Journal of Marriage and Family,
vol. 74, no. 4, 13
July 2012, p. 829, doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00989.x.
158 Ibid., p. 842.
159 See, for example, Flannery, Nathaniel P., ‘Dispatches from the
Field: Return migration in Mexico’,
Quarterly Americas,
from
Higher
Education and Competitiveness,
summer 2014, p. 27; Zúñiga, Víctor,
and Edmund T. Hamann, ‘Going Home? Schooling in Mexico of
transnational children’,
CONfines de Relaciones Internacionales y
Ciencia Política,
vol. 2, no. 4, Agosto–Diciembre 2006, pp. 41–57; and
Alcantara-Hewitt, Alicia Adriana, ‘Migration and Schooling: The case
of transnational students in Puebla, Mexico’, PhD dissertation, New
York University, 2013.
160 Childs, Stephen, Ross Finnie, and Richard E. Mueller, ‘Why Do So
Many Children of Immigrants Attend University? Evidence for Canada’,
Journal of International Migration and Integration,
September 2015,
pp. 1–28, doi: 10.1007/s12134-015-0447-8.
161 Portes, Alejandro, and Ruben G. Rumbaut, ‘The Second Generation in
Early Adulthood: New findings from the Children of Immigrants Longi-
tudinal Study’, Migration Policy Institute, 1 October 2006, accessed 16
July 2016.
162 Rut Feuk, Nadine Perrault and Enrique Delamónica, ‘Children and inter-
national migration in Latin America and the Caribbean’, Challenges,
Newsletter on progress towards the Millennium Development Goals
from a child rights perspective, Number 11, November 2010; Economic
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, United Nations
Children’s Fund, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean,
UNICEF, 2010.
163 Antón, José-Ignacio, ‘The Impact of Remittances on Nutritional Status
of Children in Ecuador’,
International Migration Review,
vol. 44, no. 2,
summer 2010, pp. 269–299.
164 Amuedo-Dorantes, Catalina, and Susan Pozo, ‘Accounting for
Remittance and Migration Effects on Children’s Schooling’,
World
Development,
vol. 38, no. 12, December 2010, pp. 1747–1759.
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
4| Asia
165 The distribution of Asian migrants in Oceania, Africa and Latin Ameri-
ca and the Caribbean is 3.0, 1.2 and 0.3 million people, respectively.
166 In 2015, the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait had 88 and 74 per cent
migrants as a percentage of total population, respectively.
167 United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, ‘Global
Flow of Tertiary-level Students’, UNESCO Institute for Statistics,
available at <www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/international-stu-
dent-flow-viz.aspx>, accessed 29 July 2016.
168 An additional 5.2 million Palestinian refugees registered with the
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in
the Near East in Jordan, Lebanon, State of Palestine and the Syrian
181
182
183
Arab Republic are not included here. When the Palestinian refugees
living in Jordan and Lebanon are included, the contributions of those
countries to global refugee responsibility-sharing are even more
pronounced.
Among refugee populations from which age data are available. Data
refer to refugees under the mandate of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends:
Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016. Unpublished
data table, cited with permission.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends:
Forced Displacement in 2015.
UNHCR, 2016. Unpublished data table,
cited with permission.
Bilak, Alexandra, et al.,
Global Report on Internal Displacement 2016,
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Geneva, 2016, p. 14
No Lost Generation, ‘No Lost Generation Update January – June
2016’, 12 July 2016, p. 9.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends:
Forced Displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016. p. 61
This distribution of Palestinian refugees across countries in the Middle
East takes into account the latest displacements due to the Syrian crisis:
see United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in
the Near East,
Annual Operational Report 2015 for the Reporting Period,
1 January – 31 December 2015,
UNRWA, 2016, p. 5; and United Nations
Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, ‘Syria
Regional Crisis Emergency Appeal’, UNRWA, 2016.
United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘No Place for Children: The impact of
five years of war on Syria's children and their childhoods’, UNICEF,
New York, 14 March 2016.
No Lost Generation, ‘No Lost Generation Update January–- June
2016’, 12 July 2016.
United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Small Hands, Heavy Burdens: How
the Syria conflict is driving more children into the workforce’, UNICEF,
New York, 2 July 2015, quoted in No Lost Generation, ‘No Lost Gener-
ation Update January – June 2016’, 12 July 2016.
International Organization for Migration and United Nation Children’s
Fund, ‘IOM and UNICEF Data Brief: Migration of children to Europe’, 30
November 2015.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Mixed Maritime
Movements in South-East Asia in 2015’, UNHCR Regional Office for
South-East Asia, February 2016, p. 2.
International Organization for Migration, ‘Bay of Bengal and Andaman
Sea Crisis – IOM Revised Appeal’, IOM Thailand, August 2015, p. 1.
Human Rights Council, Annual Report of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights and Reports of the Office of the High
Commissioner and the Secretary-General: Report of the United Na-
tions High Commissioner for Human Rights, Situation of Human Rights
of Rohingya Muslims and Other Minorities in Myanmar, A/HRC/32/18,
Advance Edited Version, 28 June 2016.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Mixed Maritime
Movements in South-East Asia in 2015’, UNHCR Regional Office for
South-East Asia, February 2016, p. 17.
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Appendices
121
184 International Organization for Migration, ‘Bay of Bengal and Andaman
Sea Crisis’, May 2015, accessed 1 August 2016; and United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Mixed Maritime Movements in
South-East Asia in 2015’, UNHCR Regional Office for South-East Asia,
February 2016.
185 Flamm, Sarah, ‘The Linkage between Migration and Child Labour: An
international perspective’,
Stanford Journal of International Relations,
vol. 12, no. 1, Autumn 2010, pp. 15–25.
186 Khan, Sherin, and Scott Lyon,
Measuring Children’s Work in South
Asia,
International Labour Organization, New Delhi, 2015.
187 Edmonds, Eric V., and Maheshwor Shrestha, ‘Independent Child
Labour Migrants’, Ch. 5 in
International Handbook on the Economics
of Migration,
edited by Amelie F. Constant and Klaus F. Zimmermann,
Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2013, pp. 98–120.
188 International Labour Organization, ‘Migration and Child Labour:
Essentials’, May 2011, p. 3.
189 John Bryant, ‘Children of International Migrants in Indonesia, Thailand
and the Philippines: A review of evidence and policies’, UNICEF
Innocenti, Working paper 2005-05, p. iii.
190 Calderon, Jaime, Barbara Rijks and Dovelyn Rannveig Agunias, ‘Asian
Labour Migrants and Health: Exploring policy routes’, Joint Series of
the IOM Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and the Migration
Policy Institute, no. 2, June 2012.
191 Ibid.
192 Popkin, Barry M., and J. Richard Udry, ‘Adolescent Obesity Increases
Significantly in Second and Third Generation U.S. Immigrants: The
National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health’,
The Journal of
Nutrition,
vol. 128, no. 4, April 1998, pp. 701–706, p. 705.
193 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Labour and Employment, Depart-
ment of Foreign Employment,
Labour Migration for Employment:
A status report for Nepal
2013/2014, 30 September 2014, p. 19,
accessed 1 August 2016.
194 International Labour Organization, ‘Labour Migration for Employment:
A Status Report for Nepal 2013/14’, October 2014.
195 For a summary of this research, see van de Glind, Hans, ‘Migration
and Child Labour: Exploring child migrant vulnerabilities and those of
children left-behind’, Working paper, International Programme on the
Elimination of Child Labour, 2010, p. 11.
196 Di Bartolomeo, Anna, Shushanik Makaryan, and Agnieszka Weinar,
eds.,
Regional Migration Report: Russia and Central Asia,
European
University Institute, Florence, 2014, p. 23.
197 For more information, see Overseas Workers Welfare Administration,
the Philippines Department of Labour and Employment, ‘Programs
& Services’, <http://owwa.gov.ph/?q=content/programs-services>,
accessed 8 August 2016.
198 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Labour and Employment, Depart-
ment of Foreign Employment,
Labour Migration for Employment: A
status report for Nepal
2013/2014, p. 14.
199 Pew Research Centre,
Second-Generation Americans: A Portrait of the Adult
Children of Immigrants,
Pew Research Centre, Washington, DC, 2013.
200 Pew Research Centre,
The Rise of Asian Americans,
updated edition 4
April 2013, Pew Research Centre, Washington, DC, 2013.
5| Europe
201 World Bank,
Migration and Remittances Factbook 2016,
3rd ed.,
Washington, DC, December 2015; and Yanovich, Liza, ‘Children Left
Behind: The impact of labour migration in Moldova and Ukraine’,
Migration Policy Institute, 23 January 2015.
202 Yanovich, Liza, ‘Children Left Behind: The impact of labour migration in
Moldova and Ukraine’, Migration Policy Institute, 23 January 2015.
203 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends:
Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
204 Asylum-seekers are individuals seeking international protection as
refugees, but whose claims for protection have not yet been decided.
Depending in part on the proportion of claims ultimately accepted from
this group, the proportion of children among asylum-seekers may or
may not be reflective of the proportion of children among recognized
refugees.
205 The 32 countries include European Union countries and the four
countries of the European Free Trade Association. Data include first-
time applicants only. Source: Eurostat, <http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/
web/asylum-and-managed-migration/data/database>, accessed 1
September 2016.
206 Eurostat, <http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/asylum-and-man-
aged-migration/data/database>, accessed 1 September 2016.
Eurostat data are not available for all countries through June 2016.
Once all country data are finalized, the total number will be higher.
207 68, 6, 4, 3 and 3 per cent, respectively. Eurostat, <http://ec.europa.
eu/eurostat/web/asylum-and-managed-migration/data/database>,
accessed 1 September 2016.
208 United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Ukraine Humanitarian Situation
Report #42, 1 – 31 January 2016’, UNICEF Ukraine, 31 January 2016.
209 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends:
Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
210 This rise in the proportion of children is not easily explained without
more information. It may be the result of a change in the age compo-
sition of those seeking refuge in the country, a backlog in processing
certain cases, changes in the available migration pathways or changes
in the asylum policies and procedures in other countries. It is most
likely a combination of all these factors.
211 International Organization for Migration and United Nations Children’s
Fund, ‘Data Brief: Migration of children to Europe’, 30 November 2015,
p. 2.
212 International Centre for Migration Policy Development, ‘How Closed
Borders Detour Migrant Routes’, News notes, 15 March 2016.
213 European Commission, ‘Implementing the EU-Turkey Agreement –
Questions and answers’, Press release, Brussels, 4 April 2016.
214 Arrivals in Greece have fallen by 95 per cent when comparing June
2016 arrivals to June 2015 arrivals. See UNHCR, ‘Refugees/Migrants
Emergency Response - Mediterranean’, <data.unhcr.org/Mediterra-
nean/country.php?id=83>, for more detail.
215 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Mapping of Unac-
companied Children (UAC): UNHCR Intervention’, 23 August 2016.
216 United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘New EU-Turkey Agreement on Refu-
gee and Migrants Could Leave Children at Risk: UNICEF’, News note,
UNICEF, Geneva, 22 March 2016, <http://www.unicef.org/media/
media_90729.html>, accessed 8 August 2016.
217 See, for example, Médecins Sans Frontières, ‘Greece: MSF ends
activities inside the Lesvos “hotspot”’, News note, 22 March 2016.
218 United Nations Children’s Fund,
Refugee and Migrant Crisis in Europe:
Consolidated emergency report 2015,
UNICEF Geneva, March 2016, p. 6.
219 United Nations Children’s Fund Regional Office for CEE/CIS, ‘The Enti-
tlements of Refugee and Migrant Children in 33 European Countries’,
April 2016.
220 European Commission, ‘Relocation and Resettlement: State of play,’
13 July 2016, <http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/
policies/european-agenda-migration/background-information/
docs/20160713/factsheet_relocation_and_resettlement_-_state_of_
play_en.pdf>, accessed 28 August 2016.
221 European Commission, ‘Management of the Migration Crisis in Greece
since October 2015 / Implementation of the EU-Turkey Statement
since 20 March 2016’, <http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-
we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/background-information/
docs/20160713/factsheet_management_of_the_migration_crisis_
in_greece_since_october_2015_and_implementation_of_the_eu-tur-
key_tatement_since_20_march_2016_en.pdf>, Figure B4.
222 See, for example, on the situation of children in Northern France,
United Nations Children’s Fund France,
Neither Safe Nor Sound:
Unaccompanied children on the coastline of the English Channel and
the North Sea,
UNICEF France, Paris, June 2016.
223 Ibid.
224 European Network of Ombudspersons for Children,
Safety and Funda-
mental Rights at Stake for Children on the Move,
ENOC, Amsterdam
and Stockholm, 2016.
225 United Nations Children’s Fund Regional Office for CEE/CIS, ‘The Enti-
tlements of Refugee and Migrant Children in 33 European Countries’,
April 2016.
226 Asylum Information Database,
Mind the Gap: An NGO perspective on
challenges to accessing protection in the Common European Asylum
System – Annual report 2013/2014,
Brussels, updated 9 September
2015; and UNICEF Regional Office for CEE/CIS, ‘The Entitlements of
Refugee and Migrant Children in 33 European Countries’, April 2016.
227 United Nations Children’s Fund Regional Office for CEE/CIS, ‘The Enti-
tlements of Refugee and Migrant Children in 33 European Countries’,
April 2016.
228 United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Ukraine Humanitarian Situation
Report #42, 1 – 31 January 2016’, UNICEF Ukraine, 31 January 2016.
229 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and Europe-
an Union,
Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling in,
OECD
Publishing, Paris, 2 July 2015, p. 233.
230 United Nations Children’s Fund Regional Office for CEE/CIS, ‘The Enti-
tlements of Refugee and Migrant Children in 33 European Countries’,
April 2016.
231 United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Children of the Recession: The impact
of the economic crisis on child well-being in rich countries’,
Innocenti
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122
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Appendices
Report Card 12: Children in the Developed World,
UNICEF Office of
Research, Florence, September 2014, p. 24.
232 Ibid.
233 Ibid.
234 Ibid.
6| Oceania
235 Newland, Kathleen, ‘Irregular Maritime Migration in the Bay of
Bengal: The challenges of protection, management, and cooperation’,
International Organization for Migration and Migration Policy Institute,
July 2015, p. 3.
236 Based on July 2013 child detentions, as reported in ‘Immigration
Detention and Community Statistics Summary’, released by the
Department of Immigration and Border Detection, Government of
Australia and Australian Border Force, 30 June 2016, pp. 9–10.
237 Government of Australia Department of Immigration and Border
Detection and Australian Border Force, ‘Immigration Detention and
Community Statistics Summary,’ 30 June 2016, p. 8.
238 Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Torture
and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment,
Addendum: Observations on Communications Transmitted to Gov-
ernments and Replies Received, UN doc A/HRC/28/68/Add.1 (2015),
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of the Human Rights Council: Reports, quoted in Australian Human
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the United Nations’, June 2015.
239 International Organization for Migration,
Migration, Environment and
Climate Change,
IOM, Geneva, 2009, p. 5.
240 United Nations Population Fund,
Population and Development Profiles:
Pacific Island Countries,
UNFPA, Fiji, 2014.
241 United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific,
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UNESCAP,
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242 Warner, Koko, et al., ‘In Search of Shelter: Mapping the effects of
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243 United Nations Children’s Fund, (UNICEF)
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244 Ibid.
245 Australian Agency for International Development, ‘Pacific Country Re-
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246 Burton, Donovan, Johanna Mustelin and Peter Urich for United
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247 United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least
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249 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘South-East Asia
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250 Amnesty International,
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251 Government of Australia Department of Immigration and Border
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252 Ibid., pp. 11–12.
253 Amnesty International,
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254 Australia Human Rights Commission,
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255 Amnesty International,
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256 Government of Australia, Department of Immigration and Border
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257 Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea,
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258 Dutton, Peter, ‘Manus Regional Processing Centre,’ Press release,
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Appendix 1
264 United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights,
Handbook for
Registration,
September 2003, p. 9.
265 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Popula-
tion Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2015 Revision,
United Nations, New York, 2015, CD-ROM Documentation, p. 8.
266 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends:
Forced displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
267 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Popu-
lation Division,
International Migration Flows to and from Selected
Countries: The 2015 Revision,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
268 Background document to the Statistical Commission, Forty-fifth
session, ‘Report of the International Conference on Refugee Statistics,
7–9 October 2015’, Antalya, Turkey, 2016.
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123
APPENDIX 3 | REGIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Caribbean
Central America
Northern America
South America
Eastern Africa
Middle Africa
Northern Africa
Southern Africa
Western Africa
Eastern Europe
Northern Europe
Southern Europe
Western Europe
Central Asia
Eastern Asia
Southern Asia
Western Asia
ASIA
Australia and New Zealand
Melanesia
Micronesia
Polynesia
THE AMERICAS
Caribbean
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
Aruba
Bahamas
Barbados
Bonaire, Sint
Eustatius and Saba
British Virgin Islands
Cayman Islands
Cuba
Curaçao
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Haiti
Jamaica
Martinique
Montserrat
Puerto Rico
Saint-Barthélemy
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Martin
(French part)
Saint Vincent
and the Grenadines
Sint Maarten
(Dutch part)
Trinidad and Tobago
Turks and Caicos
Islands
United States
Virgin Islands
Central America
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
South America
Argentina
Bolivia (Plurinational
State of)
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Falkland Islands
(Malvinas)
French Guiana
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
(Bolivarian
Republic of)
Northern America
Bermuda
Canada
Greenland
Saint Pierre and
Miquelon
United States
AFRICA
Eastern Africa
Burundi
Comoros
Djibouti
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mauritius
Mayotte
Mozambique
Réunion
Rwanda
Seychelles
Somalia
South Sudan
Uganda
United Republic
of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Middle Africa
Angola
Cameroon
Central African
Republic
Chad
Congo
Democratic
Republic
of the Congo
Equatorial
Guinea
Gabon
Sao Tome
and Principe
Northern Africa
Algeria
Egypt
Libya
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Western Sahara
Southern Africa
Botswana
Lesotho
Namibia
South Africa
Swaziland
EUROPE
Eastern Europe
Belarus
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Hungary
Poland
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
Slovakia
Ukraine
Northern Europe
Åland Islands
Channel Islands
Denmark
Estonia
Faeroe Islands
Finland
Guernsey
Iceland
Ireland
Isle of Man
Jersey
Latvia
Lithuania
Norway
Sark
Svalbard and Jan
Mayen Islands
Sweden
United Kingdom
Southern Europe
Albania
Andorra
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Croatia
Gibraltar
Greece
Holy See
Italy
Malta
Montenegro
Portugal
San Marino
Serbia
Slovenia
Spain
The former Yugoslav
Republic of
Macedonia
OCEANIA
Southern Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Western Asia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Cyprus
Georgia
Iraq
Israel
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
State of Palestine
Syrian Arab
Republic
Turkey
United Arab
Emirates
Yemen
Australia and New Zealand
Australia
New Zealand
Norfolk Island
Melanesia
Fiji
New Caledonia
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
Vanuatu
Micronesia
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia (Federated States of)
Nauru
Northern Mariana Islands
Palau
Polynesia
American Samoa
Cook Islands
French Polynesia
Niue
Pitcairn
Samoa
Tokelau
Tonga
Tuvalu
Wallis and Futuna Islands
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
Eastern Asia
China
China, Hong Kong
Special
Administrative
Region
China, Macao Special
Administrative
Region
Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea
Japan
Mongolia
Republic of Korea
South-Eastern Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
Indonesia
Lao People’s
Democratic Republic
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Viet Nam
Western Africa
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cabo Verde
Cote d'Ivoire
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Liberia
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Saint Helena
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
The designations
employed and the
presentation of material
in this report do not
imply the expression of
any opinion whatsoever
on the part of UNICEF
concerning the legal
status of any country,
territory, city or area
or of its authorities,
or concerning the
delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.
The assignment of
countries or areas to
specific groupings is for
statistical convenience
and does not imply any
assumption regarding
political or other affiliation
of countries or territories
by UNICEF
.
For more details on the
classification of countries
please see
<http://unstats.un.org/
unsd/methods/m49/m49.
htm>
Western Europe
Austria
Belgium
France
Germany
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Monaco
Netherlands
Switzerland
Note on maps: All maps included in this publication are stylized and not to scale. They do not reflect a position by UNICEF on the legal status of any country or area or the delimitation of any frontiers. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of
Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined. The final status of the Abyei area has not yet been determined.
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124
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Appendices
APPENDIX 4 | TABLES: CHILDREN, MIGRATION AND DISPLACEMENT
DEFINITIONS OF THE INDICATORS
International migrants:
Persons living in a country or area other than their country or area of birth.
Refugees:
Persons who are outside their country of nationality or habitual residence, who cannot return due to a well-founded fear of being persecuted because of their race, religion, nationality,
membership of a particular social group or political opinion. This number only accounts for those who have been recognized as refugees, or find themselves in refugee-like situations.
Asylum seeker:
Persons whose application for asylum or refugee status is pending at any stage in the asylum process. If granted asylum, persons are regarded as refugees.
Internally displaced persons:
Persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of, or in order to avoid the effects of, armed
conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized border. Data presented in this table
refer only to persons displaced due to conflict and violence.
Ratification of key human rights instruments:
Number of legal instruments related to children and international migration ratified by each country. The legal instruments refer to: (a) the 1989
Convention on the Rights of the Child; (b) the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees; (c) the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and
Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children; (d) the 2000 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air; and (e) the 1990 International Convention on the Protection
of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families.
MAIN DATA SOURCES
Total population by country:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
International migrants by country of destination:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2015 Revision,
United
Nations, New York, 2015. Share of persons under 18 based on UNICEF analysis using data from United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International
Migrant Stock: Migrants by age and sex,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
International migrants by country of origin:
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division,
Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by destination and
origin,
United Nations, New York, 2015.
Refugees by country of asylum:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends Forced Displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
Refugees by country of origin:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends Forced Displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016. Share of persons under 18 from UNHCR
unpublished data table, cited with permission.
Asylum seekers:
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
Global Trends Forced Displacement in 2015,
UNHCR, Geneva, 2016.
Internally displaced persons (IDPs):
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Global Internal Displacement Database, IDMC, 2015.
Ratification of key human rights instruments:
United Nations Treaty Collection; see <http://treaties.un.org>, accessed 13 July 2016.
NOTES
Refugees refer to those individuals under UNHCR’s mandate. An additional 5.2 million Palestinian refugees registered with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the
Near East are not included in these tables. Age categories shown for countries with information on age, for at least 50 per cent of the refugee population, with the exception of the Syrian Arab Republic,
with information on age, for 45 per cent of the refugee population.
- Data not available.
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Appendices
125
International migrants, 2015
**
International migrants by country of
destination
International migrants
by country of origin
Refugees, 2015
Refugees
by country of asylum
Refugees
by country of origin
Internally
displaced
Aylum seekers Asylum seekers
by country
by country
persons, 2015
***
Asylum seekers, 2015
of asylum
of origin
Ratification of key
human rights
instruments
Countries
and areas
*
Afghanistan
Share of
Share of
Share of
under 18
under 18
under 18
As percentage
As percentage among total
among total
among total
Total
of total
Total
international
Total
of total
Total
(thousands) population (%) migrants (%) (thousands) population (%) (thousands) refugees (%) (thousands) refugees (%)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Number of instruments ratified
Albania
Algeria
Andorra
Angola
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bhutan
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cabo Verde
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Central African Republic
Chad
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Congo
Costa Rica
Cote d'Ivoire
382
58
242
42
107
5
28
2,086
191
6,764
1,492
264
59
704
1,423
34
1,083
1,388
54
245
51
143
35
161
714
103
102
705
287
15
74
382
7,836
82
517
469
978
133
13
393
422
2,175
1
2
1
60
0
37
31
5
6
28
17
3
15
51
1
12
11
12
15
2
7
1
1
7
0
24
1
4
3
3
0
2
22
2
4
3
0
0
2
9
9
10
25
15
19
6
20
22
13
8
9
7
7
11
13
12
18
14
5
18
16
31
10
39
9
20
12
17
15
55
35
15
50
53
8
31
56
21
22
36
19
31
15
17
4,843
1,123
1,764
8
555
2
65
940
937
527
576
1,147
40
56
7,205
98
1,485
531
60
616
44
800
1,651
58
1,544
46
1,176
1,453
284
166
1,187
329
1,286
441
208
612
9,546
2,639
117
221
133
850
15
39
4
11
2
16
71
2
31
2
7
12
10
4
4
35
16
5
17
6
6
7
43
3
1
11
16
8
3
32
8
1
4
9
1
3
1
5
15
5
3
4
258
0
94
-
16
0
0
3
19
37
72
1
0
0
232
-
2
35
0
1
-
1
7
2
9
-
17
34
53
-
0
343
136
7
370
2
301
0
-
45
4
2
59
32
-
-
-
-
-
8
-
-
-
35
-
32
-
-
-
-
29
32
-
19
18
38
14
-
-
55
55
-
8
59
-
52
57
2
25
16
-
47
-
39
2,666
10
3
0
12
0
0
0
11
0
0
10
0
0
12
0
4
0
0
0
18
1
19
0
1
-
1
2
293
0
13
11
0
471
15
1
213
340
1
15
0
71
49
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
35
-
7
-
-
-
-
-
54
-
-
-
-
58
54
-
-
-
50
-
-
52
0
1
7
-
30
-
-
1
0
21
80
0
0
0
-
-
0
36
1
0
-
-
0
0
21
-
9
0
3
-
0
5
20
0
3
1
1
0
-
4
3
1
259
42
8
0
3
-
0
0
9
0
0
5
0
0
31
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
7
0
2
0
0
3
27
0
0
7
0
11
3
0
58
7
0
4
0
14
1,174
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
8
-
-
564
-
-
426
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
98
-
-
-
-
-
99
-
-
124
-
452
107
-
-
6,270
-
8
-
303
3
5
5
1
4
-
4
5
4
4
4
5
4
3
2
3
4
4
5
4
1
4
5
4
4
1
4
5
4
5
4
4
4
4
3
5
3
4
1
2
4
3
*Data are listed for 197 countries. Other countries and areas are included in the aggregates but not listed here.
**Addtionally, there are 4.6 million international migrants in countries or areas not listed here and 9.8 million international migrants from an unspecified origin.
***Addtionally, there are 99,000 internally displaced persons in countries or areas not listed here.
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126
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Appendices
International migrants, 2015
**
International migrants by country of
destination
International migrants
by country of origin
Refugees, 2015
Refugees
by country of asylum
Refugees
by country of origin
Internally
displaced
Aylum seekers Asylum seekers
by country
by country
persons, 2015
***
Asylum seekers, 2015
of asylum
of origin
Ratification of key
human rights
instruments
Countries
and areas
*
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Denmark
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
Share of
Share of
Share of
under 18
under 18
under 18
As percentage
As percentage among total
among total
among total
Total
of total
Total
international
Total
of total
Total
(thousands) population (%) migrants (%) (thousands) population (%) (thousands) refugees (%) (thousands) refugees (%)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Number of instruments ratified
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Fiji
Finland
France
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Holy See
Honduras
Hungary
Iceland
577
13
196
405
546
573
112
7
416
48
388
492
42
11
16
202
1,073
14
316
7,784
268
193
169
12,006
399
1,243
7
76
228
22
15
40
1
28
450
38
India
Indonesia
Iran (Islamic Republic of)
Iraq
Ireland
Israel
Italy
5,241
329
2,726
354
746
2,012
5,789
14
0
17
4
1
10
13
9
4
0
2
1
1
1
0
15
1
2
6
12
16
10
4
15
1
11
7
0
2
1
2
0
100
0
5
11
0
0
3
1
16
25
10
3
5
9
5
33
9
31
27
17
19
37
47
20
20
25
2
44
22
11
7
27
31
13
4
37
6
33
20
36
45
19
21
-
23
9
16
865
1,426
177
933
1,404
251
16
70
1,304
113
1,102
3,269
1,436
81
500
198
753
205
295
2,146
63
90
838
4,045
802
872
66
1,018
427
102
460
1,195
0
649
596
38
20
13
15
9
2
4
2
96
12
0
7
4
23
10
10
15
1
23
5
3
4
5
21
5
3
8
62
6
3
6
60
11
23
8
6
12
1
0
7
4
383
27
19
-
1
-
122
213
0
-
3
0
736
0
13
273
1
8
2
316
17
30
0
0
9
9
0
0
-
0
4
0
-
7
-
-
64
-
46
-
30
-
-
48
6
-
57
19
58
8
-
-
35
48
32
21
43
-
-
15
45
-
27
-
-
17
-
-
33
7
0
1
541
0
1
0
0
1
1
18
15
0
411
0
86
1
0
0
0
8
6
0
23
0
0
10
17
1
1
35
-
7
1
-
9
-
-
2
54
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
30
-
43
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
64
-
-
7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
0
2
1
1
3
3
-
1
-
12
38
0
-
0
0
2
0
24
63
2
-
1
421
2
26
-
0
0
0
0
0
-
0
37
0
0
2
0
0
76
0
1
0
2
0
10
12
31
0
63
0
78
0
0
0
0
13
9
0
11
0
0
27
18
2
0
9
-
19
1
0
-
-
272
-
1,500
-
-
-
-
-
-
78
289
-
-
-
450
-
-
-
-
-
239
-
-
-
-
251
-
-
-
-
-
174
-
-
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
1
5
5
5
3
2
4
4
2
4
4
3
4
4
4
5
4
3
5
5
3
4
4
2
5
4
3
5
24
22
38
14
3
8
15,576
3,877
1,123
1,480
882
343
2,901
1
2
1
4
19
4
5
201
6
979
278
6
39
118
-
21
-
40
11
-
-
10
14
85
264
0
1
0
-
-
-
34
-
-
-
6
8
0
7
5
7
60
25
3
57
237
0
0
0
612
6
-
3,290
-
-
-
3
4
2
3
3
3
4
*Data are listed for 197 countries. Other countries and areas are included in the aggregates but not listed here.
**Addtionally, there are 4.6 million international migrants in countries or areas not listed here and 9.8 million international migrants from an unspecified origin.
***Addtionally, there are 99,000 internally displaced persons in countries or areas not listed here.
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Appendices
127
International migrants, 2015
**
International migrants by country of
destination
International migrants
by country of origin
Refugees, 2015
Refugees
by country of asylum
Refugees
by country of origin
Internally
displaced
Aylum seekers Asylum seekers
by country
by country
persons, 2015
***
Asylum seekers, 2015
of asylum
of origin
Ratification of key
human rights
instruments
Countries
and areas
*
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Democratic Republic
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Marshall Islands
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
Micronesia (Federated States of)
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nauru
Nepal
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Niue
Share of
Share of
Share of
under 18
under 18
under 18
As percentage
As percentage among total
among total
among total
Total
of total
Total
international
Total
of total
Total
(thousands) population (%) migrants (%) (thousands) population (%) (thousands) refugees (%) (thousands) refugees (%)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Number of instruments ratified
23
2,044
3,112
3,547
1,084
3
2,866
204
22
263
1,998
7
114
771
23
136
249
32
215
2,514
94
363
41
3
138
29
1,193
3
21
18
83
89
223
73
94
3
518
1,979
1,040
40
189
1,199
1
1
2
41
20
2
3
74
3
0
13
34
0
3
12
63
5
44
0
1
8
26
2
10
6
3
2
1
3
56
1
13
0
1
0
4
31
2
12
23
1
1
1
35
37
11
46
8
43
26
15
10
15
2
43
31
41
23
13
4
9
17
23
8
17
38
8
23
49
5
62
22
7
10
9
19
38
22
14
20
16
7
11
35
34
31
42
1,067
797
700
4,076
456
5
188
761
1,345
338
798
364
277
142
4
544
61
170
303
1,835
3
1,006
103
7
119
168
12,339
20
29
59
138
2,835
714
2,882
146
2
1,629
981
802
639
357
1,094
5
38
1
9
23
1
4
5
13
20
17
14
17
6
2
10
19
11
1
2
6
1
6
25
13
3
13
10
19
76
2
22
8
3
5
6
23
6
6
18
11
2
1
333
0
2
664
1
554
-
1
0
-
0
1,071
0
37
9
0
1
1
0
9
94
-
16
7
-
77
-
3
0
0
0
2
4
6
-
2
1
33
89
1
0
125
1
-
17
-
50
31
57
-
66
36
-
-
53
16
56
26
-
-
-
-
55
26
-
58
-
-
56
-
-
-
-
-
41
43
48
-
45
-
19
-
-
30
-
36
-
2
0
2
2
8
0
1
3
7
0
4
0
10
6
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
154
0
0
35
0
11
-
0
2
1
2
0
452
1
-
9
0
0
1
1
168
0
-
93
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
35
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
58
-
-
58
-
35
-
-
-
-
-
-
40
30
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
14
25
0
40
-
1
0
-
0
12
0
0
27
0
0
2
0
14
60
-
0
1
-
0
-
1
0
-
0
0
2
15
0
1
0
0
28
0
0
0
0
-
1
0
2
2
3
0
0
2
0
0
6
1
2
6
-
0
-
0
6
3
0
10
0
0
7
0
46
0
0
4
3
6
2
61
0
0
9
0
0
1
1
52
0
-
-
-
-
309
-
-
-
-
-
12
-
-
500
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
50
-
-
-
-
287
-
-
-
-
-
-
644
-
-
50
-
-
-
153
2,096
-
5
2
2
4
4
3
3
5
3
4
3
5
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
2
1
5
4
1
5
3
5
2
4
3
4
4
5
3
4
4
1
4
4
5
5
5
1
*Data are listed for 197 countries. Other countries and areas are included in the aggregates but not listed here.
**Addtionally, there are 4.6 million international migrants in countries or areas not listed here and 9.8 million international migrants from an unspecified origin.
***Addtionally, there are 99,000 internally displaced persons in countries or areas not listed here.
 UUI, Alm.del - 2015-16 - Bilag 236: UNICEF rapport: "Uprooted: The Growing Crisis for Refugee and Migrant Children"
1662039_0136.png
128
Uprooted >>
Appendices
International migrants, 2015
**
International migrants by country of
destination
International migrants
by country of origin
Refugees, 2015
Refugees
by country of asylum
Refugees
by country of origin
Internally
displaced
Aylum seekers Asylum seekers
by country
by country
persons, 2015
***
Asylum seekers, 2015
of asylum
of origin
Ratification of key
human rights
instruments
Countries
and areas
*
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Qatar
Republic of Korea
Republic of Moldova
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Samoa
San Marino
Sao Tome and Principe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Spain
Sri Lanka
State of Palestine
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Share of
Share of
Share of
under 18
under 18
under 18
As percentage
As percentage among total
among total
among total
Total
of total
Total
international
Total
of total
Total
(thousands) population (%) migrants (%) (thousands) population (%) (thousands) refugees (%) (thousands) refugees (%)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Number of instruments ratified
742
1,845
3,629
6
185
26
156
91
212
619
837
1,688
1,327
143
227
11,643
442
7
13
5
5
5
2
10,186
263
807
13
91
2,544
177
236
3
25
3,143
824
5,853
39
256
503
47
32
1,640
2,439
14
41
2
27
5
0
2
0
0
2
8
75
3
4
1
8
4
13
7
4
3
15
1
32
2
9
13
1
45
3
11
0
0
6
7
13
0
5
1
9
2
17
29
11
7
22
13
13
33
17
28
31
11
6
13
4
14
35
5
24
27
26
21
43
12
17
20
27
3
9
33
10
10
5
19
36
14
39
10
38
20
46
30
20
9
7
193
21
5,935
3
143
5
845
1,410
5,316
4,450
2,306
26
2,346
889
3,408
10,577
316
39
55
60
113
2
36
270
587
965
12
145
314
342
140
4
1,999
841
635
1,251
1,637
3,551
1,891
268
96
333
665
4
0
3
12
4
0
13
4
5
12
22
1
5
22
17
7
3
70
30
55
59
7
19
1
4
11
12
2
6
6
7
1
19
2
5
3
8
76
5
49
7
3
8
50
0
1,561
-
17
10
0
1
0
14
1
0
1
0
3
315
145
-
0
-
-
-
-
0
14
35
-
1
-
1
0
0
8
122
263
6
1
-
310
0
1
170
73
-
36
50
-
40
-
21
-
8
-
-
26
17
17
27
-
51
-
-
-
-
-
-
34
55
7
-
46
-
18
15
-
48
-
61
-
38
-
53
-
36
-
-
0
0
298
0
0
0
0
4
1
1
0
0
0
2
2
67
286
0
1
2
0
0
0
1
21
39
0
5
0
0
0
0
1,123
0
779
0
121
98
629
0
0
0
0
-
-
58
-
-
-
-
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
64
-
-
-
-
-
47
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
50
-
65
-
-
53
58
-
-
-
-
25
0
6
-
3
0
0
0
0
3
1
0
5
0
0
2
0
-
0
-
0
-
-
0
3
0
-
0
-
0
0
-
10
1,096
1
11
1
-
13
0
0
157
33
0
0
64
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
3
1
28
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
14
53
0
4
0
1
0
0
57
1
4
0
15
4
45
0
0
0
0
-
-
1,459
-
-
6
-
60
62
-
-
-
-
-
-
27
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
24
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1,223
-
1,697
-
44
221
3,182
-
-
-
-
4
3
1
1
4
2
5
5
5
4
4
2
4
4
4
4
5
4
2
5
2
3
4
3
5
4
5
4
2
4
4
2
2
4
1
4
3
1
3
4
4
4
4
*Data are listed for 197 countries. Other countries and areas are included in the aggregates but not listed here.
**Addtionally, there are 4.6 million international migrants in countries or areas not listed here and 9.8 million international migrants from an unspecified origin.
***Addtionally, there are 99,000 internally displaced persons in countries or areas not listed here.
 UUI, Alm.del - 2015-16 - Bilag 236: UNICEF rapport: "Uprooted: The Growing Crisis for Refugee and Migrant Children"
1662039_0137.png
Uprooted >>
Appendices
129
International migrants, 2015
**
International migrants by country of
destination
International migrants
by country of origin
Refugees, 2015
Refugees
by country of asylum
Refugees
by country of origin
Internally
displaced
Aylum seekers Asylum seekers
by country
by country
persons, 2015
***
Asylum seekers, 2015
of asylum
of origin
Ratification of key
human rights
instruments
Countries
and areas
*
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikistan
Thailand
The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Share of
Share of
Share of
under 18
under 18
under 18
As percentage
As percentage among total
among total
among total
Total
of total
Total
international
Total
of total
Total
(thousands) population (%) migrants (%) (thousands) population (%) (thousands) refugees (%) (thousands) refugees (%)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Total
(thousands)
Number of instruments ratified
Timor-Leste
Togo
Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United Republic of Tanzania
United States
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
Viet Nam
Yemen
Zambia
Zimbabwe
875
275
3,913
131
11
277
6
50
57
2,965
196
0
749
4,835
8,095
8,543
261
46,627
72
1,171
3
1,404
73
344
128
399
5
3
6
6
1
4
5
4
1
4
4
1
2
11
88
13
0
14
2
4
1
5
0
1
1
3
19
6
12
13
26
43
30
18
19
24
8
23
37
6
13
9
31
8
19
8
24
12
15
30
18
13
5,012
590
854
516
37
447
57
363
651
3,114
243
3
736
5,826
137
4,917
295
3,024
347
1,991
9
606
2,559
1,013
238
856
27
7
1
25
3
6
53
27
6
4
5
35
2
13
1
8
1
1
10
7
3
2
3
4
1
5
21
2
108
1
-
22
-
0
1
2,541
0
-
477
3
1
123
212
273
0
0
-
174
-
267
26
7
47
-
47
40
-
60
-
13
32
-
-
-
57
-
31
-
57
-
23
36
-
36
-
26
45
52
4,873
1
0
2
0
9
0
0
2
60
0
0
6
321
0
0
6
5
0
4
0
7
313
16
0
21
49
-
-
-
-
34
-
-
-
21
-
-
-
-
43
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
40
-
-
5
0
8
0
-
1
-
0
0
212
-
-
36
7
0
46
2
286
0
-
0
0
-
10
2
0
246
1
1
15
0
2
0
0
2
12
1
0
6
23
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
15
4
10
0
57
6,600
-
35
0
-
3
-
-
-
954
-
-
30
1,679
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2,509
-
-
4
5
2
4
5
4
1
4
4
5
4
2
3
4
2
4
4
3
5
2
1
4
2
2
4
3
Regions
Africa
Asia
Europe
Latin America and the Caribbean
Northern America
Oceania
World
20,650
2
30
32,600
3
4,811
55
5,393
53
1,367
660
12,388
211
75,081
76,146
9,234
54,489
8,101
243,700
2
10
1
15
21
3
16
7
21
8
8
13
99,760
59,609
35,790
4,345
1,812
243,700
+
2
8
6
1
5
3
8,695
1,820
338
409
48
16,121
44
4
41
-
0
51
9,609
507
448
5
1
16,121
+
45
27
43
68
3
51
397
1,084
45
306
22
3,220
1,147
180
178
1
1
3,220
+
19,267
1,821
7,332
0
6
40,814
139
170
141
7
33
701
*Data are listed for 197 countries. Other countries and areas are included in the aggregates but not listed here.
**Addtionally, there are 4.6 million international migrants in countries or areas not listed here and 9.8 million international migrants with origin not specified.
***Addtionally, there are 99,000 IDPs in areas not included in this table.
*Data are listed for 197 countries. Other countries and areas are included in the aggregates but not listed here.
**Addtionally, there are 4.6 million international migrants in countries or areas not listed here and 9.8 million international migrants from an unspecified origin.
***Addtionally, there are 99,000 internally displaced persons in countries or areas not listed here.
 UUI, Alm.del - 2015-16 - Bilag 236: UNICEF rapport: "Uprooted: The Growing Crisis for Refugee and Migrant Children"
1662039_0138.png
Addis and Lato in May 2015.
© UNICEF/UNI187399/Romenzi
 UUI, Alm.del - 2015-16 - Bilag 236: UNICEF rapport: "Uprooted: The Growing Crisis for Refugee and Migrant Children"
1662039_0139.png
 UUI, Alm.del - 2015-16 - Bilag 236: UNICEF rapport: "Uprooted: The Growing Crisis for Refugee and Migrant Children"
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132
Uprooted >>
1| The Global Perspective
Around the world, nearly 50 million
children have migrated across borders
or been forcibly displaced. No matter
why they move or how they arrive,
children are at the centre of the world’s
population movements. Whether they
are migrants, refugees or internally
displaced, they are always children:
entitled to protection, support and all
the rights enshrined in the Convention
on the Rights of the Child.
Published by UNICEF
Division of Data, Research and Policy
3 United Nations Plaza
New York, NY 10017, USA
ISBN: 978-92-806-4847-8
www.unicef.org
© United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
September 2016